Week 4 - Reported Speech - Court Systems - Thatcher.pptx

# Academic English: Reported speech Reported speech is a grammatical construct used to convey what someone else has said without quoting them directly, involving changes to tense, pronouns, and adverbs of time and place. ### 1.1 What is reported speech? Direct speech quotes the exact words someone spoke, enclosed in quotation marks. Reported speech, also known as indirect speech, paraphrases or summarizes what someone said, without using quotation marks. > **Example:** > Direct speech: She said, "I am going to the market." > Reported speech: She said that she was going to the market. ### 1.2 Changes in reported speech When converting direct speech to reported speech, several grammatical elements typically change. #### 1.2.1 Tense backshifting The most common change is "backshifting," where the tense of the verb in the reported clause moves one step back in time. * **Present Simple** becomes **Past Simple**: * Direct: "I like coffee." * Reported: He said he liked coffee. * **Present Continuous** becomes **Past Continuous**: * Direct: "I am making cupcakes." * Reported: She said she was making cupcakes. * **Present Perfect** becomes **Past Perfect**: * Direct: "I have finished the report." * Reported: He said he had finished the report. * **Past Simple** becomes **Past Perfect**: * Direct: "I saw her yesterday." * Reported: He said he had seen her the day before. * **Past Continuous** becomes **Past Perfect Continuous**: * Direct: "I was studying when you called." * Reported: She said she had been studying when I called. * **Future Simple (will)** becomes **Conditional Simple (would)**: * Direct: "I will call you later." * Reported: He said he would call me later. * **Modals:** * `can` becomes `could` * `may` becomes `might` * `must` can become `had to` or remain `must` if the obligation is still current. * `could`, `should`, `would`, `might`, and `ought to` generally do not change. > **Tip:** If the statement is still true at the time of reporting, or if it's a general truth, the tense may not need to be backshifted. > **Example:** "The Earth is round." -> She said that the Earth is round. (or was round) #### 1.2.2 Pronoun changes Personal pronouns and possessive pronouns change to reflect the new speaker and listener perspective. * **Pronouns:** `I` becomes `he/she`, `we` becomes `they`, `you` changes based on context. * Direct: "We'll phone later!" * Reported: They said they would phone later. * **Possessive Pronouns:** `my` becomes `his/her`, `our` becomes `their`, `your` changes based on context. * Direct: "I gave her my book." * Reported: He said he gave her his book. #### 1.2.3 Time and place adverb changes Adverbs of time and place also change to reflect the shift in context from the original utterance. * `now` becomes `then` or `at that moment` * `today` becomes `that day` * `yesterday` becomes `the day before` or `the previous day` * `tomorrow` becomes `the next day` or `the following day` * `last week/month/year` becomes `the week/month/year before` or `the previous week/month/year` * `next week/month/year` becomes `the week/month/year after` or `the following week/month/year` * `here` becomes `there` * `this` becomes `that` * `these` becomes `those` > **Example:** > Direct: "I went there yesterday." > Reported: She said she had been there the day before. ### 1.3 Reported questions Reported questions do not use question marks and follow statement word order, with backshifting of tense, pronouns, and adverbs as applicable. * **Yes/No questions:** Introduced by `if` or `whether`. * Direct: "Do you like peanut butter?" * Reported: He asked me if I liked peanut butter. * **Wh- questions:** The question word (who, what, where, when, why, how) introduces the reported clause. * Direct: "When did she finish her tasks?" * Reported: He asked when she had finished her tasks. ### 1.4 Reported commands and requests Commands and requests are reported using an infinitive structure, typically with `tell` or `ask`. * **Commands:** Use `tell [object] to [infinitive]`. * Direct: "Sit down!" * Reported: He told me to sit down. * **Requests:** Use `ask [object] to [infinitive]`. * Direct: "Will you sit down, please?" * Reported: He asked me if I would sit down. (This can also be treated as a question.) ### 1.5 Exercises and application Reported speech exercises often involve converting direct speech examples into reported speech, requiring careful application of the rules for tense, pronouns, and adverbs. These exercises can also include scenarios where the original statement's truthfulness affects the need for backshifting, or where context requires choosing from multiple pronoun options. > **Example of exercise application:** > > Direct statement: "I am leaving at that moment." > Reported: He said he was leaving at that moment. > > Direct statement: "I have seen her the day before." > Reported: He said he had seen her the day before. > > Direct question: "Have you finished the report?" > Reported: He asked (me) if I had finished the report. > > Direct statement: "I will see you next week." > Reported: He said he would