GPDCI_file1.docx

# Understanding governance and policy This topic explores the interconnected concepts of governance, policy, and development, distinguishing them and examining their roles in national and international contexts. ## 1. Understanding governance and policy ### 1.1 Governance explained Governance refers to the dynamic process and activity of governing. It encompasses making collective decisions, granting authority, establishing expectations and rules, monitoring performance, and ensuring accountability. Governance can function as an independent process or as an integral part of management and leadership within organizations. #### 1.1.1 Governance versus government A key distinction exists between governance and government: * **Government** is a formal institution, such as state institutions or elected bodies, possessing sovereign authority. * **Governance** is the broader activity of governing, which can be undertaken by governments as well as by a wider array of actors. **Government** refers to the structure or body that performs the activity of governing. **Governance** is the process or method by which society is governed, involving the active exercise of power and policy. > **Tip:** Think of government as the 'what' (the structure) and governance as the 'how' ( the process). #### 1.1.2 Actors in governance Governance involves both formal and informal actors: * **Formal actors** include governments, public administration, and regional/local authorities. * **Informal or external actors**, while lacking formal decision-making power, can be highly influential. These include non-governmental organizations (NGOs), communities, think tanks, the media, lobbies, political parties, and interest groups. These actors shape policy through advocacy, expertise, pressure, and public opinion. #### 1.1.3 Governance without government In global or transnational contexts, governance can occur without a single, centralized authority. This often involves: * Negotiation and cooperation among multiple actors. * Voluntary agreements. * Networks and partnerships. * Examples include climate governance, internet governance, and the governance of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This is often referred to as polycentric or network-based governance. #### 1.1.4 Meanings of governance Governance is a multifaceted concept with at least three dominant meanings: 1. **Governance as cooperation through non-sovereign bodies:** This involves the interaction of multiple actors (states, NGOs, private sector, networks) in decision-making without hierarchical authority. Keywords include multi-actor, negotiation, and networks. 2. **Governance as public administration:** This focuses on how governments manage public affairs, emphasizing efficiency, accountability, and administrative reforms. Keywords include management, bureaucracy, and state capacity. 3. **Governance as regulation of social behaviour through networks:** This describes societies being governed through networks, partnerships, and norms rather than solely through laws. It involves regulation through cooperation and influence. Keywords include networks, soft governance, and norms. **Combined definition:** Governance refers to the structures, processes, and interactions—both formal and informal—through which collective decisions are made, power is exercised, responsibilities are distributed, and actors are held accountable. It encompasses state administration, network-based coordination, and cooperation among governmental and non-sovereign bodies, and can exist even without a centralized government. ### 1.2 Policy defined A policy is a principle or rule designed to guide decision-making and achieve rational, consistent outcomes. Policies articulate an organization's intentions and the rationale behind them. They are broader than individual decisions, representing a commitment to a course of action and influencing future decisions to align with a specific objective. > **Tip:** Policies set the direction, while procedures detail the operational steps to achieve that direction. ### 1.3 Development and its relation to development cooperation #### 1.3.1 The broad concept of development The concept of development is broad and subject to diverse interpretations. Historically, it has encompassed: * Higher living standards and rising per capita income. * Increased productive capacity and mastery over nature. * Freedom and control over one's environment. * Economic growth, often with an emphasis on equity. * Poverty elimination and meeting basic needs. * Catching up with developed countries technologically, economically, and in terms of status. * Economic independence and self-reliance. * Opportunities for self-fulfillment and human advancement. Due to its association with numerous goals and values, development has sometimes been seen as representing nearly all aspects of an ideal society, akin to a "road to utopia." #### 1.3.2 Development cooperation Development cooperation involves countries and organizations working together to help developing countries improve their economies, societies, and overall well-being. The primary focus is on reducing poverty and supporting long-term, sustainable development. * **European Union (EU) perspective:** According to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, the EU's main objective in development cooperation is the reduction and eventual elimination of poverty. EU policies must consider their impact on developing countries, and the Treaty of Lisbon emphasizes promoting sustainable economic and social development and achieving global goals like the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). * **Global perspective:** Development cooperation and the global aid architecture are viewed as Global Public Goods. Civil society organizations (CSOs) play a