Session 1 - 23-09-2025 - Government and Policy.pdf

# Introduction to public policy and course overview This section provides a foundational understanding of public policy and an overview of the course structure, goals, and expectations. ## 1. Introduction to public policy and course overview ### 1.1 Defining public policy and the role of government Public policy refers to the decisions and actions taken by governments to address societal problems or achieve specific goals. The study of public policy, also known as policy sciences, seeks to understand the realities of government, policy, strategy, and governance by investigating puzzles such as why the world looks the way it does, why public sector actors behave as they do, and how events unfold. Ultimately, the aim is to both understand these processes and to improve them by making recommendations to the public sector and sharing knowledge with various stakeholders [14](#page=14) [16](#page=16). Understanding public policy is crucial for individuals pursuing careers in public administration or the private sector where interaction with government is common. It also equips individuals with the knowledge to make better personal decisions by understanding their social context and to make more informed choices as voters [15](#page=15). ### 1.2 Course objectives and structure The overarching goal of this course is to equip learners with a comprehensive understanding of public policy, its core concepts, and the processes involved in policymaking. By the end of the course, students are expected to [7](#page=7): * Understand and define the fundamental elements and processes of public policy [7](#page=7). * Develop the ability to gather policy-relevant information to assess public policy and gain insights into policymaking [7](#page=7). * Apply their understanding of policy processes to real-life public policy cases [7](#page=7). * Independently read and comprehend basic texts on public policy, fostering a commitment to lifelong learning in this field [7](#page=7). The course is structured around two main components [8](#page=8): * **Interactive sessions:** These sessions will focus on discussing key concepts, tools, and practices of public policy, including major theories of the policy process and their core ideas [8](#page=8). * **Self-study and reflection:** Students will be expected to engage with course materials, reflect on real-world policy cases, and share their thoughts in a designated online forum. This self-study component is not graded [8](#page=8). > **Tip:** The course emphasizes interactive learning, encouraging debate, discussion, and the application of concepts to real-life situations [4](#page=4). ### 1.3 Session breakdown and topics The course schedule is designed to systematically cover various stages and aspects of the public policy process. The sessions are as follows [9](#page=9): * Session 1 (September 23): Government and Policy [9](#page=9). * Session 2 (September 30): Policy sciences [9](#page=9). * Session 3 (October 14): Agenda-setting [9](#page=9). * Session 4 (October 21): Policy formulation [9](#page=9). * Session 5 (October 28): Policy decisions [9](#page=9). * Session 6 (November 18): Policy implementation [9](#page=9). * Session 7 (November 25): Policy evaluation [9](#page=9). * Session 8 (December 2): Policy evolution [9](#page=9). In addition to these, there are sessions dedicated to working on a chosen policy problem (October 7 and November 4). A final exam date is to be confirmed [9](#page=9). > **Note:** The course schedule is subject to modification during the semester [9](#page=9). ### 1.4 Course materials and support The primary recommended (but not compulsory) reading material for the course is the handbook "Bouwen aan Beleid" by Ellen Wayenberg. Additional readings are available on the Ufora platform, organized into basic and advanced levels [6](#page=6). The instructors are committed to supporting student learning beyond just passing the final exam, aiming to enhance understanding, critical thinking, and analytical skills. Support is available through [11](#page=11): * **One-on-one appointments:** Students can request individual meetings to discuss questions [11](#page=11). * **Session Q&A:** Questions can be asked at the beginning and end of each session [11](#page=11). ### 1.5 Course evaluation The course evaluation is based solely on a final written exam, which accounts for 100% of the grade. This exam can be answered in English or Dutch. The exam will consist of open-ended questions, with multiple-choice questions also being a possibility. Success on the exam requires demonstrating a clear understanding of course concepts, being able to describe them in one's own words, and applying them to real-life case studies [10](#page=10). > **Important:** Students will not be evaluated on their language proficiency; the focus is on understanding and applying policy concepts [10](#page=10). ### 1.6 Course interaction and philosophy This course is designed to be highly interactive, stimulating thinking, discussion, and debate. Students are encouraged to speak up, engage in constructive disagreement, be present, reflect on real-life situations, experiment, and ask questions. While recordings of sessions will be provided as an exception, in-person attendance is highly recommended for maximum benefit. Recordings will be available for two weeks and their quality cannot be guaranteed due to potential technical issues [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). --- # The