Summary eigene linguistics.docx

# Introduction to linguistics and its branches This section introduces the fundamental concepts and diverse subfields of linguistics, exploring the key questions scholars investigate about human language. ### 1.1 What is linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language, seeking to understand its structure, function, and evolution. Linguists investigate fundamental questions such as: * How did language develop over time? (Evolutionary linguistics) * Why and how does language change? (Historical/diachronic linguistics) * How do children acquire their first language? (First language acquisition) * How is a second or foreign language learned? (Second language acquisition) * How do speakers manage multiple languages in real-world situations? (Multilingualism studies, Contact linguistics) * What are the neural and cognitive mechanisms underlying language processing and storage in the brain? (Neurolinguistics, Psycholinguistics) * How does language interact with thought processes? (Cognitive linguistics) * How is language used within and shaped by social contexts and behaviors? (Sociolinguistics) * What are the various communicative roles language plays? (Functional linguistics) * How do languages differ from one another? (Typology) * What are the most effective methods for teaching languages, particularly foreign languages? (Foreign language teaching) ### 1.2 Central concepts in linguistics Several core dichotomies and concepts are central to the study of linguistics: * **Synchronic vs. Diachronic:** * **Synchronic linguistics** examines language at a specific point in time, focusing on its state and structure at that moment. * **Diachronic linguistics** (or historical linguistics) studies language change over time. * **Descriptive vs. Prescriptive:** * **Descriptive linguistics** aims to describe how language is actually used by its speakers, without judgment. * **Prescriptive linguistics** attempts to dictate how language *should* be used, often based on perceived standards or rules. * **Langue vs. Parole:** This distinction, from Ferdinand de Saussure, differentiates between: * **Langue:** The abstract, social system of language (e.g., the rules and vocabulary of English). * **Parole:** The concrete, individual acts of speaking and writing (e.g., a specific person speaking English). * **Semiotics:** The broader study of signs and symbols and their interpretation, of which language is a primary example. Linguistics views language as a system or code of signs. > **Tip:** Understanding these foundational concepts is crucial for grasping the different approaches and perspectives within linguistics. ### 1.3 Branches of linguistics Linguistics is a multifaceted field with numerous specialized branches, each focusing on a particular aspect of language: * **Phonetics:** The study of speech sounds themselves, their physical properties, and how they are produced and perceived. * **Phonology:** The study of the sound systems of individual languages, examining how sounds are organized and function as meaningful units (phonemes). * **Morphology:** The study of the internal structure of words and how they are formed, focusing on morphemes (the smallest meaningful units). * **Syntax:** The study of the rules and principles that govern how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, and sentences, essentially the study of sentence structure. * **Semantics:** The study of meaning in language, at the level of words, phrases, and sentences. * **Pragmatics:** The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning, focusing on how speakers use language in real-world situations to achieve communicative goals. ### 1.4 The nature of human language Linguists often compare human language to animal communication systems, identifying key features that distinguish the former: * **Duality of patterning (Double articulation):** Human language has two layers of structure. Meaningless sounds (phonemes) are combined to form meaningful units (morphemes and words), which are then combined to form larger structures. > **Example:** The sounds /k/, /æ/, and /t/ are meaningless individually, but combined as /kæt/, they form the meaningful word "cat." * **Productivity/Open-endness:** Humans can create and understand an infinite number of novel utterances from a finite set of linguistic elements. * **Displacement:** Humans can communicate about things that are not present in time or space, such as past events, future possibilities, or hypothetical situations. * **Arbitrariness:** The relationship between a word's form (signifier) and its meaning (signified) is largely arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent reason why a particular sound sequence denotes a particular concept. * **Cultural transmission:** Language is learned and passed down through social interaction within a community, rather than being purely instinctual. * **Reflexivity:** Humans can use language to talk about language itself, a feature not found in most animal communication systems. * **Recursion/Embedding:** The ability to embed linguistic structures within themselves, allowing for potentially infinite sentence length and complexity. > **Example:** "I know that you believe that she said that he is here." ### 1.5 Morphology: The building blocks of words Morphology is the study of morphemes, which are the smallest units of language that carry meaning or grammatical function. #### 1.5.1 Characteristics and types of morphemes Morphemes