see me next week. > > Direct command: "Do it tomorrow." > Reported: He told me to do it tomorrow. > > Direct statement: "I might do it." > Reported: He said he might do it. > > Direct statement: "I have to go." > Reported: He said he had to go. > **Tip:** Pay close attention to the context provided in the exercise to determine the correct pronouns and the need for backshifting. For instance, when reporting a tabloid editor's comment, the pronoun `I` or `you` in direct speech might become `I/you/he/she/they` in reported speech depending on the perceived audience. --- # Legal English: UK court systems This section outlines the structure and functions of the court systems in England and Wales, and briefly touches upon Scotland's distinct system. ### 2.1 England and Wales: A unified court system England and Wales operate under a unified court system that is rooted in common law principles. While most civil cases are heard in the County Court, a significant number of specialized tribunals also handle specific matters. All criminal cases commence in the Magistrates' Court. More serious criminal offenses are subsequently referred to the Crown Court. #### 2.1.1 The High Court The High Court serves a dual purpose: * **Court of first instance:** It handles high-value civil claims. * **Appellate court:** It hears appeals from both civil and criminal cases. The High Court is further divided into three divisions: * **King's Bench Division:** Primarily deals with common law cases, including contract disputes, torts (such as negligence), and administrative law. It also exercises a supervisory role over other courts and tribunals. * **Chancery Division:** Specializes in areas like company law, intellectual property, trusts, probate, property disputes, insolvency, and contentious probate matters. * **Family Division:** Adjudicates on family-related legal issues, including divorce, child custody, financial settlements stemming from divorce, and cases concerning the welfare of children. #### 2.1.2 The Court of Appeal The Court of Appeal handles appeals from decisions made in the High Court and County Court. It has distinct divisions for civil and criminal matters: * **Civil Division:** Hears appeals from both High Court and County Court judgments. * **Criminal Division:** Hears appeals from the Crown Court. #### 2.1.3 The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the final court of appeal for all civil cases. It also serves as the final appellate court for criminal cases originating from England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The court comprises twelve permanent justices who are appointed by the Lord Chancellor. ### 2.2 Scotland: A distinct legal system Scotland possesses a mixed or hybrid legal system, drawing from both civil law and common law traditions. #### 2.2.1 Courts in Scotland * **Justice of the Peace Courts:** Handle less serious ('summary') criminal cases. * **Sheriff Courts:** Deal with less serious ('summary') criminal cases and also handle serious ('solemn') criminal cases, which involve a judge and jury. The Sheriff Courts also manage most civil business. * **Sheriff Appeal Court:** Hears appeals for most civil and criminal cases originating from the Sheriff Courts. * **High Court of Justiciary:** Serves as the first instance court for serious ('solemn') criminal cases and also functions as the criminal appeal court. * **Court of Session:** * **Inner House:** Acts as the civil appeal court. * **Outer House:** Is the first instance court for high-value civil cases. #### 2.2.2 The Supreme Court of the UK and Scotland While the Supreme Court of the UK is generally not a further court of appeal for criminal cases in Scotland, exceptions exist for cases involving devolution or human rights issues. For civil matters, the Supreme Court of the UK acts as the final court of appeal, but only on points of law. #### 2.2.3 Distinctive Features of the Scottish System A notable characteristic of the Scottish legal system is its three-verdict system in criminal trials: * Guilty * Not guilty * Not proven ### 2.3 Tribunals in Scotland Similar to England, Scotland has various tribunals that handle specific types of matters. --- # Legal English: US court systems The United States operates under a dual court system, comprising parallel federal and state court structures, each with its own jurisdiction and hierarchy. ### 3.1 Overview of the dual court system The US employs a dual court system, where federal and state courts operate concurrently. Federal courts derive their power from the federal government and the Constitution, while state courts are established and governed by their respective state constitutions and laws. These systems are distinct but function similarly, allowing cases to move through different levels of courts within each track. > **Tip:** While the general structure of federal and state courts is presented, be aware that the specific names and number of layers in state court systems can vary significantly from state to state. Additional court systems exist beyond federal and state, such as Tribal Courts established by American Indian and