crucial role by amplifying voices and coordinating efforts at various levels. **General definition:** Development cooperation comprises activities that support development goals, are non-profit, aim to assist developing countries, and are based on fair, cooperative relationships that respect the leadership and ownership of the developing country. #### 1.3.3 The "development" discourse and its critiques The discourse surrounding "development" has been critically examined: * Gustavo Esteva argues that the term "development" has become ideologically loaded and conceptually bankrupt, obscuring clear communication and perpetuating a problematic concept. * The "invention" of underdevelopment in the mid-20th century reframed much of the world as lacking, establishing a dominant model of progress. This discourse can naturalize inequality, reinforce global hierarchies (donor/recipient, developed/underdeveloped), and marginalize alternative framings like self-reliance or commons-based approaches. #### 1.3.4 Development cooperation and the rise of sustainability * **From Development Aid to Development Cooperation:** Post-1990 international policy shifted towards emphasizing partnerships rather than solely aid, although power asymmetries persist. Frameworks like the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness (2005) promoted principles such as ownership, alignment, harmonization, managing for results, and mutual accountability. * **Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):** The MDGs (2000-2015) focused primarily on poverty and health, while the SDGs (2015-2030) are a universal and integrated set of 17 goals addressing environmental, social, and economic dimensions. * **The Brundtland Commission and Sustainable Development:** The classic definition of sustainable development, "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs," became influential due to its simplicity, political flexibility, and bridging of environmental and development concerns. However, it has also been criticized for vagueness, allowing for both transformative and incremental interpretations. #### 1.3.5 Key principles in development cooperation Frameworks like the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness (2005), the Accra Agenda for Action (AAA - 2008), and the Busan Partnership (2011) aim to improve the effectiveness of development assistance. Key principles include: * **Ownership:** Partner countries defining their own development strategies. * **Alignment:** Donors supporting partner-country strategies and using country systems. * **Harmonisation:** Donors coordinating efforts to reduce duplication. * **Managing for Results:** Focusing on long-term outcomes. * **Mutual Accountability:** Joint accountability between donors and partner countries. * **Predictability:** Donors providing forward information on aid. * **Use of Country Systems:** Prioritizing national systems over parallel donor systems. * **Conditionality Reform:** Basing conditions on partner-country strategies. * **Untying Aid:** Allowing recipients to purchase goods and services globally. * **Inclusive Partnerships:** Engaging South-South cooperation, the private sector, and NGOs. #### 1.3.6 Critiques of science and knowledge in development Critiques highlight how modern science can displace alternative knowledge systems and how the state and science are mutually reinforcing. This can lead to: * **Epistemological arrogance:** A critique of modern science imposing its paradigms. * **Marginalization of local knowledge:** Non-modern, local knowledge systems are often overlooked. * **Parachute science and scientific colonialism:** Foreign researchers collect data in the Global South without meaningful local collaboration, shared authorship, or capacity building, reinforcing global power hierarchies. This violates principles of ownership, ethical research, and equity in knowledge production. > **Example:** The retraction of a paper on the Ubirajara jubatus fossil, which was exported with questionable permits, illustrates scientific colonialism and the "second extinction" of a specimen due to lack of local control and ethical engagement. #### 1.3.7 Science and policy roles The relationship between scientists and policymakers can be understood through four roles: 1. **Pure Scientist:** Focused solely on research, detached from policy. 2. **Science Arbiter:** Answers technical questions for decision-makers when there is low uncertainty and high value consensus. 3. **Issue Advocate:** Promotes a specific policy option based on preferred values. 4. **Honest Broker:** Expands the range of policy options and acts as a neutral facilitator. The appropriateness of each role depends on the policy context, including the connection to policy and the level of values consensus and uncertainty. #### 1.3.8 Aid, science, and power Despite frameworks aiming for ownership in development cooperation, science and expertise often remain dominated by powerful donor countries. This can reproduce inequalities in knowledge production and development outcomes. True development effectiveness requires epistemic justice and local control over data, research, and knowledge. --- # The evolution and principles of development cooperation This section traces the historical context of development cooperation, highlighting the shift from aid to partnerships, the introduction of sustainability, and key international frameworks like the Paris Declaration and the Sustainable Development Goals. ### 2.1 Understanding development cooperation Development cooperation encompasses activities that support development goals, are non-profit, focus on helping developing countries, and are based on fair, cooperative relationships that respect the leadership and ownership of the developing country. The European Union (EU), for instance, has