are not all alike; they can be categorized based on several criteria: * **Autonomy:** * **Free morphemes:** Can stand alone as words (e.g., "cat," "run," "happy"). * **Bound morphemes:** Cannot stand alone and must be attached to another morpheme (e.g., prefixes like "un-," "re-"; suffixes like "-ly," "-ing," "-ed"). * **Function/Meaning:** * **Derivational morphemes:** Can change the meaning or part of speech of a base word (e.g., adding "-ness" to "happy" creates "happiness," a noun). * **Inflectional morphemes:** Indicate grammatical information such as tense, number, or case, without changing the core meaning or part of speech (e.g., adding "-s" to "cat" creates "cats," plural). English has eight inflectional suffixes: * Noun plurals: `-s` * Noun possessives: `-'s` * Verb third person singular present: `-s` * Verb present participle: `-ing` * Verb past tense: `-ed` * Verb past participle: `-en` or `-ed` * Adjective comparative: `-er` * Adjective superlative: `-est` * **Position:** * **Prefixes:** Bound morphemes that come before the base (e.g., "un-," "pre-"). * **Suffixes:** Bound morphemes that come after the base (e.g., "-ly," "-able"). * **Circumfixes:** Affixes that surround the base, appearing both before and after it (e.g., German "ge- + verb + -t" like "gesagt" - said). * **Infixes:** Affixes inserted within the base (relatively rare in English, more common in other languages). #### 1.5.2 Allomorphy **Allomorphy** refers to variations in the form of a morpheme that do not change its meaning or grammatical function. These variations are often conditioned by the phonetic environment or grammatical context. > **Example:** The plural morpheme in English has several allomorphs: > * `/s/` after voiceless consonants (e.g., "cats" /kæts/) > * `/z/` after voiced consonants and vowels (e.g., "dogs" /dɔgz/, "bees" /biːz/) > * `/ɪz/` or `/əz/` after sibilant sounds (e.g., "churches" /tʃɜːrtʃɪz/) The "Wug Test," developed by Jean Berko Gleason, is a famous experiment used to demonstrate children's knowledge of morphological rules, including their ability to apply allomorphs correctly to novel words. #### 1.5.3 Word formation processes Languages have various ways to create new words: * **Compounding:** Combining two or more free morphemes to create a new word (e.g., "blackboard," "sunflower," "bedroom"). English compounds can be written as one word, two words, or hyphenated. * **Affixation:** Adding prefixes or suffixes to a base word (e.g., "un-happy," "quick-ly," "teach-er"). * **Conversion (Zero derivation):** Changing the part of speech of a word without adding any affix (e.g., "google" [noun] to "to google" [verb]). * **Shortening (Clipping, Acronyms, Initialisms):** Creating shorter forms of existing words (e.g., "exam" from "examination," "NASA" from "National Aeronautics and Space Administration," "FBI" from "Federal Bureau of Investigation"). --- # Central concepts and theories in linguistics This section explores fundamental distinctions and theoretical constructs within linguistics, focusing on approaches to language study and the nature of language itself. ### 2.1 Synchronic vs. diachronic approaches Linguistics can be studied from two primary temporal perspectives: * **Synchronic linguistics:** This approach examines a language at a specific point in time, without regard to its historical development. It focuses on the structure and relationships of elements within the language as it exists *now*. This is akin to taking a snapshot of the language. * **Diachronic linguistics:** This approach, also known as historical linguistics, studies language change over time. It investigates how languages evolve, trace their origins, and map out their development through different historical periods. This is like studying a film of the language's evolution. ### 2.2 Descriptive vs. prescriptive approaches These two approaches define the role of the linguist in analyzing language: * **Descriptive linguistics:** This approach aims to describe how language is actually used by its speakers, without making judgments about correctness. Linguists using this approach observe and record linguistic phenomena as they occur naturally. The goal is to understand the rules and patterns of a language as it is, not as it "should" be. * **Prescriptive linguistics:** This approach focuses on establishing rules for how language *should* be used. It often involves setting standards for "correct" grammar and usage, often based on what is perceived as prestigious or historically established. Prescriptivism is more concerned with how language ought to be than how it is. > **Tip:** Descriptive linguistics is the scientific standard in modern linguistics, focusing on objective analysis of language use. Prescriptive approaches are more common in language teaching or style guides. ### 2.3 Langue and parole This distinction, central to the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, differentiates between the abstract system of language and its individual use: * **Langue:** This refers to the abstract, social, and shared system of a language. It encompasses the rules, vocabulary, and grammar that are common to all speakers of a particular language community. Langue is a collective phenomenon, existing in the minds of speakers as a shared code. * **Parole:** This refers to the concrete, individual act of speaking or writing. It is the actual utterance or performance of language by an individual speaker at a particular time and place. Parole is individual