Chapter 5 - Words and Word Creation Processes.pdf

# Introduction to words and their definitions This section explores the multifaceted nature of words, examining their semantic and structural definitions, and differentiating them from morphemes while categorizing them into simple, compound, and complex forms. ### 1.1 Defining a word A word can be defined in two primary ways: semantically and structurally [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). #### 1.1.1 Semantic definition Semantically, a word is understood as a free-standing linguistic form that conveys a single, self-contained unit of meaning, which can be either singular or complex [5](#page=5). * **Singular Meaning Unit:** Words like "true," "tooth," and "brush" each represent one distinct meaning [5](#page=5). * **Complex Meaning Unit:** Words such as "untrue," "bilinguals," and "toothbrush" also function as single units of meaning, despite their internal complexity [5](#page=5). #### 1.1.2 Structural definition Structurally, a word is a linguistic unit that minimally comprises one root morpheme. More typically, it is a combination of a root morpheme with one or more derivational and/or inflectional morphemes [6](#page=6). * **Single Root Morpheme:** "True," "tooth," and "brush" are examples with one root morpheme [6](#page=6). * **Root with Additional Morphemes:** "Untrue," "bilinguals," and "toothbrush" consist of a root morpheme combined with other morphemes [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** It is crucial to remember that a word is not the smallest meaningful linguistic unit; that distinction belongs to the morpheme [6](#page=6). #### 1.1.3 Words versus morphemes While some morphemes can function as words, not all morphemes are words, and conversely, many words are composed of more than a single morpheme [7](#page=7). * **Morphemes that are words:** Examples include "but," "king," and "cat" [7](#page=7). * **Morphemes that are not words:** These are typically bound morphemes like "–ness," "un–," and "–dom" [7](#page=7). * **Words composed of multiple morphemes:** Examples are "kingdom," "happiness," and "linguistics" [7](#page=7). ### 1.2 Classifying words by structure Words can be categorized into simple, compound, and complex types based on their morphological structure [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). #### 1.2.1 Simple words A simple word consists of a single root morpheme, potentially with an additional inflectional morpheme [8](#page=8). * **Examples:** "boy," "the," "horses," "elephant," "smaller," "walked," "your" [8](#page=8). #### 1.2.2 Compound words A compound word is formed by the combination of two or more root morphemes, which may also include an inflectional morpheme [8](#page=8). * **Examples:** "toothbrush," "power stations," "blackboard" [8](#page=8). #### 1.2.3 Complex words A complex word involves at least one bound derivational morpheme attached to a root. This root can be either bound or free, or the word can be a combination of other elements [9](#page=9). * **Bound derivational morpheme + bound lexical root:** Examples include "invest" and "resisted" [9](#page=9). * **Bound derivational morpheme + free lexical root:** Examples include "kingdom," "quickly," "befriend," and "enclose" [9](#page=9). * **Other combinations involving bound derivational morphemes:** Examples include "conclusions," "prefabricate," and "unlikelihood" [9](#page=9). --- # Lexemes and dictionaries This section explores the concept of a lexeme as a fundamental unit of meaning and its relationship to word forms, alongside the role of dictionaries as language inventories. ### 2.1 Dictionaries as language inventories A dictionary serves as an inventory of a language's words, detailing their formal attributes such as spelling and pronunciation, alongside their meanings and usage [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11). ### 2.2 Understanding words, lemmas, and lexemes While the term "words" can refer to specific instances of language, it also encompasses a broader concept representing general meanings. This broader concept is captured by "lemmas" and "lexemes" [12](#page=12). > **Tip:** Distinguishing between specific word forms and the underlying concept of a word is crucial for linguistic analysis. ### 2.3 The concept of a lexeme A lexeme is defined as a self-contained unit of meaning that manifests in a variety of inflectionally related word forms [13](#page=13). > **Example:** The lexeme `ABNEGATE` encompasses the word forms `abnegate`, `abnegating`, `abnegates`, and `abnegated` [13](#page=13). #### 2.3.1 Lexemes and their word forms * **LEXEME:** `ABNEGATE` * **Words (word-forms):** `abnegate`, `abnegating`, `abnegates`, `abnegated` [13](#page=13). * **LEXEME:** `SMALL` * **Words (word-forms):** `small`, `smaller`, `smallest` [13](#page=13). * **LEXEME:** `SING` * **Words (word-forms):** `sing`, `sings`, `singing`, `sang`, `sung` [13](#page=13). * **LEXEME:** `BE` * **Words (word-forms):** `be`, `am`, `are`, `is`, `was`, `were`, `being`, `been` [13](#page=13). The examples provided illustrate how a single lexeme, representing a core meaning, can be realized through various forms depending on grammatical context, such as tense, number, or degree of comparison [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). --- # The taxonomy of word creation and borrowing This