Alaska Native tribes, and military courts. These are not covered in this general overview. ### 3.2 Federal court system Federal courts have limited jurisdiction, primarily hearing cases that involve "federal questions" (arising under federal law, treaties, or the Constitution) or cases of "diversity jurisdiction" (disputes between citizens of different states, provided the amount in controversy exceeds a certain monetary threshold). Cases to which the United States itself is a party also fall under federal jurisdiction. #### 3.2.1 U.S. District Courts These are the trial courts of the federal system. There are 94 judicial districts across the United States, and these courts handle most federal matters, serving as the initial point of litigation for federal cases. #### 3.2.2 U.S. Courts of Appeals Also known as circuit courts, there are twelve regional circuit courts and one federal circuit. These courts hear appeals from the U.S. District Courts. The Federal Circuit also handles specialized appeals, such as those related to patents, claims against the government, and international trade. Appeals in the U.S. Courts of Appeals are based solely on the written record from the lower court. #### 3.2.3 Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) The Supreme Court is the highest court in the federal system and the ultimate interpreter of federal law and the U.S. Constitution. It reviews questions of federal law and constitutional issues arising from both federal courts (Courts of Appeals) and state supreme courts. * **Original Jurisdiction:** The Supreme Court has a narrow original jurisdiction, which means it can hear certain cases directly, such as disputes between states. * **Discretionary Review:** For most cases, the Supreme Court exercises discretionary review, meaning it chooses which cases to hear. This is typically done through a process called a "writ of certiorari." * **Writ of Certiorari:** * **Step 1:** A party petitions the Supreme Court for a writ of certiorari. * **Step 2:** At least four justices must agree to grant the appeal (the "Rule of Four"). This is usually based on: * A conflict of law between lower courts. * An important case to the nation. * A disregard for precedent. * An egregious error by a lower court. * **Step 3:** If granted, briefs are submitted by the parties. * **Step 4:** Oral arguments are given before the Court. * **Step 5:** The case is decided. The decision is published as a majority opinion, which may include concurring opinions. There are also dissenting opinions that explain why some justices disagree. Cases can also be decided per curiam, meaning by the Court as a whole without identifying individual authors. * **Justices:** The Supreme Court consists of nine justices who serve for life. > **Tip:** Understanding the criteria for granting a writ of certiorari is crucial for predicting which cases the Supreme Court might hear. ### 3.3 State court system All fifty states maintain their own court systems, operating under their own state constitutions and laws. These courts handle the vast majority of American litigation and are generally courts of general jurisdiction, meaning they can hear a wide range of cases, both civil and criminal. #### 3.3.1 Trial courts of limited jurisdiction These are the lowest level trial courts in many states, handling less serious matters. Examples include municipal courts, justice courts, small claims courts, traffic courts, and juvenile courts. #### 3.3.2 Trial courts of general jurisdiction These courts are often called Superior Courts, Circuit Courts, or District Courts, depending on the state. They handle more significant cases, including higher-value civil claims and felony criminal cases. #### 3.3.3 Intermediate appellate courts Most states have an intermediate appellate court. These courts review decisions from the trial courts for legal errors. They do not rehear evidence or conduct new trials; their review is based on the trial court's record. #### 3.3.4 State Supreme Court This is the highest court in a state's judicial system. It serves as the final appellate court for cases arising under state law. However, if a case decided by a state supreme court involves a federal question (e.g., a violation of the U.S. Constitution), the losing party may petition the U.S. Supreme Court for review. Some states, like Texas and Oklahoma, have separate high courts for civil and criminal matters. > **Tip:** Recognize that the hierarchy within state court systems can be complex and vary by jurisdiction, but generally follows a pattern of trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and a state supreme court. --- # UK society: Industrial action, the Thatcher revolution, and Euroscepticism This section examines the historical trajectory of industrial action, the transformative impact of the Thatcher era, and the persistent rise of Euroscepticism in modern UK society. ### 4.1 Industrial action and the decline of trade unions #### 4.1.1 Historical context of trade unions The history of industrial action in the UK is deeply intertwined with the development of trade unions. Key milestones include: * **1867:** Trade unions were decriminalised, acknowledging their existence within the legal framework. * **1871:** Trade unions were legalised, granting them formal recognition and the ability to operate more openly. * These developments were instrumental in reforming the socio-economic conditions for working men in British industries. * This period also saw the creation of a Labour Representation Committee, which ultimately formed the basis for the **Labour Party**, established in **1899**. #### 4.1.2 The role and decline of trade unions Historically, most trade unions in Britain have been affiliated with the **Trade Union Congress (TUC)**. The TUC's primary functions included: * Engaging in **collective bargaining** with employers to safeguard their members' interests. * Protecting **real wages** against inflation. * Defending members against **unfair dismissal**. * Improving **working conditions and work-life balance**. * Promoting workplace training and education. * Securing and protecting **pension rights**. However, the role of trade unions in Britain has significantly diminished in recent times due to a **stark decline in legislation** that supported their power and the introduction of **restrictive legislation**. #### 4.1.3 Industrial action in the 1970s The 1970s were marked by significant industrial unrest, exacerbated by a series of energy crises. * The **1973 Petroleum Crisis**, triggered by the Arab oil embargo following Western support for Israel in the Yom Kippur War, was particularly impactful. * This led to an inflation rate of **24%** in Britain. * The price of crude oil skyrocketed, significantly increasing the cost of petrol and transport. * Food prices also rose, leading to global shortages. * Britain experienced the highest inflation rate among OECD nations. * In **1974**, the Labour Party was elected but faced internal divisions regarding policy, often implementing measures opposed by unions. Despite this, the economy began to stabilise. * By **1978**, Prime Minister James Callaghan's government attempted to limit wage increases to **five percent**, a policy that strained relationships with unions. * This wage restraint policy proved to be a breaking point, leading unions to go on strike, demonstrating their power to resist government efforts. #### 4.1.4 The Winter of Discontent (1978-1979) This period represents a peak in industrial action and public sector strikes. * **September 1978:** Ford workers initiated a strike, demanding a **17% wage increase**, effectively defying the government's income policy. * The road haulage sector soon followed suit, influenced by government bans on overtime. * **January 1979:** Public sector workers joined the strikes, leading to widespread disruption. This included: * Piles of rubbish in the streets. * Limited services at hospitals. * Picketing gravediggers. ### 4.2 The Thatcher revolution The election of the Conservative Party under Margaret Thatcher in May 1979 marked a radical shift in British politics and society. This period, often termed the "Thatcher Revolution," was characterised by a set of policies aimed at individual liberty, economic restructuring, and reducing the power of trade unions. #### 4.2.1 Ideological underpinnings The Conservatives promised: * Greater independence for the individual. * **Privatisation** of state-owned enterprises. * The **sale of public housing** to tenants. * Reducing government expenditures on areas like healthcare, education, and housing. * The adoption of **Monetarism** as a key economic policy. * The implementation of **legal restrictions on trade unions**. #### 4.2.2 Impact on trade unions The Thatcher government actively sought to curb the power of trade unions: * **Undermining the ability to organise strikes** through various legislative measures. * **Banning the closed shop**, an arrangement where union membership was a condition of employment. * **Requiring members to poll** before ordering a strike. * **Banning sympathy strikes**, where workers strike in support of another group of striking workers. * **Rendering unions responsible for damages** caused by industrial action. * A significant example was the **1984 National Union of Mineworkers' strike**, which lasted nearly a year. The strike was called to prevent the closure of unproductive coal mines. Thatcher's government refused to negotiate, and the miners eventually returned to work without any concessions, a clear victory for the government. #### 4.2.3 Impact on the economy The economic policies of the Thatcher era brought about substantial changes: * **Privatisation of state-owned industries and public services:** This included sectors like aerospace, television, gas, and water. * **Sale of public housing:** By the end of the 1980s, approximately **1.5 million housing units** had been sold to tenants. This led to a tripling of individual stockholders. * **Economic restructuring:** The government inherited a weak economy and implemented policies to reduce regulation on businesses and eliminate subsidies. This aimed to purge manufacturing of inefficient firms. * **Increased unemployment:** A dramatic rise in unemployment occurred, from **1.3 million in 1979 to 2.6 million in 1981**, reaching three million by 1986. * **Inflation:** Inflation doubled in 14 months to over **20%**. * **Manufacturing output declined sharply.