and variable, reflecting personal choices and circumstances. > **Example:** In English, the word "cat" is part of *langue*. When someone actually says "The cat sat on the mat," that specific utterance is an instance of *parole*. ### 2.4 Language as a system of signs (Semiotics) Linguistics views language as a fundamental system of signs. Semiotics is the broader study of signs and symbols and their interpretation. * **Sign:** A sign is a unit that comprises two inseparable parts: * **Signifier:** The form of the sign (e.g., the sound of the word "dog" or the written letters d-o-g). * **Signified:** The concept or meaning that the signifier refers to (e.g., the mental image or idea of a canine animal). * **Arbitrariness of the sign:** The relationship between the signifier and the signified is generally arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent, natural connection between them. For example, the sound sequence /kæt/ has no inherent connection to the furry, four-legged creature we call a cat; different languages use different signifiers for the same signified concept. > **Tip:** While most linguistic signs are arbitrary, some exceptions exist, such as onomatopoeia (e.g., "buzz," "meow"), where the signifier imitates the sound it represents. ### 2.5 Animal communication vs. human language Human language possesses several unique features that distinguish it from animal communication systems: * **Duality of patterning (Double articulation):** Human language has two layers of structure. At the lower level, meaningless sounds (phonemes) are combined to form meaningful units (morphemes and words). At the higher level, these meaningful units are combined according to grammatical rules to form sentences. Animal communication systems typically operate on a single level, where signals are not decomposable into smaller, meaningless components that can be recombined. > **Example:** The sounds /k/ and /æt/ are meaningless in isolation, but when combined, they form the meaningful word "cat." In contrast, a dog's bark is a single, indivisible signal. * **Productivity (Open-endedness):** Humans can create and understand an infinite number of novel utterances from a finite set of linguistic elements and rules. New sentences can be formed and understood that have never been spoken or heard before. Animal communication systems are typically closed, with a fixed repertoire of signals. * **Displacement:** Humans can talk about things that are not present in the immediate time or space – the past, the future, abstract concepts, hypothetical situations, or imaginary beings. Animal communication is largely tied to the "here and now." * **Cultural transmission:** While animals may have some innate predispositions for communication, human language is largely learned and passed down from one generation to the next through social interaction and cultural transmission. Animal communication is often largely instinctive. * **Reflexivity:** Humans can use language to talk about language itself. This allows for self-correction, meta-linguistic discussion, and the development of grammatical theories. Animals cannot typically reflect on their own communication systems. * **Arbitrariness:** As discussed earlier, the symbolic relationship between form and meaning in human language is largely arbitrary. Many animal signals have a more direct, indexical or iconic relationship to their referent. * **Recursion (Embedding):** Human language allows for the embedding of clauses within other clauses indefinitely, creating complex sentence structures. > **Example:** "I know that you think that she said that..." This ability to nest structures is a hallmark of human linguistic capacity. --- # Morphology: the study of word structure Morphology is the study of the creation and structure of words and the smallest units of language carrying meaning, known as morphemes. ### 3.1 Morphemes: the building blocks of meaning A morpheme is defined as the smallest unit of language that carries meaning and has a form. It is essentially a sign, comprising both meaning and form. #### 3.1.1 Characteristics of morphemes Morphemes exhibit several key characteristics: * **Meaningful:** Each morpheme conveys a specific meaning. * **Form:** Morphemes have a distinct phonetic or graphic form. * **Combinatorial:** Morphemes can combine to form words. * **Potential for Shape Change:** Morphemes may alter their form when they combine with others. #### 3.1.2 Types of morphemes Morphemes can be classified according to three main criteria: autonomy, function/meaning, and position. ##### 3.1.2.1 Autonomy: free vs. bound morphemes * **Free morphemes:** These can stand alone as independent words. * **Example:** *cat*, *man*, *nature* * **Bound morphemes:** These cannot stand alone and must be attached to another morpheme. They are often referred to as affixes. * **Example:** *un-* (in *unhappy*), *-ly* (in *quickly*), *-al* (in *natural*) ##### 3.1.2.2 Function/meaning: inflectional vs. derivational morphemes Bound morphemes (affixes) can be further categorized by their function: * **Inflectional morphemes:** These express grammatical categories such as tense, number, or case. They do not change the core meaning or grammatical class of the word. * **Example:** The *-s* in *cats* indicates plurality, and the *-ed* in *walked* indicates past tense. * **Derivational morphemes:** These are added to a base to create new words, often changing the meaning or grammatical class of the base. * **Example:** The