5. POLITOLOGIE.docx

The study of politics, known as political science, is a discipline that delves into the theory and practice of governance, power, and the state. Originating in Ancient Greece and evolving through the Renaissance, it became an independent scientific field in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the United States. At its core, political science examines the exercise of power, the functioning of the state, ideologies, political systems, institutions, and political parties. ## Core Concepts in Political Science Political science can be broadly categorized into three main approaches: * **Normative politics**: This approach applies philosophical methods and value judgments to political reality, proposing what political interests *should* be. * **Descriptive politics**: This positivistic approach focuses on objectively describing political phenomena, processes, and events as they occur. * **Predictive politics**: Also known as prognostic politics, this area seeks to forecast future political trends and outcomes based on the analysis of existing data. The discipline is typically structured around four fundamental areas of research: * **Political theory**: This includes the history of political thought and the philosophical underpinnings of political ideas. * **Political institutions**: This area studies the structures of government, such as constitutions, forms of government, and legislative bodies. * **Parties, groups, and public opinion**: This encompasses the study of political parties, interest groups, media influence, and public sentiment. * **International relations**: This field examines foreign policy, international politics, and the role of international organizations. ## Historical Development of Political Thought ### Ancient Political Thinking Ancient Greek thinkers laid the groundwork for Western political philosophy. The **Sophists** explored societal functioning and governance. **Socrates** emphasized the necessity of knowledge for effective citizenship. **Plato**, in his vision of an ideal state, proposed a rigid class structure and a form of monarchy or aristocracy. **Aristotle**, in his seminal work *Politics*, rejected Plato's idealism, advocating for a state governed by laws and a constitution, classifying different types of constitutions based on whether they served the interests of the whole community. The **Stoics** introduced the idea of universal equality. ### Medieval Political Thinking The influence of Christianity shaped medieval political thought. **Saint Augustine**, in *The City of God*, distinguished between the earthly city (often seen as a source of evil) and the divine city (symbolizing good). **Thomas Aquinas** focused on guiding citizens towards virtuous and just lives. ### Renaissance Political Thinking **Niccolò Machiavelli**, in *The Prince*, revolutionized political thought by separating politics from conventional morality, arguing that power acquisition and maintenance might necessitate actions not typically considered ethical. ### Early Modern Political Thinking The rise of the secular state, the Reformation, capitalism, individualism, and the Enlightenment profoundly influenced modern political thought. Key figures include: * **Thomas Hobbes** and **John Locke**: Both developed **social contract theories**, positing that the state originated from a voluntary agreement among individuals to relinquish some freedoms for collective security. * **Charles de Montesquieu**: In *The Spirit of the Laws*, he articulated the theory of the **separation of powers**. * **Jean-Jacques Rousseau**: His work *The Social Contract* championed **democracy** as direct popular participation and critiqued private property, making him a precursor to radical socialism. * **Immanuel Kant**: Contributed to ethical and political philosophy with his concept of the moral law. ### Political Thought in the 19th and 20th Centuries The industrial revolution and subsequent modernization spurred further political development. Key thinkers and concepts include: * **John Stuart Mill**: A proponent of **political liberalism**, he advocated for the expansion of voting rights. * **Karl Marx**: Developed theories on class struggle and communism. * **Karl Raimund Popper**: Differentiated between **closed societies** and **open societies**. * **Hannah Arendt**: Her theory of **totalitarianism** provided comparative analyses of totalitarian regimes. * **John Rawls**: Introduced the concept of a hypothetical state of nature under a "veil of ignorance" to derive principles of **justice**. * **Robert Nozick**: In *Anarchy, State, and Utopia*, he argued for a **minimal state** with narrowly defined functions. * **Samuel Phillips Huntington**: His book *The Clash of Civilizations* analyzed global politics after the Cold War. * **Francis Fukuyama**: Famously posited the "end of history" with the collapse of the Soviet Union. ## The State and the Nation ### The State The **state** is defined as a form of political organization for human society, uniting the inhabitants of a territory into a legal entity. A state is characterized by its independent, non-derived power, meaning it is **sovereign**. **Max Weber** defined the state as an organization of political power that holds a **legitimate monopoly on the use of physical force**. Key characteristics of a state include: * **Territory and population**: A defined geographical area and its inhabitants. * **Organization of the