Introduction_to_Media_and_Communication_Combined.pdf

# General concepts of communication and information General concepts of communication and information Communication is a purposeful effort to establish common understanding between a source and receiver. It is the process of exchanging or sharing information, ideas, and feelings between a sender and a receiver, forming the core of human activities and interactions [1](#page=1). ## 1. Communication concept ### 1.1 Definition of communication The term "communication" originates from the Latin word "COMMUNIS," meaning common or shared. At its essence, communication is a deliberate effort to create a shared understanding between a source and a receiver. This shared element can encompass knowledge, experiences, thoughts, ideas, suggestions, opinions, or feelings [1](#page=1). A more formal definition describes communication as the process of exchanging or sharing information, ideas, and feelings between a sender and a receiver. It is fundamental to all human endeavors, as every action and inaction conveys a message. Human interaction is a direct result of communication, making it central to human life [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Purpose of communication Communication serves several key purposes: * To inform [1](#page=1). * To express feelings [1](#page=1). * To imagine [1](#page=1). * To influence [1](#page=1). * To meet social expectations [1](#page=1). These purposes are often reflected in different forms of communication, leading to functions such as information dissemination, education, entertainment, and persuasion [1](#page=1). ### 1.3 Process of communication Communication is characterized as a dynamic, recursive, ongoing, and continuous process. It involves the methods by which messages are received and stored, as well as the rules, customs, beliefs, and conventions that define and regulate human relationships and events. The communication process is cyclic, beginning with the sender and returning to the sender through feedback [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). Sambe outlines the communication process as involving action, reaction, and interaction [2](#page=2): * **Stimulation**: The sender identifies a need or receives a stimulus that prompts them to communicate [2](#page=2). * **Encoding**: The sender processes the message they wish to convey, converting thoughts, feelings, opinions, or ideas into a series of symbols, pictures, or words intended for the receiver. Ineffective or inappropriate encoding can undermine the communication's intent [2](#page=2). * **Transmission**: The message is conveyed to the receiver through a selected medium or channel, such as radio, television, newspapers, or magazines [2](#page=2). * **Reception**: The receiver obtains the message sent by the source [2](#page=2). * **Decoding**: The receiver processes, dissects, understands, and interprets the message, often in the form of feedback. This involves converting the sent message into intelligible language or comprehending its meaning [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.1 Models of communication ##### 1.3.1.1 Aristotle's communication model Aristotle developed one of the earliest models of mass communication, predating 300 B.C., which emphasized the audience's role. This model is primarily focused on public speaking rather than interpersonal communication. It comprises five core elements [2](#page=2): (i) Speaker [2](#page=2). (ii) Speech [2](#page=2). (iii) Occasion [2](#page=2). (iv) Audience [2](#page=2). (v) Effect [2](#page=2). Aristotle advised speakers to tailor their speeches to different audiences and occasions to achieve specific effects. The speaker plays a crucial role, needing to prepare and analyze audience needs, aiming to influence and persuade their thoughts [2](#page=2). > **Example:** Alexander the Great delivering a motivational speech to his soldiers before battle. > * Speaker: Alexander > * Speech: About his invasion plans > * Occasion: War field > * Audience: Soldiers > * Effect: To inspire them to defeat the Persian Empire [3](#page=3). ##### 1.3.1.2 Shannon and Weaver model of communication Developed in 1948 by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in their article "A Mathematical Theory of Communication," this model was initially designed to enhance technical communication and later broadened its application to the general field of communication. It aims to improve effective communication between senders and receivers and identifies factors affecting the process, notably "Noise" ] [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). The model includes the following concepts: * **Information source**: The originator of the message [4](#page=4). * **Transmitter (Encoder)**: Converts the message into signals suitable for transmission through a channel. For example, voice being converted into wave signals for telephone transmission [4](#page=4). * **Channel**: The medium through which signals are transmitted [4](#page=4). * **Receiver (Decoder)**: Converts the signals back into a message understandable by the recipient. This is the reverse process of encoding [4](#page=4). * **Information destination (Receiver)**: The intended recipient of the message [4](#page=4). * **Noise**: Distractions or interference that can affect the message during transmission through the channel. This can be physical noise (e.g., horn sounds, crowd noise) or issues within the transmission process itself, potentially leading to the receiver not getting the correct message. The model primarily addresses external noises [4](#page=4). ##### 1.3.1.3 Lasswell's model Harold Dwight Lasswell proposed a model that describes an act of communication by answering five questions: * **Who?