Conservatism

# Core themes of conservatism Conservatism is an ideology underpinned by a set of core beliefs concerning human nature, society, and political values, most notably tradition, human imperfection, society as an organic entity, hierarchy and authority, and property [4](#page=4). ## 1. Core themes of conservatism Conservatism is often characterized by its resistance to change, but this resistance is underpinned by a distinctive set of political beliefs rather than a mere defense of the status quo. It can be understood as an ideology, founded on specific principles about individuals, societies, and political values [4](#page=4). ### 1.1 Tradition The desire to conserve is a defining theme of conservatism, particularly when linked to a defense of tradition. Tradition encompasses anything passed down from the past, including customs, practices, institutions, systems, or beliefs [4](#page=4). #### 1.1.1 Divine origins versus accumulated wisdom For some conservatives, tradition reflects religious faith, viewing established customs as "God-given". Edmund Burke linked tradition to "the law of our Creator" or "natural law," suggesting that tampering with tradition challenges divine will. However, as historical change accelerated, many traditions became man-made, making the divine origin argument more difficult to sustain, though it persists among religious fundamentalists [5](#page=5). Most conservatives support tradition based on its accumulated wisdom. Burke described society as a partnership between "those who are living, those who are dead and those who are to be born". G. K. Chesterton echoed this, calling tradition a "democracy of the dead," preserving the wisdom of ancestors against the transient opinions of the living. This perspective suggests that institutions and customs that have survived have done so because they are valuable and have been "tested by time" or undergone "natural selection". For example, the British monarchy is preserved for its embodiment of historical wisdom and its role as a unifying national symbol [5](#page=5). #### 1.1.2 Identity and belonging Tradition also generates a sense of identity and belonging for individuals and society. Familiar customs and practices are reassuring, providing a feeling of "rootedness" and social cohesion by connecting people to the past. Change, conversely, leads to uncertainty and insecurity. This veneration of tradition extends to social practices, such as the judiciary's adherence to formal attire or efforts to preserve traditional architectural styles [5](#page=5). ### 1.2 Human imperfection Conservatism is often described as a "philosophy of human imperfection". Unlike other ideologies that may view humans as naturally good or perfectible, conservatives argue that human beings are inherently imperfect and unperfectible [6](#page=6). #### 1.2.1 Psychological limitations Human beings are seen as psychologically limited and dependent creatures who fear isolation and instability. They are drawn to the familiar and seek security by knowing "their place". This contrasts with liberal views of individuals as self-reliant "utility maximizers". The emphasis on security and belonging leads conservatives to prioritize social order over liberty, as order provides stability and predictability in an uncertain world. Thomas Hobbes argued for sacrificing liberty for social order [6](#page=6). #### 1.2.2 Moral imperfection Conservatives believe immoral and criminal behavior are rooted in the individual rather than society. They hold a pessimistic view of human nature, seeing people as innately selfish and greedy, driven by a desire for "power after power". This is sometimes explained by the doctrine of "original sin". Crime is thus seen as a consequence of base human instincts, necessitating law enforcement and strict legal regimes, including long prison sentences and corporal or capital punishment. For conservatives, law's primary role is to preserve order, not uphold liberty [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** The conservative emphasis on "law and order" is so strong that these concepts are often treated as a single, fused idea [6](#page=6). #### 1.2.3 Intellectual limitations Humankind's intellectual powers are also considered limited. Conservatives are skeptical of abstract ideas and complex systems of thought, viewing the political world as too complicated for human reason to fully grasp. Michael Oakeshott described the political world as "boundless and bottomless". They prefer to base their ideas on tradition, experience, and history, adopting a cautious, moderate, and pragmatic approach, avoiding dogma. High-minded principles like "rights of man" or "equality" are seen as dangerous blueprints for reform that can lead to greater suffering [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** The conservative adage "the cure is not worse than the disease" highlights their preference for inaction over potentially harmful interventions [7](#page=7). > **Note:** The rise of neoliberalism has challenged conservative support for traditionalism and pragmatism by promoting radical free-market reforms and embracing rationalism and abstract theories [7](#page=7). ### 1.3 Organic society Conservatives view individuals as dependent and security-seeking creatures who cannot exist outside society and need to belong. They believe individuals are part of social groups like family, friends, and the nation, which provide security and meaning. This view is termed "social conservatism". Freedom is understood not as being "left alone" but as a willing acceptance of social obligations. This implies that acting dutifully, such as children obeying parents, is an act of freedom rooted in