state**: Established governmental structures and institutions. * **Law**: A system of rules and regulations governing society. * **State sovereignty**: Supreme authority within its territory, independent of external control. The functions of a state are divided into: * **Internal functions**: * Security * Legal order * Economic regulation * Social welfare * Cultural development * **External functions**: * Defense * Diplomacy * Economic relations ### Theories of State Formation Various theories explain the origin of states: * **Contractual theory**: States that states arise from an agreement among individuals who relinquish certain freedoms to a collective body for mutual protection and governance. * **Religious theory**: Posits divine origin for the state and its rulers (theocratic). * **Patriarchal theory**: Suggests states evolved from expanded family structures. * **Power theory**: Argues states emerge from the dominance of the strong over the weak, often through force. ### The Nation A **nation** is a group of people sharing a common origin, cultural, and historical traditions. It is characterized by both objective features (language, territory, origin) and subjective features (a sense of belonging and loyalty). A **nationality** precedes a nation, referring to a group sharing language, faith, and traditions. National affiliation is acquired at birth and through adopting a specific lifestyle. A **national state** is a political entity organized around a single nation. ### State Citizenship **Citizenship** signifies an individual's membership in a state. Citizens are subject to state laws and institutions but also enjoy benefits such as security, healthcare, and social security. Czech law, specifically Act No. 186/2013 Coll., effective January 1, 2014, allows for dual citizenship and simplifies the process for acquiring Czech citizenship, which can be obtained through birth, paternity, adoption, discovery (for children under three), grant, declaration (upon the division of Czechoslovakia), or in connection with being placed in substitute care. Citizenship can be lost through declaration if residing abroad and holding another citizenship. ## Forms of State The **form of government** describes how state power is organized. States can be democratic or autocratic. * **Democracy**: All citizens participate in governance. * **Autocracy**: Power is held by a narrow circle of individuals or a single person. * **Aristocracy**: Rule by nobility. * **Plutocracy**: Rule by a small group of wealthy individuals. * **Oligarchy**: Rule by a privileged, often wealthy, stratum. * **Monocracy**: Rule by a single individual (monarch, dictator). * **Theocracy**: Rule in the name of God, claiming divine authority. * **Sophocracy**: Rule by wise individuals or philosophers. * **Meritocracy**: Rule by the talented, capable, and deserving. A **political regime** refers to the methods of governance employed. ### Types of State (State Structure) * **Monarchy**: Hereditary lifelong rule by a single sovereign. * **Absolute Monarchy**: The monarch holds all executive, legislative, and judicial power. * **Constitutional Monarchy**: The monarch's power is limited by other organs and the constitution (e.g., Jordan). * **Parliamentary Monarchy**: The monarch has a ceremonial function, with real executive power held by a government accountable to parliament (e.g., UK). * **Republic**: Characterized by the absence of a hereditary monarch; rulers are elected based on a constitution, and state powers are separated. * **Parliamentary Republic**: Parliament holds a leading position; the president has a formal role (e.g., Czech Republic, Italy, Ireland). * **Chancellor Republic**: The Prime Minister (Chancellor) holds significant powers, with the president having a representative function (e.g., Germany). * **Semi-Presidential Republic**: Executive power is divided between the president and the government; the president is directly elected and has substantial powers (e.g., France). * **Presidential Republic**: The president is directly elected, leads the executive branch, and the executive power is independent of the legislature (e.g., USA). ### Territorial Structure of the State This refers to the organization of central and local authorities. * **Unitary State**: A single, unified government with a single legal system and citizenship. Lower administrative units are subordinate to the central government (e.g., Czech Republic, Slovakia, Italy). * **Federation**: A composite federal state formed by the union of multiple states or provinces, each with its own laws and administration, but united under a federal government with common foreign policy and currency (e.g., USA, Germany). * **Confederation**: A loose alliance of independent states that cooperate in specific areas, retaining their own constitutions. Historically, this has sometimes been a transitional stage. ### Division of State Power Distribution * **Centralized**: Power is concentrated in a single, hierarchically structured central government. * **Decentralized**: Central authorities have less power, with greater emphasis on local self-governance. ## Divisions of Democratic Political Systems ### Parliamentary System (Parliamentarism) Most common in Europe, this system is characterized by the sovereignty of the legislative branch and the principle of shared power between the legislature and the executive. The parliament influences the executive, which is formed and