** ] [5](#page=5). * **Says What?** ] [5](#page=5). * **In Which Channel?** ] [5](#page=5). * **To Whom?** ] [5](#page=5). * **With What Effect?** ] [5](#page=5). This model focuses on the process and societal functions of communication. Lasswell identified three functions of communication [5](#page=5): 1. Surveillance of the environment [5](#page=5). 2. Correlation of components of society [5](#page=5). 3. Cultural transmission between generations [5](#page=5). Lasswell's model suggests message flow in multicultural societies with diverse audiences via various channels. It is considered similar to Aristotle's model. In this framework [5](#page=5): * "Who" relates to **Control Analysis** ] [5](#page=5). * "Says What" relates to **Content Analysis** ] [5](#page=5). * "In Which Channel" relates to **Media Analysis** ] [5](#page=5). * "To Whom" relates to **Audience Analysis** ] [5](#page=5). * "With What Effect" relates to **Effect Analysis** ] [5](#page=5). ## 2. Information concept ### 2.1 Definition of information Information is defined as a fact, thought, or data conveyed or described through various communication forms, including written, oral, visual, and audio methods. It represents knowledge shared or acquired through study, instruction, investigation, or news, and is communicated verbally, nonverbally, visually, or through the written word. Information can also be referred to as intelligence, messages, data, signals, or facts. Understanding the type of information needed and how to share it can enhance efficiency, organization, and best practices for dissemination [3](#page=3). ### 2.2 Distinguishing communication and information While interconnected, communication and information have distinct differences [8](#page=8): * **Purpose:** Information aims to publicize data, news, or enhance knowledge. Communication extends beyond transmitting messages to fostering interaction and shared understanding [8](#page=8). * **Nature:** Communication is a fundamental human need for conveying emotions, thoughts, or doubts to reach agreements. Information provides knowledge and data to foster critical thinking on certain topics [8](#page=8). * **Accuracy and Timeliness:** Information should ideally be up-to-date and truthful when released publicly. Communication, however, can encompass all types of issues, regardless of their novelty [8](#page=8). * **Interaction:** Communication is a process requiring constant human interaction between two or more people. Information does not necessitate immediate interaction [8](#page=8). * **Influence:** Information is intended to influence public opinions and behavior. Communication improves social relationships by establishing norms, rules, and agreements for balanced living [8](#page=8). * **Modernity vs. Social Aspect:** Information is often considered a modern concept linked to new technologies (press, radio, TV), making it a technological phenomenon. Communication has a social meaning tied to interaction, making it a social phenomenon [8](#page=8). * **Scope and Goals:** The goals of information are often limited and aligned with technological means. Communication goals are multiple and vary based on the multiplicity of means [8](#page=8). * **Relationship:** Communication is a broader concept than information as a technological phenomenon; information is a component within communication, being contained and included by it [8](#page=8). * **Feedback:** Communication requires interaction between sender and receiver, termed feedback. Information does not mandate this momentary interaction [8](#page=8). > **Tip:** When differentiating communication and information, consider whether the primary goal is simply to impart data (information) or to create a shared understanding and interaction (communication). ### 2.3 Characteristics of mass communication (related to information dissemination) Although not strictly a part of the core "information concept" definition, the document lists characteristics of mass communication that influence how information is perceived and consumed [8](#page=8): * **Rapid:** Messages are delivered quickly to audiences [8](#page=8). * **Mass audience:** Receivers are large in number, potentially in the millions [8](#page=8). * **Transient:** The experience of mass communication is temporary, intended for immediate consumption [8](#page=8). --- # Levels and models of communication This section explores the different scales at which communication occurs, from internal thought processes to mass dissemination, and examines foundational models used to understand the communication process. ### 2.1 Levels of communication Communication can be categorized into several types based on the social groups involved and the technical means used to facilitate it, ranging from intrapersonal to mass communication [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.1 Intrapersonal communication Intrapersonal communication occurs within an individual, where the person acts as both the source and the receiver. This involves an individual's internal use of language or thought, encompassing reflection, contemplation, meditation, inner monologues, and self-reflection. The ability to think and talk to oneself is a significant aspect of human consciousness. Communication with a divine entity may be referred to as trans-personal communication [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.2 Interpersonal communication Interpersonal communication encompasses any verbal or nonverbal form of communication between two or more people. It frequently occurs between interdependent individuals who have some existing knowledge of each other, such as family members, colleagues, or friends. However, it can also occur with strangers, like conversations with a shopkeeper or during an interview. Characterized by its immediacy, interpersonal communication has a strong feedback component and is considered highly effective due to its personal, direct, and intimate nature, allowing for maximum interaction through words, gestures, and expressions. While often between two individuals, it can extend to small, intimate groups like families. Interpersonal communication can take place face-to-face or through platforms like social media [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.3 Group communication Group communication involves a process where many people share a commonality. Examples include families, friendship circles, work teams, committees, and sports teams. Groups are larger than interpersonal relationships but smaller than crowds or organizations, typically comprising around five to twenty members. People form groups to achieve shared goals and collaborate on tasks. Unlike crowds, which disperse after an event, groups remain intact. As group size increases, communication tends to become more monologue-like, reducing participation compared to interpersonal communication. The degree of openness in group communication is influenced by the group's size, meeting location, and member relationships. Feedback in group communication is often provided but is more challenging to measure and respond to than in interpersonal relationships. Groups are significant because they shape how individuals perceive and understand the world [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.4 Public communication Public communication occurs when a group becomes too large for all members to actively contribute, with a few individuals addressing a larger audience. A key characteristic is the unequal distribution of speaking time. Feedback in public communication is typically general in tone and may be non-existent. When feedback is present, it usually conveys attitudes towards the speech or speaker, with a few individuals offering verbal remarks while the majority remain as an audience. Speakers may aim to inform, persuade, motivate, or entertain. Forms of public communication include public speaking events, newspaper editorials, and billboard advertisements [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.5 Mass communication Mass communication is the process of disseminating information, ideas, and attitudes to a large and diverse audience through media channels such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, websites, and social media networks. This process is more complex than face-to-face communication, addressed to a vast audience. The concept of mass communication is continually evolving, particularly with rapid advancements in media technology, and the digital revolution is redefining its characteristics [7](#page=7). Key characteristics distinguish mass communication from other forms [7](#page=7): * **Mass medium:** The presence of mass media like newspapers, radio, television, magazines, books, websites, and social media networks is essential, enabling the same message to reach globally [7](#page=7). * **Anonymous:** Participants (senders and receivers) in mass communication are typically unknown to each other, and messages are not usually directed to specific individuals [7](#page=7). * **Delayed feedback:** In contrast to the instant feedback in interpersonal communication, mass communication feedback is slow, with social media being a notable exception [7](#page=7). * **Gatekeeping:** Mass communicators, such as reporters and editors, perform a gatekeeping function, controlling the flow of information by limiting, expanding, or reorganizing it [7](#page=7). * **Limited sensory channels:** While face-to-face communication involves multiple senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell), mass communication is often limited to reading, hearing, and seeing, depending on the communicator's choices [7](#page=7). * **Universal access:** Mass communication experiences are public and generally accessible to everyone, regardless of color, race, sex, or other differences [7](#page=7). ### 2.2 Models of communication Several models have been developed to explain the process and components of communication. #### 2.2.1 Aristotle's communication model Aristotle, a philosopher, developed one of the earliest models of mass communication, proposed before 300 B.C.. His model