a primary goal in development cooperation to reduce and eventually eliminate poverty, promoting sustainable economic and social development and contributing to global agendas like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). ### 2.2 Historical shifts in development cooperation #### 2.2.1 From aid to partnerships Following the post-1990 international policy shift, there has been an emphasis on **partnerships** rather than solely on traditional aid. While power asymmetries persist, this evolution aims for more collaborative approaches. #### 2.2.2 The rise of sustainability The concept of **sustainability** became central to development discourse, particularly influenced by the Brundtland Commission's 1987 report. > **Tip:** The Brundtland definition of sustainable development – "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" – is influential due to its simplicity, political flexibility, and ability to bridge environmental and developmental concerns. However, it has also been criticized for vagueness. Modern sustainability discourse integrates frameworks like the SDGs and global governance mechanisms, but also faces challenges from overuse, corporate greenwashing, and policy vagueness. Key tensions exist between development and ecological limits, growth versus sustainability, and local commons governance versus global resource extraction. ### 2.3 Key international frameworks and principles Several international frameworks have guided development cooperation, emphasizing effectiveness, ownership, and mutual accountability. #### 2.3.1 The Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness (2005) This declaration, signed by over 100 ministers and organizations, aimed to improve the quality, coordination, and long-term impact of development aid. Its five core principles are: 1. **Ownership:** Partner (developing) countries define their own development strategies and strengthen institutions. 2. **Alignment:** Donors support partner-country strategies and utilize country systems for procurement and financial management. 3. **Harmonisation:** Donors coordinate their efforts, share information, and reduce duplication of activities. 4. **Managing for Results:** A focus on long-term outcomes rather than just funding or activities. 5. **Mutual Accountability:** Donors and partner countries are jointly accountable for achieving development outcomes. > **Example:** A developing country leading the design of its national education plan, with donors aligning their financial and technical support to that plan rather than funding separate, donor-driven projects, exemplifies the principle of Ownership and Alignment. Belgium, for instance, committed to fully implementing these principles, prioritizing efficient aid with long-term impact and alignment with partner-country priorities. #### 2.3.2 The Accra Agenda for Action (AAA) – 2008 Building upon the Paris Declaration, the AAA aimed to accelerate implementation. Key commitments included: * **Predictability:** Donors providing 3–5 year forward aid information. * **Use of Country Systems:** Preferring country systems over parallel donor systems. * **Conditionality Reform:** Basing conditions on the partner country’s own strategies. * **Untying Aid:** Allowing recipients to purchase goods and services from the global market freely. #### 2.3.3 The Busan Partnership (2011) This agreement marked a shift from "aid effectiveness" to "development effectiveness." Its key themes include: * **Inclusive Partnerships:** Engaging South–South cooperation, the private sector, and NGOs. * **Transparency and Accountability:** Enhancing openness and responsibility. * **Country Ownership:** Reaffirming the central role of developing countries. * **Results and Long-term Sustainability:** Focusing on lasting impacts. * **Recognizing Fragile/Conflict Contexts:** Addressing unique challenges in these areas. #### 2.3.4 From Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) * **Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2000–2015):** Focused primarily on poverty and health with 8 goals. * **Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015–2030):** A broader, universal agenda comprising 17 integrated goals covering environmental, social, and economic dimensions. These serve as guiding frameworks for countries and global development efforts. ### 2.4 Critiques of development and its knowledge systems Critiques have emerged regarding the very concept of "development" and the knowledge systems associated with it. #### 2.4.1 Critiques of "development" Gustavo Esteva argues that the term "development" is ideologically charged and has become conceptually bankrupt. The "invention" of "underdevelopment" by figures like Truman in 1949 served to reframe most of the world as lacking, establishing the US as the model for global progress. This discourse can naturalize inequality, reinforce global hierarchies between donors and recipients, and create dependency. #### 2.4.2 Critiques of science and knowledge Modern science has been criticized for displacing alternative knowledge systems and imposing artificial processes. This "epistemological arrogance" is seen as linked to the power structures that support dominant scientific paradigms. Issues like "parachute science" and "scientific colonialism" highlight how foreign researchers may collect data in the Global South without meaningful local collaboration, shared authorship, or capacity building, thereby reproducing global power hierarchies similar to colonial extraction. #### 2.4.3 The role of the state and knowledge Nandy suggests that modern states and modern science are mutually reinforcing, with science legitimizing the state and the state supporting dominant scientific paradigms. This marginalizes non-modern, local knowledge systems. > **Tip:** Understanding these critiques is crucial for grasping the power dynamics inherent in development cooperation, even when frameworks aim for partnership and ownership. True development effectiveness requires addressing epistemic justice and ensuring local control over data, research, and knowledge. #### 2.4.4 Pielke's four roles of the scientist in policy Roger Pielke Jr. outlines four roles scientists can play in policy contexts, which help understand the intersection of science, knowledge, and power: 1. **Pure Scientist:** Focused solely on research, uninvolved in policy. 