sustained by parliamentary confidence. The head of state (president or monarch) may have ceremonial functions, with real executive power residing with the Prime Minister and ministers. ### Presidential System (Presidencialism) Prevalent in the Americas, this is a republican form of government where the executive and legislative branches are elected independently. The President is the head of state and government and is not directly accountable to the legislature. The President appoints ministers, and the executive branch operates largely independently of the legislature. #### Presidential Elections in the USA The process involves: primaries → national party conventions → nomination of candidates → citizen voting → election of electors → electors cast votes for President. The President is elected for a four-year term, limited to two terms, via an indirect election by a college of electors. ### Semi-Presidential System As seen in France, this system features an "executive dyarchy" with both a President (directly elected, with significant legislative influence) and a Prime Minister (accountable to parliament). The concept of "cohabitation" arises when the president and the parliamentary majority belong to opposing political factions. ## History of Czech Statehood The history of the Czech state involves significant milestones: * **9th-10th centuries**: Great Moravia, followed by the Přemyslid dynasty's state. * **12th-13th centuries**: Golden Bull of Sicily granted hereditary royal title. * **14th century**: Charles IV establishes the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. * **1458**: George of Poděbrady becomes the first elected Bohemian king. * **1526-1918**: Habsburg rule. * **World War I (1914-1918)**: Formation of the Czechoslovak National Council and resistance efforts. * **October 28, 1918**: Declaration of an independent Czechoslovakia (First Republic, 1918-1938). * **1938**: Munich Agreement. * **1938-1939**: Second Republic. * **1939 onwards**: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia; establishment of the Czechoslovak Provisional Government abroad. * **Post-WWII**: Restoration of Czechoslovakia, Košice Government Program. * **1948**: Communist Party (KSČ) assumes power, leading to totalitarian rule. * **1960s**: Attempts at democratization, ending with the Warsaw Pact invasion in **August 21, 1968**, followed by "normalization" and emigration. * **November 17, 1989**: Velvet Revolution, marking a transition to democracy. * **1990**: Name change to Czechoslovak Federative Republic. * **1990s**: Transition to the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic. * **1993**: Dissolution of Czechoslovakia, formation of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. ## Legal Foundations of the State ### The Rule of Law A **rule of law** state is one where the relationship between citizens and the state is defined by law, emphasizing democratic principles like pluralism, justice, and legitimacy, and guaranteeing the functioning of independent courts. ### Multietnicity and National Minorities Due to migration, states often comprise multiple ethnic groups. A **national minority** is a community of citizens differing in origin, language, or culture. The Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, part of the constitutional order, guarantees rights to preserve and develop language, culture, and traditions, and establishes governmental councils for national minorities. Issues of xenophobia and racism can arise. ### State Symbols Official symbols represent the state: * **State coat of arms**: The greater coat of arms features elements representing Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia; the lesser coat of arms depicts the Bohemian lion. * **National colors**: White, red, and blue (tricolor). * **National anthem**: "Kde domov můj" (Where Is My Home?), with music by František Škroup and lyrics by J. K. Tyl. * **National flag**: Established in 1920, with a width-to-length ratio of 2:3. * **Presidential standard**: Features the motto "Truth Prevails." * **State seal**: Bears the greater coat of arms. * **Unofficial symbols**: Czech Crown Jewels (insignia of Bohemian kings), last used in 1836. ### The Constitution The **constitution** is the fundamental law of a state, establishing its goals, form, and relationship with citizens. Key ideas include the social contract, natural rights, popular sovereignty, separation of powers, and checks and balances. * **Written Constitutions**: A single document (e.g., Czech Republic, USA). * **Unwritten Constitutions**: Composed of various documents, customs, and precedents (e.g., UK). * **Flexible Constitutions**: Easily amended. * **Rigid Constitutions**: Require special procedures for amendment (e.g., constitutional majority). #### The Constitution of the Czech Republic Adopted on December 16, 1992, by the Czech National Council and effective January 1, 1993, it prohibits holding parliamentary seats and the presidency, judgeship, or political office simultaneously. It does not, however, forbid combining parliamentary and government roles. The preamble outlines the state's significance and purpose. The constitution comprises 8 chapters and 113 articles, detailing the democratic principles, state organs (legislative, executive, judicial), control bodies (Supreme Audit Office), the Czech National Bank, territorial self-governance, and transitional provisions. #### History of Czech Constitutionalism