recognizing obligations. A society focused only on rights without duties is seen as rootless and atomistic [8](#page=8). #### 1.3.1 The organism metaphor Conservatives traditionally view society as a living organism, where parts (institutions, groups) work together harmoniously, much like organs in a body. Unlike machines, organisms are not easily disassembled and reassembled; their whole is more than the sum of their parts, sustained by a fragile network of relationships. Organisms are shaped by "natural" factors, not just human ingenuity. An organic society is shaped by natural necessity; for example, the family is a product of natural social impulses like love and responsibility, not a contract [8](#page=8). > **Example:** This organic view of the family helps explain why many conservatives oppose same-sex marriage, as they see marriage as a "natural," biological institution primarily for procreation [9](#page=9). #### 1.3.2 Functionalism and resistance to change The "organic metaphor" implies that society's structures and institutions have developed organically and should be preserved. From a functionalist perspective, institutions exist and survive because they contribute to maintaining the social whole. This makes reform or abolition of institutions dangerous [10](#page=10). > **Note:** Neoliberalism has weakened organicist ideas within conservatism, with some libertarians, like Margaret Thatcher, asserting that "There is no such thing as society, only individuals and their families" [10](#page=10). ### 1.4 Hierarchy and authority Conservatives believe society is naturally hierarchical, with fixed social gradations, rejecting social equality as undesirable and unachievable. While liberals accept natural inequality and believe in meritocracy, conservatives see inequality as more deeply rooted and an inevitable feature of organic society. Pre-democratic conservatives like Burke embraced the idea of a "natural aristocracy," where different classes and groups have distinct roles: leaders and followers, managers and workers. Genuine social equality is deemed a myth, replaced by a natural inequality of wealth and position, justified by corresponding social responsibilities. This leads to a paternalistic tendency in traditional conservatism [10](#page=10). #### 1.4.1 The nature of authority Conservatives believe authority develops naturally, arising from the need for guidance and care, particularly for children who do not inherently know what is good for them. Authority is imposed "from above" and cannot arise "from below". It is rooted in social institutions: teachers in schools, employers in workplaces, and government in society. Authority is seen as necessary and beneficial, providing guidance, support, and security, countering rootlessness and anomie [11](#page=11). #### 1.4.2 Leadership and discipline This leads to an emphasis on leadership, which provides direction and inspiration, and discipline, understood as a willing respect for authority. Authoritarian conservatives view authority as absolute, while most believe it should operate within limits defined by natural responsibilities, such as a parent's obligation to nurture their child, not to abuse or sell them [12](#page=12). ### 1.5 Property Property holds significant psychological and social importance for conservatives. While liberals see property as a reflection of merit and earnings, conservatives also recognize its role in providing security and confidence in an uncertain world. Thrift and investment in property are encouraged [12](#page=12). #### 1.5.1 Social advantages of property ownership Property ownership promotes respect for others' property and a stake in society, encouraging support for law and order [12](#page=12). #### 1.5.2 Property as an extension of personality A deeper, personal reason for supporting property ownership is its role as an extension of an individual's personality. Possessions are not just utilitarian but reflect the owner's character. This explains why burglary is particularly distressing, as it violates victims personally. The idea of "socializing" property, as proposed by socialists, is seen as appalling because it threatens a soulless and depersonalized society [12](#page=12). > **Note:** Traditional conservatives, unlike classical liberals or libertarian conservatives, argue that property rights, like all rights, entail obligations [12](#page=12). --- # Types of conservatism This section explores the distinct sub-traditions within conservatism, including libertarian, authoritarian, paternalistic conservatism, and Christian democracy, detailing their unique characteristics and historical evolution. ### 2.1 Libertarian conservatism Libertarian conservatism represents a blend of traditional conservative values with classical liberal economic ideas. It advocates for maximum economic liberty and minimal government intervention in social life. Libertarian conservatives believe that liberal economics aligns with conservative social philosophies emphasizing authority and duty, a view exemplified by Edmund Burke's support for Adam Smith's economic liberalism [13](#page=13). #### 2.1.1 Core tenets of libertarianism Libertarianism prioritizes individual liberty, understood as negative freedom (the absence of external constraints), over other values like authority or tradition. Libertarians aim to maximize individual freedom and minimize public authority, often viewing the state as the primary threat to liberty. Key traditions within libertarianism stem from individual rights theories and laissez-faire economic doctrines. Unlike anarchism, libertarians generally accept the necessity of a minimal state, sometimes referred to as "minarchists" [13](#page=13). #### 