section outlines the primary mechanisms by which new words enter a language, broadly categorized into word formation and borrowing [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [27](#page=27) [31](#page=31) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). ### 3.1 Word formation Word formation refers to the processes by which existing words are modified or combined to create new words within a language [27](#page=27) [31](#page=31). #### 3.1.1 Derivation Derivation involves adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to a base word to create a new word with a different meaning or grammatical function [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). #### 3.1.2 Compounding Compounding is the process of joining two or more existing words together to form a new word [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). * **Endocentric compounds** have a head that determines the core meaning. For example, "bedroom" is a type of "room" [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). * **Exocentric compounds** do not have a head that directly indicates the meaning; the meaning is derived from the combination. For example, "blackboard" is not a type of "board" but rather something black [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). #### 3.1.3 Reductions Reductions involve shortening words or phrases to create new words [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). * **Clipping** is the removal of one or more syllables from a word. Examples include "prof" from "professor" [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). * **Acronyms** are words formed from the initial letters of a phrase, pronounced as a word. An example is "NASA" [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). * **Abbreviations** (also referred to as initialisms) are formed from initial letters but are pronounced letter by letter. An example is "FBI" [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). #### 3.1.4 Conversion Conversion, also known as "pure conversion" or "zero derivation," is the process where a word changes its grammatical class without any change in its form. For instance, "Google" can be used as a noun or a verb ("to google") [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). #### 3.1.5 Back-formation Back-formation is the creation of a word (often a verb) by removing a supposed affix from an existing word. An example is the verb "edit" being formed from the noun "editor" [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). #### 3.1.6 Blending Blending involves combining parts of two or more words to create a new one, often by taking the beginning of one word and the end of another. An example is "smog" from "smoke" and "fog" [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). #### 3.1.7 Coining Coining is the spontaneous creation of entirely new words, often for specific brands or concepts [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). #### 3.1.8 Semantic change Semantic change refers to the evolution of a word's meaning over time, which can lead to the word being perceived as new or having a new function. This can involve both **phonological change** and **approximate conversion** [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). ### 3.2 Borrowing Borrowing, also known as loaning, is the process by which a language adopts words from another language. This is a common way for languages to expand their vocabulary [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26) [32](#page=32) [37](#page=37) [42](#page=42) [44](#page=44). --- # Specific word creation processes This section explores various specific methods by which new words are formed in English [28](#page=28). ### 4.1 Derivation Derivation involves the attachment of a derivational morpheme, either a prefix or a suffix, to a base word. This process alters the meaning and often the word class of the base [28](#page=28). * **Examples:** * `attachment` (attach + ment) [28](#page=28). * `redden` (red + en) [28](#page=28). * `rewrite` (re + write) [28](#page=28). ### 4.2 Compounding Compounding is the process of combining two or more free root morphemes to create a new word [29](#page=29). * **Types of Compounds:** * **Endocentric compounds:** The general meaning and lexical class of the compound are determined by its head root, which is typically the last root in the compound [30](#page=30). * **Examples:** `blackboard`, `bookshelf`, `football` [30](#page=30). * **Exocentric compounds:** These compounds lack a clear head and often have idiomatic meanings [30](#page=30). * **Examples:** `hotdog`, `redneck`, `slowcoach`, `breakfast` [30](#page=30). ### 4.3 Conversion Conversion, also known as zero derivation or functional shift, involves a base form changing its lexical class without the addition of any derivational affixes [33](#page=33). * **Approximate Conversion:** This type involves minor changes in word stress, pronunciation (e.g., voicing), or spelling. * **Examples:** * `an insult` (noun) > `to insult` (verb) [33](#page=33). * `(a piece of) advice` (noun) > `to advise` (verb) [33](#page=33). * `a practice` (noun) > `to practise` (verb) [33](#page=33). * `mail` (noun) > `to mail` (verb) [33](#page=33). * `yellow` (adjective) > `to yellow` (verb) [33](#page=33). * `to fight` (verb) > `a fight` (noun) [33](#page=33). * **Pure Conversion:** This occurs