The history of constitutional development in Czech lands includes several significant attempts: * **1848**: The first Austrian Constitution (Pillarsdorf Constitution) was drafted but never enacted. * **1849**: The Stadion "Octroyed" Constitution (March Constitution) was issued by the monarch but never officially adopted. The Kroměříž Constitution, intended to create a federal empire, was drafted but forcibly dissolved. * **1851**: The Sylvester Patents revoked the Stadion Constitution, reinstating neo-absolutism. * **1860**: The October Diploma renounced absolutism and established a Reichsrat (Imperial Council). * **1861**: The February Constitution (Schmerling Constitution) introduced a constitutional monarchy but was later suspended. * **1867**: The December Constitution established the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, creating a dual monarchy. * **1915**: The Cleveland Declaration, a joint document by Czechs and Slovaks, outlined conditions for cooperation, including federation. * **May 1918**: The Pittsburgh Agreement, signed by T.G. Masaryk and representatives of Slovak organizations, proposed a unified republic with significant Slovak autonomy. * **October 17, 1918**: The Washington Declaration proclaimed the independence of Czechoslovakia. * **October 28, 1918**: The Reception Law (Act No. 11/1918 Coll.) established the independent Czechoslovak state. * **1918**: The Provisional Constitution (Act No. 37/1918 Coll.) served as the first Czechoslovak constitution. * **October 30, 1918**: The Martin Declaration, adopted by Slovak representatives, expressed their will to live with Czechs in a common state. * **1920 Constitution**: Replaced the Provisional Constitution, establishing a democratic republic with a separation of powers. * **1948 Constitution**: Adopted after the communist coup. * **1960 Constitution**: A new socialist constitution, consolidating centralism and the leading role of the KSČ. * **1968 Constitutional Law on Czechoslovak Federation**: Transformed the state into a federation of two republics (Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic). * **Early 1990s**: Amendments led to the formation of the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic. * **1993**: The Constitution of the newly formed Czech Republic was adopted. ## Human Rights **Human rights** are universal, inalienable, imprescriptible, and non-transferable rights inherent to all individuals. Key documents include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights [1948](#page=1948) [1950](#page=1950). ### Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms Part of the Czech constitutional order since 1992, it guarantees basic human, political, minority, economic, social, and cultural rights, as well as the right to judicial protection. ### Human Rights in the International Context International bodies like the United Nations (UN) and the Council of Europe play a crucial role in protecting human rights. The European Court of Human Rights upholds the European Convention on Human Rights. Independent organizations like Amnesty International also advocate for human rights. ### Public Defender of Rights (Ombudsman) Established in the Czech Republic in 2000, the Ombudsman protects individuals from inaction or misconduct by authorities. ## Separation of State Powers The principle of the **separation of powers**, famously articulated by **John Locke** and **Charles de Montesquieu**, divides state authority into three branches: * **Legislative Power (Legislation)**: Enacts laws. * **Legislative Initiative**: The right to propose laws, held by members of parliament, the government, and regional self-governance bodies. The President does not have this right. * **Parliament of the Czech Republic**: Comprises two chambers: * **Chamber of Deputies (Poslanecká sněmovna)**: 200 deputies elected for 4-year terms using a proportional representation system. Requires at least 1/3 present for a quorum and a majority of votes for most decisions. * **Senate (Senát)**: 81 senators elected for 6-year terms using a two-round majority system, with one-third renewed every two years. Requires 27 senators present for a quorum. * **Executive Power (Executive)**: Implements and enforces laws. * **President**: Directly elected since 2013, serving a 5-year term (max. two consecutive). Holds significant powers, including a suspensive veto. * **Government (Vláda)**: Responsible to the Chamber of Deputies, headed by the Prime Minister. It makes decisions collectively and issues regulations to implement laws. * **Public Prosecutor's Office**: Represents public prosecution in criminal proceedings. * **Judicial Power (Jurisdiction)**: Interprets and applies laws. * Judges are appointed by the President and are irremovable. * The court system is two-tiered: District Courts, Regional Courts, High Courts, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Administrative Court. * The **Constitutional Court** (Ústavní soud) in Brno comprises 15 judges appointed for 10-year terms. Other independent control bodies include the Supreme Audit Office (Nejvyšší kontrolní úřad) and the Czech National Bank. **Territorial self-governance** (municipalities and regions) is also a key part of the state structure. ## Law Creation and Approval The **legislative process** involves proposing, deliberating, approving, and promulgating laws. Laws can be initiated by parliamentarians, the government, or regional