highlighted the importance of the audience's role in the communication chain and is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal communication [2](#page=2). The model consists of five core elements: 1. Speaker 2. Speech 3. Occasion 4. Audience 5. Effect Aristotle advised speakers to tailor their speeches to different audiences on various occasions for specific effects. The speaker is crucial in public speaking, needing to prepare their speech and analyze audience needs beforehand to influence and persuade their audience [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). > **Example:** Alexander delivering a brave speech to his soldiers on the battlefield to motivate them to defeat the Persian Empire. > * Speaker: Alexander > * Speech: About his invasion > * Occasion: War field > * Audience: Soldiers > * Effect: To defeat Persia [3](#page=3). #### 2.2.2 Shannon and Weaver model of communication Developed by Claude Shannon, an American mathematician, and Warren Weaver, an American scientist, this model was first published in an article titled "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the "Bell System Technical Journal" in 1948. It is also known as the Shannon-Weaver model. Initially designed to improve technical communication, it was later broadly applied to the field of communication. The model aims to ensure effective communication between a sender and receiver and identifies factors that can affect the communication process, notably "Noise" [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). The model comprises several concepts: * **Information source (Sender):** The originator of the message or information [4](#page=4). * **Encoder (Transmitter):** Converts the message into signals suitable for transmission through a channel. For instance, in a telephone, voice is converted into wave signals transmitted through cables [4](#page=4). * **Channel:** The medium through which signals are transmitted from the encoder to the decoder [4](#page=4). * **Noise:** Interference that can affect the message during transmission, either physical (e.g., horn sounds, thunder) or related to signal distortion. The model primarily addresses external noises that impact messages or signals from external sources. Network problems affecting mobile phone communication are an example [4](#page=4). * **Decoder:** Receives the signals and converts them back into a message. This is the reverse process of encoding. The receiver needs to understand these signals; otherwise, the effective communication flow can be disrupted [4](#page=4). * **Receiver (Information destination):** The intended recipient of the message. Based on the decoded message, the receiver provides feedback to the sender [4](#page=4). > **Tip:** The Shannon-Weaver model is often described as linear, but the inclusion of feedback (though implicit in the decoding stage leading to reaction) hints at a more cyclical process. #### 2.2.3 Lasswell's model Harold Dwight Lasswell, an American political scientist, proposed a model that describes an act of communication by answering five key questions: 1. **Who?** (Refers to Control Analysis) 2. **Says What?** (Refers to Content Analysis) 3. **In Which Channel?** (Refers to Media Analysis) 4. **To Whom?** (Refers to Audience Analysis) 5. **With What Effect?** (Refers to Effect Analysis) [5](#page=5). This model focuses on the process and societal functions of communication. Lasswell identified three functions of communication for society: surveillance of the environment, correlation of components of society, and cultural transmission between generations. The Lasswell model suggests message flow in a multicultural society with multiple audiences through various channels and shares similarities with Aristotle's model [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** Lasswell's model is useful for analyzing communication campaigns and understanding the different research areas associated with each component. #### 2.2.4 Communication as a cyclic process Some perspectives view communication as a cyclic process that begins and ends with the sender through feedback. Sambe suggested the communication process involves action, reaction, and interaction [2](#page=2). The stages in this cyclic view include: * **Stimulation:** The sender perceives a need to communicate, triggered by a stimulus [2](#page=2). * **Encoding:** The sender processes the message, translating thoughts, feelings, opinions, or ideas into a series of symbols, pictures, or words. Incorrect encoding can undermine the communication's intent [2](#page=2). * **Transmission:** The message is conveyed to the receiver via a chosen medium or channel, such as radio, television, or newspapers [2](#page=2). * **Reception:** The receiver obtains the message sent by the source [2](#page=2). * **Decoding:** The receiver processes, dissects, understands, and interprets the message to form feedback. This involves comprehending the message in the best possible way [2](#page=2). --- # The history and institutionalization of media and communication studies This topic traces the development of communication and media studies as an academic field, highlighting key figures and periods from the pre-institutionalization era to its formal establishment. ### 3.1 The pre-institutionalization