suffix *-al* in *natural* derives a new word from the base *nature*. The prefix *un-* in *unhappy* changes the meaning of *happy*. ##### 3.1.2.3 Position and special cases * **Affixes:** These are bound morphemes attached to a base. They can be prefixes (before the base), suffixes (after the base), circumfixes (before and after the base), or infixes (inserted within the base). * **Prefixes:** *un-*, *re-* * **Suffixes:** *-ly*, *-ing*, *-ed* * **Circumfix:** The German prefix *ge-* and suffix *-en* in *gebunden* (bound). * **Infix:** Less common in English, but an example can be seen in phrases like *sisters-in-law* where *-in-* is inserted. #### 3.1.3 Allomorphy Allomorphy refers to the phenomenon where a single morpheme can have different phonetic or graphic forms (allomorphs) depending on the surrounding phonemes or grammatical context. > **Tip:** Understanding allomorphy is crucial for accurately identifying morphemes, especially in cases where spelling might not directly reflect the underlying morphemic structure. * **Example:** The plural morpheme in English has several allomorphs: * *-s* after voiceless consonants (e.g., *cats* /kæts/) * *-z* after voiced consonants and vowels (e.g., *dogs* /dɒɡz/, *cats* /kæts/) * *-ɪz* after sibilant sounds (e.g., *churches* /tʃɜːrtʃɪz/) #### 3.1.4 The Wug Test The Wug Test, developed by Jean Berko Gleason, is an experiment designed to assess children's understanding of morphological rules. Children are presented with novel words (like "wug") and asked to apply grammatical rules, such as forming the plural. Their ability to correctly apply these rules demonstrates an unconscious mastery of morphology. ### 3.2 Word formation processes Languages employ various processes to create new words. Morphology studies these word formation processes. #### 3.2.1 Compounding Compounding involves combining two or more free morphemes to create a new word. * **Example:** *blackboard*, *sunflower*, *smartphone*. #### 3.2.2 Affixation Affixation involves adding derivational or inflectional morphemes (affixes) to a base word to create a new word or a grammatical variant. * **Example:** *unbreakable* (prefix *un-* + base *break* + suffix *-able*), *happily* (base *happy* + suffix *-ly*). #### 3.2.3 Conversion Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is a process where a word is changed from one grammatical category to another without any overt morphological marking (no added affix). * **Example:** The noun *google* can be used as a verb: "to google something." The verb *run* can become a noun: "I went for a run." #### 3.2.4 Shortening Shortening involves reducing words or phrases to a shorter form. This can include: * **Clipping:** Removing a part of a word. * **Example:** *app* from *application*, *prof* from *professor*. * **Acronyms:** Forming a word from the initial letters of a phrase. * **Example:** *NASA* (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), *SCUBA* (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus). * **Initialisms:** Pronouncing the initial letters of a phrase individually. * **Example:** *FBI* (Federal Bureau of Investigation), *USA* (United States of America). --- # Word formation processes This section explores the various mechanisms by which new words are created in English. ### 4.1 Overview of word formation Word formation processes are crucial for the continuous evolution and expansion of a language's lexicon. English utilizes several distinct methods to generate new vocabulary, allowing it to adapt to new concepts, technologies, and social changes. The primary processes discussed include compounding, affixation, conversion, and shortening. ### 4.2 Compounding Compounding involves the combination of two or more existing words to create a new word with a distinct meaning. These new words, known as compounds, can be written as a single word, hyphenated, or as separate words, although the semantic unit is unified. > **Tip:** Pay attention to how compounds are written (as one word, hyphenated, or two words), as this can sometimes indicate their grammatical function or historical development, though semantic unity is the key characteristic. ### 4.3 Affixation Affixation is the process of adding morphemes, called affixes, to a base word to create a new word or modify its grammatical function. Affixes are categorized into prefixes (added to the beginning of a base) and suffixes (added to the end of a base). Affixes can be either derivational or inflectional. * **Derivational affixes:** These affixes alter the meaning or part of speech of the base word, creating a new lexeme. For example, adding "-ness" to "happy" (an adjective) creates "happiness" (a noun). * **Inflectional affixes:** These affixes modify a word to express grammatical categories such as tense, number, or case, but do not change the core meaning or part of speech of the base word. For example, adding "-s" to "cat" creates "cats" (plural noun). ### 4.4 Conversion Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is a process where a word changes its class or part of speech without undergoing any change in form. A word is "converted" from one category to another. > **Example:** The word "google" can be used as a noun ("I searched on google") or as a verb ("I will google that information"). No affixes are added; the form remains the same. ### 4.5 Shortening Shortening involves creating new words by reducing existing words or phrases. This category includes several sub-processes: * **Clipping:** This process