bodies. The process typically involves multiple readings in parliament, review by the Senate, and potential presidential veto, which can be overridden by a supermajority. ## Democracy **Democracy**, originating in ancient Greek city-states, is a form of political system allowing all full citizens to participate in state governance. Key principles include: * Subordination of the minority to the majority. * Recognition of freedoms and equality. * **Popular sovereignty**: The people are the source of all power. * **Parliamentarism**: Legislative power is renewed at regular intervals. * State power serves all people. * **Separation of state powers**. * **Rule of law**. * Independent judiciary. * Protection of human rights and freedoms. * Plurality of political subjects. * Majority rule. * Decentralization of state administration. * **Civil society**. * Right to private property. * Social and economic security. * Freedom of the press and expression. ### Direct Democracy Involves direct citizen participation, exemplified by referendums and plebiscites. While pure direct democracy is largely theoretical, modern forms like referendums are used for significant political questions. ### Indirect (Representative) Democracy Citizens elect representatives to act on their behalf in state bodies. This is the prevalent form of democracy today, characterized by elections, equality, plurality, temporary mandates, accountability, and majority principles. ## Non-Democratic Regimes * **Totalitarian Regimes**: Intervene in all aspects of life, characterized by a single party, ideology, leader cult, secret police, and extensive control. * **Authoritarian Regimes**: Do not seek total societal control, often featuring a strong leader, absence of ideology, limited opposition, and tolerance for some organized groups. ## Elections Elections are a key indicator of democratic quality, based on principles of: * **Secret ballot**: Voting privacy. * **Universal suffrage**: All citizens have the right to vote. * **Equal suffrage**: All votes have equal weight. * **Direct suffrage**: Voters directly choose candidates or representatives. * **Active suffrage**: The right to vote (from age 18, with citizenship and residency). * **Passive suffrage**: The right to be elected (age varies by office). ### Electoral Systems * **Majority Electoral Systems**: The candidate with the most votes wins, often in single-member districts. Can lead to stable governments but may distort the representation of smaller parties. * **First-past-the-post**: Simplest form, candidate with most votes wins. * **Two-round system**: Requires an absolute majority; if none achieved, a second round is held. * **Proportional Representation (PR) System**: Seats are allocated in proportion to the votes received by each party, typically in multi-member districts. Aims for more accurate representation but can lead to coalition governments and fragmentation. * **Mixed Systems**: Combine elements of both majority and proportional systems. ## Political Ideology A **political ideology** is a set of beliefs and theories about politics and the society that such politics should create. Key functions include explaining political phenomena, providing value systems, orienting individuals, and legitimizing political programs. ### Major Ideologies * **Liberalism**: Emphasizes individual liberty, equality, democracy, and free markets. * **Conservatism**: Prioritizes tradition, established institutions, and social order. * **Socialism**: Advocates for social justice, equality, and collective ownership or control of the means of production. Variants include social democracy (reformist) and communism (revolutionary). * **Nationalism**: Promotes the interests and unity of a nation. Extreme forms include chauvinism and racism. * **Fascism**: Far-right, ultranationalist ideology characterized by authoritarianism, militarism, and suppression of opposition. * **Racism**: Belief in biological inequality between races, leading to discrimination. * **Anarchism**: Rejects state authority and advocates for voluntary, decentralized societal organization. * **Environmentalism**: Focuses on protecting the natural environment. * **Feminism**: Advocates for the equality of women. ## Political Parties and Systems **Political parties** are organized groups aiming to gain and exercise political power, usually by contesting elections. They have a program, membership, and finances. ### Party Systems * **One-party system**: Only one party is allowed to rule (non-democratic). * **Two-party system**: Two major parties dominate (e.g., USA, UK). * **Multi-party system**: Multiple parties compete, often forming coalitions. ### Interest Groups and Civil Society **Interest groups** aim to influence policy on specific issues without seeking office. **Civil society** encompasses non-governmental organizations and citizen initiatives that contribute to public life and policy-making. ## Public Administration and Self-Governance **Public administration** involves the implementation of government policy. It includes **state administration** (centralized and regional bodies) and **local self-governance** (municipalities and regions). * **Municipalities (Obce)**: Basic units of local self-governance, with elected councils and mayors. * **Regions (Kraje)**: Larger territorial self-governing units, also with elected councils and governors (hejtmani). ## International Organizations These are associations of at least three