2.1.2 Libertarian conservatism and social life While committed to economic individualism and reducing government's economic role, libertarian conservatives are less inclined to extend this principle to all aspects of social life. They often hold a more pessimistic view of human nature, believing a strong state is necessary for maintaining public order and ensuring respect for authority. For some, free-market theories are attractive precisely because they can enforce social order through market mechanisms, acting as a form of social discipline alongside coercion. Market forces can regulate economic and social activity, for instance, by deterring excessive wage demands through the threat of unemployment, thus contributing to social stability [14](#page=14). #### 2.1.3 Neoliberalism and the market Neoliberalism, a significant development within conservatism, champions radical, market-based ideas that challenge Keynesian-welfarist orthodoxy. This ideology, drawing from classical liberalism, advocates for a minimal state, believing the state is a realm of coercion and unfreedom that stifles individual initiative. Neoliberals place faith in the individual and the market, viewing individuals as self-reliant agents making rational choices for their own benefit. The market is seen as a mechanism that aggregates individual choices for collective progress and benefit [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). > **Tip:** Neoliberalism seeks to establish the dominance of libertarian ideas over paternalistic ones within conservative thought. Key neoliberal policies include privatization, reduced public spending (especially on welfare), tax cuts, and deregulation. This is often associated with "market fundamentalism," an absolute faith in the market's ability to solve all economic and social problems. Influential figures like Ayn Rand, Friedrich von Hayek, and Milton Friedman are central to this thinking. Ayn Rand, for example, morally justified private enterprise and defended "ethical egoism," viewing the pursuit of self-interest and wealth as a quest for excellence [15](#page=15). Friedrich von Hayek argued that complex economies are too difficult for state bureaucrats to manage effectively, emphasizing the market's role as the economy's central nervous system. Hayek and Friedman posited that government actions invariably cause economic problems, not solve them, particularly in the face of 1970s unemployment and inflation. They challenged Keynesian economics, which focused on aggregate demand, with Friedman arguing for a "natural rate of unemployment". Neoliberals believe inflation threatens the market by eroding faith in money and discouraging economic activity. Their solution to inflation involves controlling the money supply through public spending cuts [16](#page=16). Neoliberalism opposes the mixed economy and public ownership, advocating "supply-side economics" which prioritizes creating conditions for producers to foster growth. High taxes are seen as a major impediment to an entrepreneurial, supply-side culture, infringing on property rights and discouraging enterprise, a stance known as "fiscal conservatism" [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17). Neoliberals argue against the welfare state on moral grounds, claiming it creates a "culture of dependency" that saps initiative and dignity. Charles Murray argued that welfare diminishes the need for men to be breadwinners, contributing to family breakdown. Robert Nozick powerfully argued that welfare and redistribution violate property rights, deeming involuntary transfers of property as "legalized theft". This view is underpinned by egoistical individualism, where individuals owe nothing to society and society owes nothing to them [17](#page=17). ### 2.2 Authoritarian conservatism While contemporary conservatives emphasize democratic principles, a tradition within conservatism has favoured authoritarian rule, particularly in continental Europe. Joseph de Maistre, a French thinker, was a staunch defender of autocratic rule, reacting against the French Revolution by advocating for the restoration of absolute monarchy and a supreme spiritual power. His philosophy centered on willing subordination to authority, prioritizing order for safety and security, and viewing revolution or reform as threats to social cohesion [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). #### 2.2.1 Authoritarianism defined Authoritarianism is characterized by government "from above," where authority is exercised over a population with or without their consent. Unlike legitimate authority, which arises from below, authoritarianism relies on the wisdom of established leaders or the necessity of unquestioning obedience for social order. Authoritarianism is generally distinguished from totalitarianism; it focuses on repressing opposition and political liberty rather than obliterating the distinction between state and civil society [18](#page=18). #### 2.2.2 Historical manifestations of authoritarian conservatism Throughout the nineteenth century, continental European conservatives resisted liberal, nationalist, and socialist movements, upholding autocratic rule. In Russia, Tsar Nicholas I's principles of "orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality" stood in opposition to the French Revolution's ideals. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck maintained a sham constitutional government. Authoritarianism persisted in Catholic countries, with the papacy facing challenges to its temporal authority and doctrines. In the twentieth century, conservative elites in Italy and Germany supported fascist movements, contributing to the rise of Mussolini and Hitler [18](#page=18). #### 2.2.3 Neoconservatism and social order Neoconservatism, emerging in the USA in the 1970s, reacted against the perceived social fragmentation and permissiveness of the 1960s. Unlike neoliberalism, neoconservatives emphasize politics and seek to strengthen leadership and authority. This focus on authority and societal fragility connects neoconservatism to traditional or organic conservatism, but it differs from paternalistic conservatism by seeking to restore authority and impose social discipline rather than relying on social reform and poverty reduction to maintain community [19](#page=19). > **Tip:** Neoconservatism combines themes of traditional conservatism with an acceptance of economic individualism and qualified free-market support, aiming to restore social order, strengthen family and religious values, and bolster national identity. Neoconservatives are concerned with social order and public morality, viewing rising crime and anti-social behavior as consequences of declining authority since the 1960s. They advocate for stronger social disciplines and authority, seeing the family as a naturally hierarchical and patriarchal authority system. This social authoritarianism is mirrored by a desire for state authoritarianism, reflected in a "tough" stance on law and order, with an emphasis on custodial and longer prison sentences [20](#page=20). Neoconservatism also focuses on reasserting the moral foundations of politics, criticizing the "permissive 1960s" and the "doing your own thing" culture. They perceive two dangers in a permissive society: the choice of immoral views and moral pluralism, which undermines social cohesion by lacking unifying moral standards. A central issue for neoconservatives is the nation and the strengthening of national identity against internal and external threats. Multiculturalism is seen as a threat to nationhood from within, potentially leading to ethnic and racial conflict. External threats include phenomena like European integration, leading to "Euroscepticism," and more recently, right-wing populism [20](#page=20). ### 2.3 Paternalistic conservatism Paternalistic conservatism, originating from Edmund Burke's ideas, embraces change as natural and inevitable, advocating for adaptation rather than resistance. This tradition is characterized by caution, pragmatism, and suspicion of fixed principles. Pragmatic conservatives balance support for the individual and the state based on practical circumstances and experience, often seeking a middle ground. The reforming impulse in conservatism is closely linked to the survival of neo-feudal paternalistic values, exemplified by "One Nation conservatism" [21](#page=21). #### 2.3.1 One Nation conservatism Tracing its roots to Benjamin Disraeli, One Nation conservatism emphasizes social obligation and warns against societal division into "two nations: the Rich and the Poor". Disraeli argued that social inequality could lead to revolution, making reform prudent for the interests of the wealthy. He also appealed to moral values, suggesting that wealth and privilege entail social obligations towards the less well-off, drawing on the organic conservative belief that society is bound by duty and obligation [21](#page=21). > **Example:** Disraeli's ideas led to the Second Reform Act of 1867, extending voting rights to the working class, and social reforms improving housing and hygiene. These ideas, based on the feudal principle of *noblesse oblige*, advocate for the wealthy and powerful to shoulder social responsibility as the price of privilege. In an industrialized world, these obligations are to be expressed through social reform. One Nation conservatism can be seen as a form of "Tory welfarism," aiming to continue Disraeli's policy of social reform to broaden the support base for traditional institutions [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22). #### 2.3.2 Paternalism defined Paternalism involves exercising power or authority over others with the intention of conferring benefit or preventing harm. Social welfare programs and laws like mandatory seatbelt use are examples. "Soft" paternalism operates with broad consent, while "hard" paternalism disregards consent and overlaps with authoritarianism. The justification for paternalism rests on the belief that wisdom and experience are unevenly distributed, and those in authority "know best". Critics argue it restricts liberty and infantilizes society [22](#page=22). #### 2.3.3 The 'middle way' and compassionate conservatism The high point of the One Nation tradition was in the 1950s and 1960s, aligning with social democratic parties in embracing economic management, full employment, and enlarged welfare provision. This stance promoted a "middle way" between laissez-faire liberalism and socialist state planning, balancing individualism and collectivism. Harold Macmillan's concept of "planned capitalism" exemplified this, combining state ownership and regulation with private enterprise [23](#page=23). More recently, "compassionate conservatism," seen in figures like George W. Bush and David Cameron, has echoed these paternalistic ideas, though it may function more as a rhetorical device. Paternalistic conservatism offers a qualified basis for intervention, with the aim of consolidating hierarchy rather than dismantling it, driven partly by a desire to prevent the poor from threatening the established order [23](#page=23). ### 2.4 Christian democracy Christian democracy is a political and ideological movement prominent in Western and Central Europe and Latin America. It is often classified as a doctrinally imprecise form of conservatism or as a distinct ideology. Christian democratic parties