** * These economic shifts led to rising social tensions, making Thatcher deeply unpopular. #### 4.2.4 Political resilience Despite widespread unpopularity, Thatcher's government maintained power: * The **Labour Party** was deeply divided, with its radical manifesto being described as the "longest suicide note in history." * The **Falklands War** (1982) provided a significant boost to Thatcher's standing. This short, undeclared war with Argentina over the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands resulted in a decisive British victory and led to Thatcher winning the subsequent election with her biggest victory in almost 50 years. ### 4.3 Euroscepticism The latter part of Thatcher's premiership and subsequent Conservative governments saw a growing trend of Euroscepticism within British politics, particularly within the Conservative Party. #### 4.3.1 Impact on EU relations Under Thatcher and her successors, Britain's relationship with the European Union (EU) became increasingly strained: * Britain's **contribution to the EU budget was reduced**. * The government adopted a more **hostile stance towards further EU integration**. * There was strong opposition to the idea of a **single currency**. * These stances **divided her own party** but also solidified a core of **Conservative Euroscepticism**. #### 4.3.2 Broader societal impacts The era marked by the Thatcher revolution had lasting effects on British society: * A rise in the **financial industry** and a concurrent **fall of the unions**. * This period is seen as a phase of **left-wing decline**. * There was a perceived **return of British military confidence** and an end to post-imperial decline in foreign policy. * Prime Ministers began to style themselves as 'globalists', reflecting a shift in foreign policy outlook. > **Tip:** When studying Euroscepticism, consider its roots in historical British foreign policy and national identity, as well as specific economic and political events that fueled distrust of European integration. > **Example:** The Maastricht Treaty, signed in 1992, was a significant point of contention, further deepening divisions within the Conservative Party and contributing to the rise of Eurosceptic sentiment. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Reported speech | A way of recounting what someone else said without using their exact words; it involves changes in tense, pronouns, and adverbs of time and place. | | Direct speech | The exact words spoken by a person, typically enclosed in quotation marks. | | Backshifting | The process of changing verb tenses in reported speech to reflect a past perspective, usually moving one tense back (e.g., present simple to past simple). | | Common law | A body of law derived from judicial decisions instead of from statutes, forming the basis of the legal system in England and Wales. | | Civil law | A legal system originating in Europe, based on Roman law, which is characterized by codified statutes and less reliance on judicial precedent compared to common law. | | Tribunal | A body established to hear and decide cases in specific legal matters, often specialized in areas not covered by standard courts. | | Federal court system | The court system in the United States that handles cases involving federal law, the U.S. Constitution, or disputes between states. | | State court system | The court system within each U.S. state, handling the majority of legal cases under state law. | | Jurisdiction | The official power to make legal decisions and judgments, referring to the extent of authority a court has. | | Supreme Court | The highest court within a jurisdiction, with the final say on matters of law. In the US, the Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court. | | Industrial action | Actions taken by workers to pressure employers, such as strikes, work-to-rule campaigns, or overtime bans, often to achieve better working conditions or pay. | | Trade union | An organized association of workers formed to protect and further their rights and interests, particularly concerning wages, working conditions, and benefits. | | Euroscepticism | A critical attitude or skepticism towards the European Union, particularly concerning the extent of its integration and political power. | | Privatisation | The transfer of ownership of a business, industry, or service from public (government) to private (commercial) control. | | Monetarism | An economic theory that emphasizes the role of governments in controlling the amount of money in circulation to moderate inflation and economic fluctuations. | | Writ of certiorari | An order from a higher court to a lower court to review the lower court's decision; commonly known as a "cert" petition in the US Supreme Court. | | Per curiam | A Latin term meaning "by the court," referring to a decision or opinion delivered by the court as a whole, rather than by a specific judge. |