states, established by international law, to regulate mutual relations and cooperate on specific goals. * **Intergovernmental Organizations**: Members are states (e.g., UN, NATO, EU, Council of Europe). * **Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)**: Members are non-state actors (e.g., Greenpeace, Amnesty International). Key international organizations include: * **United Nations (UN)**: Promotes international peace, security, and cooperation. * **NATO**: A military alliance for collective defense. * **Council of Europe**: Focuses on human rights, democracy, and the rule of law in Europe. * **European Union (EU)**: An economic and political union of European countries. ## Law-Making and Political Processes The **legislative process** is the formal procedure for creating laws. The **political system** encompasses institutions, ideas, and relationships within a society. The concept of **politics** itself can be viewed in three dimensions: "polity" (institutional framework), "policy" (content and goals), and "politics" (the process of power struggles). ## Tables | Institution | Number of Mandates | Elections | Electoral System | |---|---|---|---| | Chamber of Deputies | 200 members | 4 years | Proportional | | Senate | 81 | 2 years (6-year term) | Two-round Majority | | European Parliament | 21 for Czech Republic | 5 years | Proportional | | Regional Assemblies | Max. 65 (Prague exception) | 4 years | Proportional | | Municipal Assemblies | Max. 55 (Prague exception) | 4 years | Proportional | | | Legislative | Executive | Judiciary | |---|---|---|---| | Legislative | Enacts laws | Parliamentary control, power to override veto | Power to annul laws | | Executive | Right of suspensive veto | Executes laws | Power to annul government regulations | | Judiciary | | Power of pardon and amnesty | Interprets laws | | Psychology | Ethics | Politics | |---|---|---| | Rational soul - love and knowledge of truth | Wisdom | Philosophers | | Spirited soul - love of glory, victory | Courage | Guardians, administrators, warriors | | Sensual-desirous soul - love of food, drink | Self-control | Craftsmen, merchants | | | Rule of One | Rule of Few | Rule of Many | |---|---|---|---| | Good Form | Monarchy | Aristocracy | Politeia (Constitutional Rule) | | Bad Form | Tyranny | Oligarchy | Democracy (Rule of the Mob) |

# Glossary | Term | Definition | |---|---| | Political Science | A scientific discipline dedicated to the study of politics, encompassing its theory, institutions, behavior, and international relations. | | Politics | Defined as the art of governing a state, involving the management of public affairs and the exercise of power within a political entity. | | Normative Politics | This branch of political science applies philosophical methods to political reality, incorporating value judgments to define what political interests *should* be, rather than merely describing what they are. | | Descriptive Politics | A positivistic approach that focuses on observing and detailing political phenomena, processes, and events as they actually occur, without making value judgments. | | Predictive Politics | Also known as prognostic politics, this aspect of the discipline aims to forecast future political events and trends based on the analysis of current and past political phenomena. | | State | A fundamental form of political organization for human society, uniting the inhabitants of a territory into a legal entity with independent and sovereign power. | | Nation | A group of people with a common origin, who identify with shared cultural and historical traditions, often characterized by shared language and territory. | | National State | A political formation established as the political organization of a single nation, aiming to align state borders with national identity. | | Citizenship | The status of being a member of a particular state, entailing both subjection to state laws and the enjoyment of state benefits and protections. | | Form of Government | The method by which state power is organized, differentiating between democratic systems where citizens participate and autocratic systems where power is concentrated in a narrow group or individual. | | Political Regime | The aggregate of methods used in governance, encompassing the procedures and practices through which political power is exercised and maintained. | | Unitary State | A state with a single government, unified legal system, and singular citizenship, where lower administrative units function under the direct authority of the central government. | | Federation | A compound federal state formed by the union of multiple states (e.g., countries, provinces, cantons) that maintain their own legislative systems while adhering to a unified national law, shared foreign policy, and common currency. | | Confederation | A loose contractual association of independent states that cooperate in specific areas, each retaining its own constitution and sovereignty, often serving as a transitional stage. | | Parliamentary System | A form of government characterized by the sovereignty of the legislative power and the principle of shared power, where the executive branch (government) is accountable to and supported by the parliament. | | Presidential System | A republican form of government where the executive (President) and legislative branches are elected separately, with the President holding significant power and not being directly accountable