with no formal change in the word's form [33](#page=33). ### 4.4 Backformation Backformation is the process of deleting a suffix from a complex word to create a simpler base word, typically forming verbs from nouns or adjectives from nouns/verbs [38](#page=38). * **Examples:** * Verbs from Nouns: * `editor` (noun) > `edit` (verb) [38](#page=38). * `burglar` (noun) > `burgle` (verb) [38](#page=38). * `donation` (noun) > `donate` (verb) [38](#page=38). * `television` (noun) > `televise` (verb) [38](#page=38). * Conversion between other lexical classes: * `creepy` (adjective) < `creep` (noun) [38](#page=38). * `lazy` (adjective) < `laze` (verb) [38](#page=38). * `complicity` (noun) < `complicit` (adjective) [38](#page=38). ### 4.5 Clipping Clipping involves the deletion of a word segment that is not a derivational prefix or suffix [39](#page=39). * **Types of Clipping:** * **Front clipping:** Deletion from the beginning of the word (e.g., `taxicab` from `taxicab`, `airplane` from `airplane`) [39](#page=39). * **Back clipping:** Deletion from the end of the word (e.g., `fanatic` from `fanatic`, `laboratory` from `laboratory`) [39](#page=39). * **Mixed clipping:** Deletion from both the beginning and end of the word (e.g., `fridge` from `refrigerator`, `flu` from `influenza`) [39](#page=39). * **Note:** The status of clipping as a true word-formation process is sometimes debated [39](#page=39). ### 4.6 Initialisms An initialism is an abbreviation where a word consists of the initials of a series of words, and these initials are pronounced as separate letters [40](#page=40). * **Examples:** * `UK` < `United Kingdom` [40](#page=40). * `FBI` < `Federal Bureau of Investigation` [40](#page=40). * `IT/ICT` < `Information and Communication Technology` [40](#page=40). ### 4.7 Acronyms An acronym is a type of initialism where the initials of a series of words are pronounced as a single, ordinary word [41](#page=41). * **Examples:** * `laser` < `lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation` [41](#page=41). * `Aids` < `acquired immuno deficiency syndrome` [41](#page=41). * `scuba` < `self-contained underwater breathing apparatus` [41](#page=41). ### 4.8 Blending Blending is the fusion of the forms and meanings of two existing lexical bases to create a new lexical base, often referred to as a blend or portmanteau word [43](#page=43). * **Examples:** * `smog` < `smoke` + `fog` [43](#page=43). * `brunch` < `breakfast` + `lunch` [43](#page=43). * `glocalisation` < `globalis(ation)` + `localisation` [43](#page=43). * `bromance` < `bro(ther)` + `romance` [43](#page=43). ### 4.9 Coining Coining, or neologism, is the formation of a completely new root morpheme from unrelated elements. This often results in entirely novel words [45](#page=45). * **Examples of new coinages:** `quiz`, `nylon`, `posh`, `quark`, `googol`/`google` [45](#page=45). * **Semantic Shift from Proper Nouns:** Proper nouns, particularly those referring to fictitious characters or product/brand names, can develop more general meanings through semantic change and subsequently become common nouns or verbs [45](#page=45). * **Examples:** `teflon`, `kleenex`, `xerox`, `aspirin`, `google` [45](#page=45). --- # Borrowing and its linguistic effects This section explores the phenomenon of word borrowing between languages and the subsequent phonological and semantic transformations that occur [16](#page=16). ### 5.1 Sources of borrowing Words are borrowed into a language from a variety of sources, often reflecting historical contact, trade, or cultural influence [16](#page=16). #### 5.1.1 Latin borrowings Latin has contributed a significant number of words to English, often related to abstract concepts and scholarly terms [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). * Examples include: *angel, chest, fever, paper, pencil, sock* [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). #### 5.1.2 Greek borrowings Greek words also feature prominently in English vocabulary, particularly in fields like science, medicine, and philosophy [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Examples include: *agony, crisis, energy, grammar, irony* [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). #### 5.1.3 Norse borrowings The influence of Old Norse is evident in many common English words, especially those related to everyday life and actions [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20). * Examples include: *get, take, both, skin, birth, egg, knife, want* [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20). #### 5.1.4 Old French borrowings Old French has provided many words to English, often associated with governance, law, and cuisine [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). * Examples include: *judge, crown, push, please, beef, joy* [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). #### 5.1.5 Dutch borrowings Dutch has contributed words, particularly in maritime and trade contexts [21](#page=21). * Examples include: *cruise, quay, yacht, easel, landscape, coleslaw, smuggle, gin, cookie, beleaguer, brandy, frolick* [21](#page=21). ### 5.2 Linguistic effects of borrowing When words are borrowed, they often undergo changes in pronunciation and meaning to fit the patterns of the host language [22](#page=22). #### 5.2.1 Phonological change Phonological change refers to the adaptation of a borrowed word