nature and scope of public policy This section explores various definitions of public policy, its core characteristics, and its pervasive presence in daily life through diverse examples and policy typologies. ### 2.1 Defining public policy Public policy can be understood through several lenses, highlighting its intentionality and governmental role. * It is defined as "anything a government chooses to do or not to do" [18](#page=18). * Another perspective describes it as "the collection of political decisions for implementing programs to achieve societal goals" [18](#page=18). * It is also seen as "the sum of government activities, whether acting directly or through agents, as it has an influence on the life of citizens" [18](#page=18). * A more detailed definition states it is "a set of actions by the government that includes, but is not limited to, making laws and is defined in terms of a common goal or purpose" [18](#page=18). * Simply put, it is "a decision made in the public context" [18](#page=18). * Anderson defines public policy as "a targeted action by an actor or a group of actors in tackling a problem or a concern of the population," developed by numerous government organizations and politicians [19](#page=19). * Bridgman & Davis view policy as "the instrument of governance, the decisions that steer public funds in one direction but not in the other," and the outcome of battles between ideas, interests, and ideologies [19](#page=19) . * Knoepfel et al. offer a comprehensive definition: "a series of consciously aligned decisions or activities taken or carried out by various public – and sometimes private – actors whose resources, institutional links and interests vary with a view to solving a problem that is politically defined as collective in nature." This leads to formalized actions, often restrictive, aimed at changing the behavior of target groups and benefiting those experiencing the problem's negative impact [20](#page=20). #### 2.1.1 Key characteristics of public policy According to Birkland public policy exhibits several key characteristics [18](#page=18) : * It is a conscious and deliberate decision [18](#page=18). * It serves as a response to a problem or challenge and is made on behalf of the public [18](#page=18). * It is oriented towards a specific goal or desired state [18](#page=18). * It is made by governments, even if the formulation or triggers originate outside formal governmental bodies [18](#page=18). #### 2.1.2 The object of policymaking The core of policymaking involves several key aspects: * Choosing what to do or not to do [22](#page=22). * Engaging in targeted action [22](#page=22). * Making decisions that direct public funds strategically [22](#page=22). * Executing a series of consciously coordinated decisions and activities leading to formalised actions [22](#page=22). > **Tip:** Remember that the "not doing" aspect of policy is as significant as the "doing" aspect. Governments make choices by inaction as well [18](#page=18) [22](#page=22). ### 2.2 Public policy in daily life Public policy and policymaking are an integral part of everyday existence, observable across various domains. > **Example:** A news report about primary school teachers feeling unsafe due to insufficient safety measures during a pandemic highlights a public policy issue. The call to close schools and compensate for lost learning time reflects a policy debate and potential policy action [23](#page=23). Examples of where public policy intersects with daily life include: * Mobility & Transport [24](#page=24). * Education [24](#page=24). * Health [24](#page=24). * Housing [24](#page=24). * Sports [24](#page=24). * Environment [24](#page=24). > **Example:** Norway's law requiring influencers to label manipulated body images in sponsored content is a specific public policy aimed at protecting young people from unrealistic body standards and reducing "body pressure" (kroppspress) [25](#page=25). > **Example:** A city council's decision to create a compensation fund for entrepreneurs, associations, and the self-employed after suspending taxes and fees during a crisis illustrates a policy designed for economic recovery and support [28](#page=28). ### 2.3 Types of public policy Public policies can be categorized based on their intended impact and mechanisms. Lowi's framework offers a prominent typology, distinguishing policies based on how they work and their distributive effects [26](#page=26). #### 2.3.1 Policies based on form of intended impact * **Works through individual conduct:** Policies that directly influence or constrain the actions of individuals [26](#page=26). * **Works through environment of conduct:** Policies that alter the context or circumstances in which individuals make decisions [26](#page=26). #### 2.3.2 Typology based on Lowi . * **Regulatory policies:** * Impose rules, constraints, or standards on the behavior of individuals or organizations to protect public interests [26](#page=26). * They define what is permissible and what is not, often through criminalization or other limitations [26](#page=26). * Examples include public health rules, industrial safety regulations, traffic laws, and antitrust measures [26](#page=26). * **Redistributive policies:** * Transfer resources, benefits, or burdens from one group to another, typically to reduce inequality in income, wealth, or social opportunity [26](#page=26). * Examples include income tax, progressive taxation, federal reserve discount rates, and social security programs [26](#page=26). * **Distributive policies:** * Allocate resources or services to specific groups or sectors without directly taking from others [26](#page=26). * The costs are generally diffused across the public, while the benefits are concentrated among the recipients [26](#page=26). * Examples include public works projects, agricultural extension services, land grants, and public housing initiatives [26](#page=26). * **Constituent policies:** * Concern the structure, organization, or institutional base of government itself [26](#page=26). * These are rules that confer powers, define rules about rules, and establish authority [26](#page=26). * Examples include the establishment of agencies for budgetary and personnel policy, and laws defining judicial jurisdiction [26](#page=26). #### 2.3.3 Additional policy types * **Competitive policy:** * Focuses on promoting competition within markets to enhance efficiency, innovation, and reduce costs [27](#page=27). * Aims to create an environment for free competition with minimal interference [27](#page=27). * Often associated with market-oriented approaches seeking to reduce regulation [27](#page=27). * **Protective policy:** * Designed to shield individuals, groups, or sectors from perceived harms or market imbalances [27](#page=27). * Implemented to protect vulnerable populations, correct market failures, and ensure social equity [27](#page=27). * Often involves regulation, social safety nets, and interventionist measures [27](#page=27). * **Self-regulating policy:** * Delegates the responsibility for regulation and enforcement to the industry, profession, or group involved, rather than direct government oversight [27](#page=27). * Relies on the assumption that certain sectors can regulate their own behavior to meet standards with minimal external supervision [27](#page=27). --- # The drivers, actors, and formation of public policy This topic explores the fundamental reasons governments engage in policy-making, identifies the diverse range of individuals and groups involved, and details the processes through which policies are developed and implemented. ### 3.1 Why governments pursue policy Governments pursue public policy primarily to address problems or concerns shared by the population. These policies aim to make a difference in the dynamic interplay of ideas, interests, and ideologies that shape the political system. Often, public policy is designed to alter the behavior of specific groups as a means to resolve issues that are collectively defined as significant. A problem, in this context, can be understood as a discrepancy between a desired situation and the current perceived reality. However, identifying and agreeing upon what constitutes a problem, and subsequently what solutions are appropriate, involves significant contestation between different ideas and interests. This process can be visualized through Easton's classical input-output model, where demands and support from the environment are processed by the political system into decisions and public policy, with feedback mechanisms influencing future inputs. Ambitious goals, such as President Kennedy's commitment to landing a man on the moon illustrate how political leadership can drive policy objectives in response to perceived national imperatives [30](#page=30) [31](#page=31) [32](#page=32) [33](#page=33). ### 3.2 Who is involved in public policy The landscape of public policy involves a wide array of actors beyond just the government itself. While government organizations and elected politicians serve as formal decision-makers and key players their actions are influenced and shaped by numerous other entities. These include private companies, non-profit organizations, academic institutions, and political parties. The government, as the entity with the authority to represent collective needs and ambitions, often acts as the central actor [35](#page=35) [36](#page=36). An 'actor' in this context can be an individual (like a minister or journalist), a group of individuals (an administrative office), a legal entity (a company or union), or a social group (farmers or the homeless). For an actor to be significant in policy discussions, they must possess shared values, interests, and concrete aims. This focus on a common point of interest is crucial for forming groups and influencing policy outcomes, as highlighted by Olson's work [37](#page=37). A foundational model for understanding policy actors is the "basic triangle of policy actors". This model typically includes [39](#page=39): * **Politico-administrative authority:** This is the governmental body responsible for developing and implementing policies [39](#page=39). * **End beneficiaries:** These are the individuals or groups who directly experience the negative effects of the problem being addressed by the policy [39](#page=39). * **Target groups:** These are the groups whose behavior the policy aims to influence, often considered the cause of the problem or possessing the capacity to solve it [39](#page=39). Links between these actors are often characterized by hypotheses: an "Intervention Hypothesis" connects the politico-administrative authority to the target groups, and a "Causal Hypothesis" links the target groups to the end beneficiaries [39](#page=39). #### 3.2.1 Understanding the actor triangle: A practical example Consider a policy in the small city of Mesen, Belgium, where residents risk a fine of up to 125 euros for not maintaining their footpaths properly [40](#page=40). * The **politico-administrative authority** is the city council and its services, represented by Mayor Sandy Evrard [40](#page=40). * The **target group** is the small segment of residents who fail to maintain their footpaths [40](#page=40). * The **end beneficiaries** are all residents of Mesen who experience the negative effects of unkempt sidewalks, such as aesthetic degradation or potential tripping hazards [40](#page=40). The city's intervention hypothesis is that fining negligent residents (the target group) will lead to improved footpath maintenance, benefiting the community (end beneficiaries) [40](#page=40). #### 3.2.2 Policy in practice and the role of third parties Government policy often seeks to achieve behavioral change among target groups, which may involve limitations or incentives. However, target groups are not always clearly definable, and the efficacy of policy interventions relies on underlying hypotheses about how they will work. These hypotheses form the basis of policy theories, but their actual effectiveness in practice can vary. Furthermore, third parties can play active roles in the policy process, extending beyond the core actors [41](#page=41). ### 3.3 How government policy takes shape The formation of public policy is a complex process involving numerous governmental and non-governmental actors operating within intricate governance structures. It is a discursive process where decisions are made through interactions influenced by varying resources, institutional ties, and diverse interests [43](#page=43). #### 3.3.1 The policy cycle approach A common framework for understanding policy formation is the policy cycle, which outlines distinct, albeit often overlapping, phases. Several models have been proposed, with common stages including [44](#page=44): * **Agenda setting/Initiation:** Identifying and bringing a problem to the attention of policymakers. This involves problem recognition [44](#page=44) [47](#page=47). * **Policy formulation:** Developing potential solutions or proposals to address the identified problem. This stage focuses on proposing a solution [44](#page=44) [47](#page=47). * **Decision-making/Consideration:** Selecting a preferred course of action from the formulated options. This phase involves choosing a solution [44](#page=44) [47](#page=47). * **Policy implementation:** Translating the chosen policy into concrete actions and programs. This stage is about converting the solution into effect [44](#page=44) [47](#page=47). * **Policy evaluation:** Assessing the outcomes and impacts of the implemented policy against its original goals. This involves monitoring the results [44](#page=44) [47](#page=47). * **Maintenance, follow-up, and termination:** Ongoing management, review, and potential cessation of the policy [44](#page=44). > **Tip:** While the policy cycle provides a useful analytical tool, it is important to recognize that policy processes in practice are rarely as linear or distinct as the model suggests. There is often significant overlap and feedback between stages [48](#page=48). #### 3.3.2 Challenges and complexities in policy formation In practice, policy processes are deeply embedded within sociopolitical and socioeconomic contexts, with various forces influencing each stage. The policy cycle model can be an oversimplification, as phases may overlap, and policy impacts may only become apparent over the long term. Policymaking does not occur in isolation [45](#page=45) [48](#page=48). The policy setting itself can be intricate, involving multiple levels of governance (polity, subsystems, governance) and interactions from global to local scales. This layered structure includes supranational, central, regional, and local government, alongside various public, semi-public, and private actors [48](#page=48) [49](#page=49). > **Example:** The complexity of policy choices is illustrated by the Rector of Ghent University's dilemma regarding student housing. The decision involves balancing the need for student accommodation with the environmental concerns of logging a forest for construction, as opposed by environmental groups like Natuur en Bos. This situation highlights the multiple actors (university, city, environmental agencies, ministers, residents), competing interests, and the challenges in reconciling different policy goals [50](#page=50) [51](#page=51). The definition of "government" itself can be multifaceted, encompassing various ministers and their portfolios at a given time, as seen in the example of the Flemish Government [52](#page=52). --- # The complexity and challenges of policymaking The inherent complexity of public policy problems, often characterized as "wicked," stems from a confluence of multiple stakeholder interests, intricate institutional structures, and significant scientific uncertainty [54](#page=54). ### 4.1 Understanding wicked problems Wicked problems are a distinct category of policy challenges characterized by several key features that make them resistant to simple solutions [53](#page=53): * **No definitive formulation**: These problems are ill-defined and cannot be precisely stated, with each policy situation being unique [53](#page=53). * **No stopping rule**: There is no clear endpoint or criterion for when a solution has been found, as any proposed solution can be seen as a symptom of a larger, underlying issue [53](#page=53). * **Solutions are not "true or false," just "good or bad"**: Discrepancies or outcomes related to wicked problems can be interpreted