emerged after World War II in countries like Germany, Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands, influencing center-right parties across Europe [23](#page=23). #### 2.4.1 Historical origins and development The ideological roots of Christian democracy predate World War II, stemming from the Catholic Church's engagement with industrialization and liberal capitalism since the French Revolution. The Catholic Church gradually accepted democratic political forms and expressed concern about the threats of unrestrained capitalism. Pope Leo XIII's encyclical *Rerum Novarum* signaled an openness to new thinking, lamenting the working class's material suffering and emphasizing reciprocal duties of labor and capital [24](#page=24). #### 2.4.2 Catholic social theory and integral humanism Christian democratic thinking is often based on Catholic social theory, which contrasts with the individualism associated with the "Protestant ethic". While Protestantism emphasizes individual effort for spiritual salvation and extols hard work and competition, Catholic social theory focuses on the social group and stresses balance and organic harmony. Jacques Maritain, a key figure, developed the concept of "integral humanism," highlighting the role of cooperation in achieving shared goals and suggesting that unrestrained capitalism fails to serve the "common good" [24](#page=24). #### 2.4.3 The social market economy Christian democracy generally criticizes laissez-faire capitalism but does not reject capitalism outright. It advocates for a "third way" between market capitalism and socialism, often termed "social capitalism". This approach draws on economists like Friedrich List, who emphasized the importance of politics and state intervention to protect infant industries. The central concept is the "social market," which aims to combine market competition with social cohesion and solidarity, viewing the market as a means to generate wealth for broader social ends [24](#page=24). --- # Historical overview and evolution of conservatism This section traces the historical development of conservatism, outlining its origins as a reaction to revolutionary change and its adaptation across different national and ideological contexts. ### 3.1 Origins and core principles Conservatism emerged as a distinct political ideology in the early nineteenth century, primarily as a reaction against the transformative forces symbolized by the French Revolution of 1789. While the term "conservative" can colloquially refer to caution or resistance to change, politically it denotes a specific ideology rooted in the desire to conserve. This position is upheld through support for tradition, a belief in human imperfection, and an emphasis on maintaining the organic structure of society [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). #### 3.1.1 Reaction to the French Revolution The French Revolution challenged absolute monarchical rule and traditional social orders, prompting a conservative response that defended established institutions and values. A foundational text for this ideology is Edmund Burke’s *Reflections on the Revolution in France* which criticized the revolutionary attempt to remake society based on abstract principles like "the universal rights of man". Burke argued that true wisdom is derived from experience, tradition, and history, advocating for a pragmatic approach of "change in order to conserve" [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). #### 3.1.2 The nineteenth-century context Throughout the nineteenth century, Western states underwent significant transformations due to industrialization, liberalism, socialism, and nationalism. While other ideologies pushed for reform or revolution, conservatism positioned itself as a defender of the traditional social order against these pressures [2](#page=2). ### 3.2 National variations and adaptations Conservative thought has evolved differently across various national and cultural contexts. #### 3.2.1 United Kingdom conservatism In the UK, conservatism has been heavily influenced by Edmund Burke's ideas, emphasizing a prudent willingness to adapt rather than a blind resistance to change. Nineteenth-century British conservatives defended a political and social order that had already seen significant changes, such as the shift away from absolute monarchy following the English Revolution of the seventeenth century [2](#page=2). #### 3.2.2 Continental European conservatism In continental Europe, where autocratic monarchies persisted longer, conservatism often took a more authoritarian form, defending monarchy and rigid values against reformist movements. Following World War II, Christian democratic parties emerged, leading to a greater acceptance of political democracy and social reform among conservatives in countries like Germany and Italy [2](#page=2). #### 3.2.3 United States conservatism American conservatism has historically been less influenced by European conservative thought, with the US political culture being more deeply rooted in liberal and progressive values. Politicians from both major parties traditionally shied away from the "conservative" label. The emergence of a distinctly conservative presidential candidate occurred in 1964 with Barry Goldwater, who opposed the Republican Party's perceived complicity with interventionist policies. This conservative ascendancy within the Republican Party was solidified by Ronald Reagan in the 1980s and further by George W. Bush and Donald Trump, though Trump's conservatism displayed inconsistencies [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). #### 3.2.4 Conservatism beyond the West Identifying political conservatism outside Europe and North