era (1870–1939) In the late 19th century, newspapers and the concept of "communication" began to be subjects of sustained scholarly inquiry, primarily within the disciplines of political economy and sociology. Significant early work emerged from Germany, France, and the United States. Two influential threads of research developed: one from the study of transportation systems, and another from concerns regarding publics, masses, and community [12](#page=12). The period of World War I and the Russian Revolution brought a heightened international focus to propaganda, which was extensively utilized by all major belligerents. In the US, political scientists such as Harold Lasswell conducted seminal scholarly research on propaganda. Concurrently, Rudolf Arnheim transitioned from studying Gestalt psychology with Kurt Lewin at the University of Berlin to publishing influential works on film and radio. Kurt Lewin's emigration to the US in 1933 marked a pivotal moment, as he laid the groundwork for group communications research at the Universities of Iowa and MIT over the following decade [13](#page=13). Paul Lazarsfeld, an émigré from Austria, played a crucial role in developing methodologically sophisticated objectivist approaches to mass communication. Having studied and worked at the University of Vienna, he conducted what is considered one of the earliest scientific surveys of radio listeners and advised on the first Austrian dissertation concerning radio [14](#page=14). ### 3.2 Communication and media research institutionalized (1940–1968) World War II significantly contributed to the establishment of international frameworks for communications research. Many prominent researchers in propaganda and mass communication in the US joined the war effort, working for agencies like the Office of War Information (OWI). These experiences helped solidify social networks and refine research methodologies, including content analysis, focused interviews, survey research, and laboratory-based experimentation [15](#page=15). The field of communication began to solidify its institutional presence through the creation of dedicated institutes, programs, and departments. Wilbur Schramm was a pivotal figure in this institutionalization. Drawing inspiration from Paul Lazarsfeld's work, Schramm established the Institute of Communications Research at the University of Illinois in 1948. His influence extended through editing communications readers, training graduate students, and fostering wide-ranging international contacts. During this period, Jürgen Habermas conducted a public opinion study on student attitudes in 1961, preceding the publication of his highly influential critical-historical work, "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" [16](#page=16). #### 3.2.1 Key figures in mass communication theory The following individuals are recognized as foundational figures in mass communication theory, whose contributions continue to be studied and influential: * **Harold Lasswell** (1901–1961) [17](#page=17). * **Kurt Lewin** (1890–1947) [17](#page=17). * **Paul Lazarsfeld** (1901–1976) [17](#page=17). * **Carl Hovland** (1912–1961) [17](#page=17). These scholars each made significant contributions to the development of future researchers and the field of communication studies, and their research methods remain an important part of the curriculum today [17](#page=17). --- # Theories of the press This section outlines the foundational theories of the press that emerged in the Western world, defining how media operates within different societal and political contexts [19](#page=19). ### 4.1 The 'Original' Four Theories of the Press The initial framework for understanding media systems was established by Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm, proposing four distinct theories. These are considered 'normative' because they describe how media ideally should function within a given set of societal conditions and values. The four theories are [19](#page=19): * Authoritarian theory [20](#page=20). * Libertarian theory [20](#page=20). * Social responsibility theory [20](#page=20). * Soviet media theory [20](#page=20). These theories focus on the relationship between the press and government, particularly concerning ownership and control, rather than solely on journalistic perspectives or the public's right to information [20](#page=20). ### 4.2 Authoritarian theory The authoritarian theory of the press originated in the 16th and 17th centuries, a period characterized by a hierarchical social structure and the concept of divine right to rule. This theory is underpinned by specific philosophical assumptions about human nature, the state, the individual's relationship to the state, and the nature of knowledge [21](#page=21). #### 4.2.1 Philosophical underpinnings of authoritarianism * **The nature of man:** In this view, humans are considered inherently helpless and incapable of reaching their full potential without the guidance and intervention of the state [22](#page=22). * **The nature of the state:** The state's primary role is to facilitate human development by providing knowledge, which includes disseminating state policies, goals, and objectives [23](#page=23). * **The truth and its source:** Knowledge is viewed as exclusive, derived