in numerous ways, preventing objective evaluations of correctness [53](#page=53). * **No immediate or ultimate test of a solution**: Policymakers lack the luxury of error-free decision-making, as there is no public tolerance for failure, and no immediate way to definitively test a solution's efficacy [53](#page=53). * **Every attempted solution is a "one-shot operation"**: The outcomes of policy interventions are often irreversible and difficult to undo, offering little opportunity for learning through trial-and-error [53](#page=53). * **No describable set of potential solutions or permissible operations**: The range of possible solutions and the actions that can be taken are not clearly defined or predetermined [53](#page=53). ### 4.2 Drivers of wickedness The "wickedness" of these problems is amplified by the intricate nature of the contemporary world. Three primary drivers contribute to this complexity [54](#page=54): 1. **Multiple stakeholder interests and values**: The presence of diverse groups with competing or conflicting interests, values, and priorities complicates the process of reaching consensus and developing effective policies [54](#page=54). 2. **Institutional complexity**: The intricate web of governmental and non-governmental organizations, bureaucratic structures, legal frameworks, and political processes creates a complex landscape where policy must be navigated [54](#page=54). 3. **Scientific uncertainty**: Gaps in knowledge, fragmented information, and the inherent unpredictability of complex systems mean that policy decisions often must be made with incomplete or uncertain scientific understanding [54](#page=54). > **Tip:** Recognize that modern social problems are often more "ill-defined" and rely heavily on political judgment rather than absolute scientific certainty, aligning with the concept of wicked problems [53](#page=53). ### 4.3 The nature of government policy Government policy can be understood as the collective actions, both verbal and non-verbal, undertaken by elected political and administrative actors. These actors are driven by a desire to establish their legacy and address the needs and ambitions of the public. This process typically involves collaboration with various other entities and unfolds across multiple phases, layers, and sectors [56](#page=56). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Public Policy | A course of action or inaction chosen by governmental authorities to address a particular public problem or achieve a specific goal. It represents the sum of government activities influencing citizens lives. | | Policymaking | The process by which governments decide what to do or not to do, involving a series of consciously aligned decisions and activities aimed at solving collective problems and influencing societal behavior. | | Agenda Setting | The process by which certain issues gain prominence and attention on the government's or public's agenda, leading to their consideration for policy action. It involves problem recognition and framing. | | Policy Formulation | The stage of the policy process where potential solutions to identified problems are developed and proposed. This involves generating and considering various options before a decision is made. | | Policy Implementation | The phase where formulated policies are put into action. This involves converting decisions into concrete activities, often through regulations, administration, and direct governmental actions. | | Policy Evaluation | The assessment of policy outcomes and effectiveness. This stage involves monitoring results, analyzing impacts, and comparing them against original goals and ambitions to determine success or failure. | | Distributive Policies | Policies that allocate resources or services to specific groups or sectors without directly taking from others. The costs are broadly diffused, while the benefits are concentrated among a particular recipient group. | | Redistributive Policies | Policies designed to transfer resources, benefits, or burdens from one group of society to another, often with the aim of reducing inequality or addressing disparities in wealth, income, or opportunity. | | Regulatory Policies | Policies that establish rules, constraints, or standards on the behavior of individuals or organizations to protect public interests. They define what is permissible or prohibited, often through legal sanctions. | | Constituent Policies | Policies concerned with the fundamental structure, organization, and institutional basis of government. They relate to the rules that confer powers and define how government itself is constituted and operates. | | Wicked Problems | Complex societal problems that are difficult to solve due to their ill-defined nature, interconnectedness with other problems, lack of a definitive formulation, and the absence of clear "right" or "wrong" solutions. | | Actor | An individual, group, organization, or legal entity that participates in the policymaking process, possessing shared interests or aims related to a particular policy issue. | | Input-Output Model | A model of the political system that describes how demands and support from the environment are processed as inputs, leading to governmental decisions and public policy as outputs, with feedback loops influencing future inputs. | | Policy Cycle | A conceptual framework that breaks down the policymaking process into distinct, sequential stages, such as agenda setting, formulation, decision-making, implementation, and evaluation. |