2. **Science Arbiter:** Answers technical questions for decision-makers, suitable when there is low uncertainty and high value consensus. 3. **Issue Advocate:** Promotes a specific policy option based on preferred values, with a narrow scope of alternatives. 4. **Honest Broker:** Expands the range of policy options and acts as a neutral facilitator for decision-makers. The appropriateness of each role depends on the policy issue, the level of uncertainty, and the degree of values consensus. --- # Critiques of development and the role of science and knowledge This topic explores critical perspectives on development, the influence of science and knowledge, and the inequalities inherent in their global distribution and application. ### 3.1 Critiques of development The concept of "development" is multifaceted and has been subject to significant criticism for its ideological loading and its role in perpetuating global inequalities. #### 3.1.1 The problematic nature of the term "development" Gustavo Esteva argues that the term "development" has become so ideologically charged that it obscures meaning. He contends that its continued use perpetuates a conceptually bankrupt idea, comparing it to a "corpse from which pests spread." This perspective suggests that the very framing of development implies a deficiency in certain parts of the world. #### 3.1.2 The "invention" of underdevelopment The notion of "underdevelopment," particularly as it emerged post-1949, is seen as a significant geopolitical maneuver. It served to define the majority of the world as lacking and simultaneously positioned the United States as the leader and model of global progress. This framing inherently establishes a hierarchical global order. #### 3.1.3 Reinforcing global hierarchies and inequality The discourse surrounding development often naturalizes inequality by categorizing entire countries as being "behind." This reinforces global hierarchies where some nations are designated as "developed" and others as "underdeveloped," often leading to dependency relationships and power asymmetries between donor and recipient countries. Alternative frameworks such as self-reliance, "buen vivir" (good living), degrowth, and commons-based approaches are proposed as ways to resist this dominant narrative. ### 3.2 The role of science and knowledge Modern science and the knowledge it produces play a crucial role in development, but also face significant critiques regarding their universality, ethical implications, and their relationship with power structures. #### 3.2.1 Science and the displacement of knowledge systems Critics like Alvares suggest that modern science can displace alternative, indigenous, or local knowledge systems. This occurs through the imposition of artificial processes on nature and society, often reflecting what is termed "epistemological arrogance" in modern science. This can lead to the marginalization of non-modern, local knowledge systems. #### 3.2.2 The state and scientific paradigms Nandy highlights the symbiotic relationship between modern states and modern science. Science can legitimize state power, while states, in turn, support dominant scientific paradigms. A significant portion of scientific research is often applied, with a notable percentage directed towards military purposes, underscoring the political and economic interests that can shape scientific inquiry. #### 3.2.3 Public trust and attitudes toward science While general trust in science remains relatively high, it can vary significantly across different political groups, educational levels, and countries. Concerns exist regarding the politicization of science, technocratic decision-making, a lack of transparency in scientific processes, and conflicts of interest that can erode public trust. ### 3.3 Scientific inequality: parachute science and scientific colonialism A significant critique of global scientific practices points to inequalities in knowledge production and research, particularly concerning the Global South. #### 3.3.1 Parachute science This refers to the practice where foreign researchers collect data or samples in countries of the Global South without engaging in meaningful collaboration with local scientists, neglecting shared authorship, failing to build local capacity, and often not returning specimens or knowledge to the origin countries. #### 3.3.2 Scientific colonialism Scientific colonialism extends the concept of parachute science by highlighting how research conducted in the Global South by researchers from the Global North can replicate colonial extraction patterns. This involves taking resources (knowledge, specimens) without equitable benefit or partnership, reinforcing existing global power hierarchies. > **Example:** The exclusion of local scientists in coral reef research, despite the reefs being in their countries, or the case of a fossil specimen being exported with questionable permits, leading to its "second extinction" through international debate and eventual retraction of the research paper, exemplify these issues. #### 3.3.3 Implications of scientific inequality These practices violate fundamental principles of ownership, ethical research, equity in knowledge production, and reinforce global power imbalances. They are seen