to the legislature. | | Semi-Presidential System | A hybrid system where executive power is shared between a directly elected President and a Prime Minister, who is accountable to the parliament, often leading to "cohabitation." | | Rule of Law | A legal principle where the relationship between citizens and the state is defined by law, ensuring that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable to the law. | | Mult ethnicity | The coexistence of multiple ethnic groups within a single state, often resulting from migration, leading to the presence of national minorities with distinct linguistic, cultural, and historical traditions. | | Separation of Powers | A fundamental principle of constitutional government, dividing state authority into three distinct branches: legislative, executive, and judicial, to prevent the concentration of power and ensure checks and balances. | | Checks and Balances | A system designed to ensure that each branch of government can limit the powers of the other branches, preventing any single branch from becoming too dominant. | | Suffrage | The right to vote in public, political elections. This includes active suffrage (the right to vote) and passive suffrage (the right to be elected). | | Majoritarian Electoral System | An electoral system where the candidate who receives the most votes wins, often used in single-member districts and tending to produce stable, majoritarian governments. | | Proportional Representation (PR) | An electoral system where political parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes cast for them, aiming to reflect the overall distribution of political forces more accurately. | | Political Ideology | A set of beliefs, theories, and views that form the basis of a political system or movement, offering explanations for political phenomena and guiding political action. | | Liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing individual liberty, equality, democracy, and free markets, with a focus on the rights of the individual. | | Conservatism | A political ideology that emphasizes tradition, established institutions, and gradual change, often prioritizing social order and stability. | | Socialism | A political and economic theory advocating for social ownership or control of the means of production and distribution of goods, aiming for greater social equality and justice. | | Nationalism | An ideology that promotes the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty over its homeland, often emphasizing a shared national identity. | | Fascism | A far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist political ideology characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy. | | Anarchism | A political philosophy that advocates for self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions, rejecting all forms of coercive hierarchy and centralized authority, particularly the state. | | Environmentalism | A political and ethical ideology that believes in protecting the natural environment from harm and advocating for policies that promote ecological sustainability. | | Feminism | An ideology and movement that advocates for women's rights and equality, aiming to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. | | Political Radicalism | Political attitudes or opinions favoring drastic political or social reforms, often employing extreme methods, but typically operating within the framework of the existing constitution. | | Extremism | Political attitudes or opinions held by the followers of any political party or member of a social group which differ widely from the general opinions of other people, often advocating for revolutionary change or employing violence outside constitutional norms. | | Political Philosophy | The branch of philosophy that considers the nature of politics and the state, examining concepts such as justice, liberty, rights, law, and government. | | Social Contract Theory | A theory that posits that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of a ruler or government, in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or the maintenance of social order. | | Civil Society | The aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest the interests and will of citizens, comprising a realm of organized citizen activity distinct from the state and market. | | Interest Group | A group of people who share common goals and organize to influence government policy. Unlike political parties, interest groups do not typically seek to run candidates for office themselves. | | Public Administration | The implementation of government policy. It is also the academic study of this implementation and its associated bureaucratic phenomena. | | International Organization | An organization established by treaty or other instrument governed by international law and possessing its own international legal personality. Members are usually sovereign states. | | United Nations (UN) | An intergovernmental organization founded in 1945 to promote international cooperation and maintain international peace and security. | | NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) | A military alliance established by the North Atlantic Treaty that commits the signatories to a system of collective defense whereby an attack on one is considered an attack on all. | | Council of Europe | An international organization focused on promoting democracy, human rights, and the rule of law in Europe. |