America is more complex, as movements resisting change have not always employed explicitly conservative arguments. However, the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), dominant since 1955, is cited as an example, linking business interests with the preservation of traditional Japanese values like loyalty and hierarchy. More recently, forms of conservatism blending strong central authority with mass popular support on issues of nationalism and traditional values have emerged globally, exemplified by leaders such as Narendra Modi in India, Recep Tayyip Erdogan in Turkey, and Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil. This trend is associated with right-wing populism [3](#page=3). ### 3.3 Modern conservatism and the New Right Since the 1970s, modern conservatism has been significantly reshaped by concerns over economic management and the welfare state. #### 3.3.1 Neoliberalism and the New Right The Thatcher governments in the UK (1979–1990) and the Reagan administration in the USA (1981–1989) exemplified a radical, ideological conservatism known as neoliberalism. This strain was part of the broader movement termed the New Right. Neoliberalism draws heavily on free-market economics, leading some commentators to argue its deep influence from classical liberal economics places it outside traditional conservatism [1](#page=1) [3](#page=3). #### 3.3.2 Internal divisions and evolution Neoliberalism challenged traditional conservative economic perspectives but retained a place within conservative ideology by upholding social principles like order, authority, and discipline. The rise of neoliberalism highlighted existing divisions within conservatism between paternalistic state intervention and libertarian free-market commitments. Neoliberalism aimed to boost conservative electoral success by favouring libertarianism [3](#page=3). > **Tip:** Understand that "conservatism" is not a monolithic ideology; it encompasses a spectrum of beliefs and has adapted significantly to different historical and national contexts. > **Example:** The distinction between traditional conservatism, which emphasizes stability and established institutions, and the New Right, which often advocates for a strong but minimal state and free markets, is a key development in understanding conservatism's evolution. --- # The future of conservatism Conservatism's future prospects are shaped by its inherent resilience and adaptability, allowing it to navigate evolving societal changes and potentially embrace diverse future directions, from globalism to nationalism [25](#page=25). ### 4.1 Conservatism's resilience and adaptability Despite an apparent traditionalist inclination that might suggest an outdated ideology, conservatism has demonstrated remarkable resilience and maintained its significance. This longevity is often attributed to its pragmatic approach, which contrasts with more rigidly ideological systems like liberalism and socialism. Conservatism's intellectual modesty allows for flexibility and adaptation to new historical circumstances [25](#page=25). #### 4.1.1 Historical examples of adaptation The history of conservatism is marked by significant ideological reinventions. For instance, the UK Conservative Party (Tory Party) in the nineteenth century shifted from representing landed gentry interests to embracing social welfare in response to industrialization, even becoming more socially progressive than the Liberal Party at the time. Post-World War II, the party swiftly adopted social democratic principles before repudiating them under Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s [25](#page=25). > **Tip:** The ability to adapt to changing social and economic landscapes has been a key factor in conservatism's enduring appeal, allowing it to remain relevant despite its emphasis on tradition. ##### 4.1.1.1 The Thatcher era's impact The neoliberal revolution under Thatcher brought about a radical economic shift in the UK and fostered a more ideological policy-making style. This era may have deeply entrenched free-market principles, potentially limiting future pragmatic adjustments. However, even with this shift, the Conservative government under Boris Johnson in 2020 significantly increased spending and borrowing to stimulate economic recovery during the COVID-19 pandemic, demonstrating a continued capacity for significant intervention in unprecedented circumstances [25](#page=25). #### 4.1.2 Challenges and voter appeal Conservatism has sometimes struggled to attract support from younger voters, women, LGBTQ+ individuals, and ethnic minorities due to difficulties in adapting to evolving social issues like gender equality and minority rights. Nevertheless, its attachment to tradition has not relegated it to the fringes of ideology. In fact, a concern for continuity with the past can be a source of its resilience, as "traditional" values may offer more substance and appeal than fleetingly fashionable ones, particularly in an era of accelerated change [25](#page=25). ### 4.2 Potential future directions of conservatism While conservatism is likely to remain a significant political ideology, its future form is less certain, with two contrasting directions emerging [25](#page=25). #### 4.2.1 Conservatism aligned with globalization One potential future sees conservatism closely aligned with "accelerated" globalization. This version prioritizes economic issues, individualism, and market principles, with libertarian and anti-statist tendencies flourishing at the expense of paternalistic ones. This neoliberal conservatism gained traction in the late twentieth century, as conservative parties often responded more effectively to globalizing trends than their socialist and liberal counterparts, partly due to their lesser adherence to Keynesian-welfarist orthodoxies [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26). #### 4.2.2 Nationalist and protectionist conservatism A second, contrasting future emerged from the early twenty-first century onwards, influenced by the rise of right-wing populism. This form of conservatism is decidedly anti-globalist. It is characterized by its alignment with illiberal nationalism, a strong emphasis on opposing immigration and rejecting multiculturalism, and in some instances, the introduction of economic protectionism [26](#page=26). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Conservatism | An ideology characterized by a desire to conserve, reflected in resistance to or suspicion of change, upholding tradition, belief in human imperfection, and support for the organic structure of society. | | Tradition | Values, practices, or institutions that have endured through time and been passed down from one generation to the next, often seen as embodying accumulated wisdom and providing a sense of identity and belonging. | | Human imperfection | The belief that human beings are psychologically limited, dependent, security-seeking, and morally imperfect, holding a pessimistic view of human nature that emphasizes inherent selfishness and the need for order and strong law enforcement. | | Organic society | The view that society operates like a living organism, where the whole is more than the sum of its individual parts and is sustained by fragile relationships between these parts, rather than being a construct of rational individuals. | | Hierarchy | A system of ranked social command and obedience where social position is often unconnected with individual ability, reflecting the belief that inequality is an inevitable feature of society with different classes and groups having specific roles. | | Authority | The right to exert influence over others based on an acknowledged obligation to obey, which conservatives believe develops naturally and is necessary for guidance, support, and security, countering rootlessness and anomie. | | Property | The ownership of physical goods or wealth, which conservatives view as providing security, promoting social values like respect for others' property, and as an extension of individual personality, though with attendant social obligations. | | Libertarian conservatism | A strain of conservatism that advocates for maximum economic liberty and minimal government regulation of social life, drawing heavily on classical liberal ideas about the free market. | | Authoritarian conservatism | A tradition within conservatism that favors government from above, with authority exercised over a population, often emphasizing unquestioning obedience and the preservation of order as paramount. | | Paternalistic conservatism | A tradition, particularly strong in Anglo-American conservatism, that believes wealth and privilege come with social obligations and responsibilities, advocating for social reform to improve the conditions of the less well-off and ensure social continuity. | | Christian democracy | A political and ideological movement, prominent in Western and Central Europe, characterized by a commitment to the social market, qualified state intervention, and a blend of conservative and progressive ideas, often emphasizing social cooperation and the common good. | | Neoliberalism | An ideology that restates the case for a minimal state, emphasizing free-market economics, privatization, spending cuts, and deregulation, believing that the economy functions best when left alone by government. | | Neoconservatism | Developments within conservative ideology focused on restoring public order, strengthening traditional values, and bolstering national identity, often advocating for a strong state in the social sphere and a robust foreign policy. | | Social market | An economic system structured by market principles but operating alongside comprehensive welfare provision and effective social services, aiming to marry market competition with social cohesion and solidarity. | | Pragmatism | An approach to politics that emphasizes practical considerations and experience over fixed principles or abstract theories, adapting policies to changing circumstances to conserve core values. | | Anomie | A state of normlessness characterized by a weakening of social values and rules, leading to feelings of isolation, loneliness, and meaninglessness within individuals. | | Functionalism | A theoretical perspective that emphasizes understanding social institutions and practices based on the functions they perform in maintaining the larger social system and its stability. | | Natural aristocracy | The idea that leadership and talent are innate or inbred qualities, rather than acquired through effort or self-advancement, often held by pre-democratic conservatives. | | Privatization | The transfer of state-owned assets from the public to the private sector, reflecting a reduction in the state's responsibilities and an increase in private ownership and control. | | Economic liberalism | A belief that the market is a self-regulating mechanism that naturally leads to general prosperity and opportunities for all, advocating for minimal government interference in economic affairs. | | Fiscal conservatism | A political-economic stance that prioritizes lowering taxes, reducing public spending, and managing government debt, aiming for balanced budgets and fiscal responsibility. | | Euroscepticism | Hostility towards European integration, stemming from the belief that it poses a threat to national sovereignty, national identity, or distinct cultural values. |