as a continuation of colonial extraction, albeit in the realm of knowledge and scientific data. ### 3.4 Science and policy: the roles of the scientist The intersection of science and policy is complex, with scientists playing various roles in informing and influencing decision-making. Roger Pielke Jr. identified four key roles: #### 3.4.1 Pure scientist This role involves a focus solely on research, with no direct involvement in policy-making. The pure scientist's primary objective is advancing scientific understanding. #### 3.4.2 Science arbiter In this role, scientists act as providers of technical answers to specific questions posed by policymakers. This role is most effective when there is low uncertainty regarding the scientific issue and a high consensus on values, allowing for objective scientific input. #### 3.4.3 Issue advocate An issue advocate pushes for a specific policy option based on their own values and scientific findings. This role typically involves a narrow scope of alternatives and a strong commitment to a particular course of action. #### 3.4.4 Honest broker The honest broker role involves expanding the range of policy options available to decision-makers. This scientist acts as a neutral facilitator, presenting various perspectives and potential consequences without advocating for a specific outcome. > **Tip:** The appropriateness of each role depends heavily on the decision-making context, specifically the level of uncertainty surrounding the scientific issue and the degree of consensus on underlying values. ### 3.5 Intersections of aid, science, and power There are critical links between development aid, scientific practices, and existing power structures that often undermine the stated goals of cooperation and equity. #### 3.5.1 Ownership and knowledge dominance While frameworks like the Paris Declaration, Accra Agenda for Action, and Busan Partnership emphasize partner country ownership, scientific and technical expertise often remain concentrated in powerful donor countries. This can lead to a situation where development priorities are shaped by external scientific authority rather than local needs and knowledge. #### 3.5.2 Reproducing inequality in knowledge production Development frameworks aim for partnership, but the actual production of knowledge frequently reproduces global inequalities. Practices like parachute science demonstrate how research can continue to exploit resources from the Global South without equitable benefit or contribution to local scientific capacity. #### 3.5.3 Sustainability and scientific authority Modern discourse on sustainable development relies heavily on scientific authority and data. However, critiques of science reveal its political nature and historical ties to power structures, raising questions about the impartiality and universality of the scientific knowledge being applied to global challenges. #### 3.5.4 Epistemic justice and local control Achieving true aid effectiveness and sustainable development requires a commitment to epistemic justice. This involves recognizing and valuing diverse knowledge systems, ensuring local control over data and research, and promoting equitable participation in the generation and application of knowledge. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Governance | The activity or process of governing, involving making collective decisions, granting authority, setting expectations and rules, monitoring performance, and ensuring accountability. It can operate independently or as part of management or leadership. | | Government | A formal institution, such as state institutions or elected bodies, that possesses sovereign authority. It is the structure or body that performs the activity of governing. | | Policy | A principle or rule designed to guide decision-making and achieve rational, consistent outcomes. It represents an intention to make future decisions that align with a specific objective. | | Development | A broad concept with various interpretations, often encompassing higher living standards, increased productive capacity, economic growth with equity, elimination of poverty, and opportunities for self-fulfillment. | | Development cooperation | The collaboration between countries and organizations to help developing countries improve their economies, societies, and overall well-being, with a focus on reducing poverty and supporting sustainable development. | | Sustainable development | Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It balances human needs with ecological and technological limitations. | | Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness | An international framework signed in 2005 that aims to improve the quality, coordination, and long-term impact of development aid through five core principles: ownership, alignment, harmonisation, managing for results, and mutual accountability. | | Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) | A set of 17 universal and integrated goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015, aiming to address global challenges related to poverty, inequality, climate change, and environmental degradation by 2030. | | Commons | Resources held or managed collectively by a community, often governed by specific rules, sanctions, and social norms, and capable of being sustainable and resilient. | | Parachute science | A practice where foreign researchers collect data or samples in the Global South without meaningful local collaboration, shared authorship, capacity building, or returning specimens to origin countries, reinforcing global power hierarchies. | | Epistemic justice | The recognition and rectification of injustices related to knowledge production, distribution, and recognition, advocating for local control over data, research, and knowledge in development contexts. |