removes one or more syllables from a word. Examples include "ad" for advertisement, "lab" for laboratory, and "prof" for professor. * **Abbreviation:** This involves using shortened forms of longer words or phrases. Acronyms, which are formed from the initial letters of a phrase and pronounced as a word (e.g., NASA, NATO), and initialisms, where the initial letters are pronounced individually (e.g., FBI, BBC), fall under this broader category. > **Tip:** While shortening is a common way to create informal or concise terms, be aware of the specific type of shortening (clipping, acronym, initialism) being used, as this can affect its formality and usage. --- # Features of human language Human language possesses several distinct features that differentiate it from animal communication systems. ### 5.1 Key distinguishing features Human language exhibits a set of unique characteristics that allow for complex communication. These features are crucial for understanding the structure and capabilities of human language. #### 5.1.1 Reflexivity This feature allows language users to refer to language itself. Humans can talk about language, discuss its rules, and even use it to make statements about the act of communication. An animal cannot, for example, tell another animal not to bark so loudly using a commentary on their barking behavior. #### 5.1.2 Displacement Displacement refers to the ability to communicate about things that are not present in the immediate environment, such as events in the past or future, or abstract or hypothetical concepts. This includes discussing past experiences, planning for the future, or talking about imaginary beings like unicorns or Santa Claus. > **Tip:** Displacement is a fundamental aspect that enables storytelling, planning, and abstract thought through language. #### 5.1.3 Arbitrariness In human language, there is generally no inherent or natural connection between the signifier (the word or sound) and the signified (the concept or object it represents). For example, the word "dog" does not resemble a dog in any way; its meaning is assigned by convention. This arbitrariness allows for a vast number of words to be created and understood within a language community. #### 5.1.4 Productivity (or Open-endedness) Human language is characterized by its productivity, meaning that speakers can create and understand an infinite number of new sentences and phrases from a finite set of words and grammatical rules. New utterances can be generated, and novel combinations of existing linguistic elements are possible, allowing for endless creative expression. > **Example:** The sentence "I think that you know that I am hungry" is a simple example of embedding, which contributes to language's productivity. This can be extended infinitely: "I think that you know that I am hungry, and I think that you know that I know that I am hungry, and so on." #### 5.1.5 Cultural transmission Unlike many animal communication systems that are largely innate or genetically determined, human language is learned and passed down from one generation to another through cultural transmission. Children acquire language by being exposed to it within their social environment, rather than being born with a complete linguistic system. > **Tip:** This contrasts with animal communication, which is often instinctual and cannot be easily modified or expanded upon by learned behavior. #### 5.1.6 Duality of patterning (or Double articulation) Human language exhibits duality, meaning it is structured at two levels: 1. **Meaningless sounds:** Individual sounds (phonemes) are meaningless in themselves. For instance, the sounds /f/, /o/, and /u/ have no inherent meaning. 2. **Meaningful units:** These meaningless sounds can be combined in specific ways to form meaningful units, such as words (e.g., /f+o+u/ = "fou", which can combine with other morphemes to form words like "foul"). This allows for a highly efficient system where a limited set of sounds can generate a vast array of meaningful expressions. Animal communication systems, like a dog's bark, typically do not have this dual structure; the entire sound unit conveys a meaning and cannot be rearranged into new meaningful combinations. #### 5.1.7 Recursion (or Embedding) Recursion is the ability to embed clauses or phrases within other clauses or phrases of the same type, leading to potentially infinite sentence structures. This allows for the expression of complex relationships and ideas. > **Example:** The sentence "You are a fool" can be embedded within another statement: "I think that you are a fool." This can be further embedded: "I think that I know that you are a fool," demonstrating the recursive nature of language. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Phonetics | The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds, their production, and their physical properties. | | Phonology | The study of the sound systems of individual languages, focusing on how sounds are organized and used to distinguish meaning (phonemes). | | Morphology | The study of the internal structure of words and the processes of word formation, including the analysis of morphemes. | | Syntax | The study of the rules governing the combination of words into phrases and sentences, and the structure of grammatical utterances. | | Semantics | The branch of linguistics that deals with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. | | Pragmatics | The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in language, including the use of language in social situations. | | Evolutionary linguistics | The subfield of linguistics that investigates the origins and development of language in the human species. | | Historical linguistics (diachronic linguistics) | The study of language change over time, examining how languages evolve and diverge. | | First Language Acquisition (L1 Acquisition) | The process by which children learn their native language. | | Second Language Acquisition (L2 Acquisition) | The process by which individuals learn a language other than their native tongue. | | Neurolinguistics | The study of how language is processed and stored in the brain, and the neural mechanisms underlying language use. | | Psycholinguistics | The study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend, and produce language. | | Cognitive linguistics | A theoretical framework in linguistics that views language as an integral part of cognition and emphasizes the relationship between language, thought, and experience. | | Sociolinguistics | The study of language in relation to society, examining how social factors such as class, ethnicity, and gender influence language use and variation. | | Functional linguistics | An approach to linguistics that emphasizes the communicative functions of language and how these functions shape linguistic structures. | | Typology | The study of the classification of languages based on their structural properties, aiming to identify universal patterns and variations. | | Synchronic | A perspective in linguistics that analyzes a language at a specific point in time, without considering its historical development. | | Diachronic | A perspective in linguistics that analyzes language change and development over time. | | Descriptive linguistics | The study of language as it is actually used by its speakers, aiming to describe linguistic phenomena without making judgments about correctness. | | Prescriptive linguistics | An approach to language that seeks to establish rules for correct usage, often based on perceived standards or historical precedents. | | Langue | The abstract system of language shared by a community, including its rules and structures, as theorized by Ferdinand de Saussure. | | Parole | The actual, concrete act of speaking or writing by an individual speaker, representing the realization of langue. | | Semiotics | The study of signs and symbols and their interpretation, including how meaning is created and communicated. | | Morpheme | The smallest meaningful unit of language that cannot be further divided. | | Monomorphemic word | A word that consists of a single morpheme (e.g., "cat"). | | Polymorphemic word | A word that consists of two or more morphemes (e.g., "cats" consists of "cat" + "-s"). | | Free morpheme | A morpheme that can stand alone as a word (e.g., "cat," "run"). | | Bound morpheme | A morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word and must be attached to another morpheme (e.g., prefixes like "un-", suffixes like "-ly"). | | Derivational morpheme | A bound morpheme that, when added to a base, creates a new word with a new meaning or word class (e.g., "-ness" in "happiness"). | | Inflectional morpheme | A bound morpheme that expresses grammatical information such as tense, number, or case, without changing the core meaning or word class of the base (e.g., "-s" in "cats" for plural). | | Circumfix | An affix that surrounds a base, consisting of a prefix and a suffix that work together (e.g., the German "ge-" and "-t" in "gesagt"). | | Infix | An affix that is inserted within the base of a word (e.g., the insertion of "-s-" in "passer" to form "passers" in some languages, or the colloquial "abso-bloody-lutely"). | | Allomorphy | The phenomenon where a single morpheme has different phonetic forms (allomorphs) depending on the phonological or morphological context. | | Compounding | A word formation process where two or more independent words are joined together to form a new word (e.g., "blackboard"). | | Affixation | A word formation process involving the addition of prefixes, suffixes, or infixes to a base word. | | Conversion | A word formation process where a word is changed from one grammatical class to another without any change in form (e.g., "to google" from the noun "Google"). | | Shortening | A word formation process that creates a new word by shortening an existing one, such as clipping (e.g., "prof" from "professor") or acronyms (e.g., "NASA"). | | Reflexivity | A feature of human language allowing it to be used to talk about language itself. | | Displacement | A feature of human language enabling communication about things that are not present in the immediate time or space. | | Arbitrariness | The lack of a direct, inherent connection between the form of a word (signifier) and its meaning (signified) in human language. | | Productivity (open-endedness) | The ability of human language to create an infinite number of novel utterances from a finite set of elements and rules. | | Cultural transmission | The process by which language is learned and passed on from one generation to the next through social interaction and teaching. | | Duality (double articulation) | The property of human language that allows meaningful utterances to be constructed from meaningless units (phonemes) and meaningful words (morphemes). | | Recursion (embedding) | The ability to embed linguistic structures within similar structures, allowing for the creation of infinitely complex sentences. |