to the sound and stress patterns of the host language [22](#page=22). * **Example:** The Dutch word ‘jacht’, pronounced /jɑxt/, was borrowed into English as ‘yacht’, with the pronunciation /jɒt/ [22](#page=22). #### 5.2.2 Semantic change Semantic change involves alterations to the original meaning of a borrowed word. This can include narrowing its meaning, widening it, or changing it in other ways [22](#page=22). * **Example:** The Old French phrase ‘ieu parti’, meaning ‘divided game’, evolved into the English word ‘jeopardy’, which now primarily signifies ‘danger’ [22](#page=22). > **Tip:** It is important to note that phonological and semantic changes are not exclusive to borrowed words; indigenous words can also undergo similar transformations over time [22](#page=22). * **Example:** The word ‘knight’ originally meant ‘servant’, then evolved to ‘servant of the king’, and finally came to denote a nobleman or a rank of aristocracy (low nobility) [22](#page=22). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Word | A free-standing linguistic form that expresses a self-contained unit of meaning, which can be singular or complex. Structurally, it minimally consists of one root morph, often combined with derivational and/or inflectional morphs. | | Morpheme | The smallest meaningful linguistic unit in a language. A morpheme can be a word itself, or it can be a part of a word that carries meaning. | | Root morph | The core part of a word that carries the primary lexical meaning. It is the base to which other affixes may be attached. | | Derivational morph | Affixes that are attached to a root word to create a new word, often changing its meaning or lexical class. Examples include prefixes like 'un-' and suffixes like '-ness'. | | Inflectional morph | Affixes that are added to a word to indicate grammatical features such as tense, number, or case, without changing the word's fundamental meaning or lexical class. Examples include '-s' for plural or '-ed' for past tense. | | Simple word | A word that consists of a single root morph, potentially with an inflectional morph. For example, "boy" or "walked". | | Compound word | A word formed by combining two or more root morphs. For instance, "toothbrush" or "power stations". | | Complex word | A word that includes at least one bound derivational morph attached to a root, which can be either bound or free. For example, "kingdom" or "conclusions". | | Lexeme | A fundamental unit of meaning that is realized in a set of related word-forms, particularly through inflection. For instance, the lexeme "SING" includes the word-forms "sing", "sings", "sang", and "singing". | | Word creation | The process by which new words are formed within a language. This can occur through internal word formation processes or by borrowing from other languages. | | Borrowing | The process of adopting words from one language into another. This is a major source of new vocabulary in many languages. | | Derivation | A word formation process that involves attaching a derivational morph (prefix or suffix) to a base word to create a new word, often altering its meaning or grammatical category. | | Compounding | A word formation process where two or more free root morphs are combined to form a new word. Examples include "blackboard" and "easy-going". | | Endocentric compounds | Compound words where the general meaning and lexical class are determined by the head root, which is typically the last root in the compound. | | Exocentric compounds | Compound words that lack a clear head and often have an idiomatic meaning that is not directly predictable from the combination of their constituent parts. | | Conversion | A word formation process where a word changes its lexical class without the addition of any derivational affixes. This can involve changes in stress or pronunciation (approximate conversion) or no formal change at all (pure conversion). | | Backformation | A word formation process where a word is created by deleting a suffix from a more complex word, often resulting in a verb being formed from a noun or vice versa. | | Clipping | A word formation process that involves deleting a segment from a word, excluding standard derivational prefixes or suffixes. This can occur at the front, back, or be mixed. | | Initialism | An abbreviation where the initial letters of a series of words are used to form a new word, and these letters are pronounced individually. Examples include "UK" or "FBI". | | Acronym | An abbreviation formed from the initial letters of a series of words, which is pronounced as a single word rather than as individual letters. Examples include "laser" or "scuba". | | Blending | A word formation process that merges the forms and meanings of two existing lexical bases to create a new word, often called a portmanteau word. Examples include "smog" (smoke + fog) and "brunch" (breakfast + lunch). | | Coining | The formation of a completely new word, or neologism, from unrelated elements or by creating a new root morph. This often occurs with brand names or specialized terms. | | Semantic change | A process where the meaning of a word is altered over time, which can include narrowing, widening, or shifting its original meaning. | | Phonological change | The adaptation of a borrowed word to the sound and stress patterns of the host language, often involving changes in pronunciation. |