from divine right or the intellectual prowess of a select few. Consequently, only these chosen individuals are deemed capable of analyzing and distributing knowledge to the masses [24](#page=24). #### 4.2.2 Ownership and control Historically, monarchies employed methods such as censorship, licensing, and punishment to control the press (#page=25, 26). These methods persist in modern authoritarian systems, with jailings, exile, and even execution used to silence the media. Journalists are seen as operating under a "special privilege" granted by national leadership, obligating them to maintain good standing with the state to retain this privilege [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26). #### 4.2.3 Role and function of media The media's primary function under authoritarianism is to support the policies of the ruling class and uphold the existing status quo. This is achieved through mechanisms like state-approved press permits, censorship, and legal actions such as libel and sedition charges. The press is expected to be subordinate to established authority and avoid offending dominant moral, political, and economic values. Journalists lack independence, and their reports are subject to advance censorship, justified by the state's prerogative over individual freedom of expression, particularly during emergencies. Both dictatorial and democratic regimes can implement such controls, as seen in the enforcement of the Official Secrets Act in countries like Britain and India [26](#page=26) [27](#page=27). ### 4.3 Libertarian or free press theory Emerging in the 17th century during an era of significant scientific and geographic discoveries, the libertarian theory presented a contrasting view of human nature and the state. Philosophers like Milton, Locke, and Mill supported this perspective [29](#page=29). #### 4.3.1 Philosophical underpinnings of libertarianism * **The nature of the man:** This theory posits that humans are rational beings capable of making decisions without supernatural guidance. Individual happiness and potential are best realized on a personal, rather than national, level [30](#page=30). * **The nature of the state:** The state's role is to assist individuals in achieving their personal goals and objectives [31](#page=31). * **The truth and its source:** Knowledge is not considered exclusive but a God-given right for every individual. People are expected to understand their surroundings through their own efforts. This leads to the belief that truth will emerge from the free competition of ideas in open public discourse, creating a "free marketplace of ideas" (#page=32, 35) [32](#page=32) [35](#page=35). #### 4.3.2 Government and media relationship The government is prohibited from interfering with the press's operations, granting journalists complete freedom. The press is effectively considered the "fourth estate," holding significant power [33](#page=33). #### 4.3.3 Role and function of media The media's primary role is to hold the state accountable. Additionally, it informs and entertains the public and generates revenue through advertising. Although free, journalists are restricted from defamation or disseminating obscene material. This theory is prevalent in Western countries and some others, emphasizing freedom of the press and the public's right to know (#page=35, 36). Media professionals are expected to analyze and critique government policies, acting as a watchdog [34](#page=34) [35](#page=35) [36](#page=36). > **Tip:** The concept of a "free marketplace of ideas" is central to libertarianism, where the unfettered exchange of diverse viewpoints is believed to lead to the discovery of truth (#page=32, 35) [32](#page=32) [35](#page=35). ### 4.4 Social responsibility press theory The social responsibility theory emerged in the early 20th century in the West, as the libertarian ideal of man's innate rationality proved insufficient due to the mismanagement of the press. The increasing ubiquity of media due to industrialization led to concentrated ownership, undermining the free marketplace of ideas. Furthermore, much of the press content was deemed shallow and detrimental to public morals [38](#page=38). #### 4.4.1 The context of emergence Concerns arose that the press, while free from government control, was influenced by advertisers and the business class, leading to biased reporting. The general sentiment was that the press was not fulfilling its societal obligations effectively [39](#page=39). #### 4.4.2 Role and function of media This theory redefined the media's roles, emphasizing that freedom of the press comes with corresponding obligations to society. The press is expected to perform essential communication functions, raise conflicts to the level of public discussion, adhere to a code of ethics, and self-regulate [40](#page=40). #### 4.4.3 Nature of news processing Under social responsibility, the press is primarily governed by community opinion and ethics. Journalists are expected to produce pluralistic and investigative reports that reflect society's dynamics, rather than simply being objective reporters. The press cannot violate individual rights, such as privacy, in pursuit of a story. Reports should be comprehensive and objective, without bias towards advertisers or politicians [41](#page=41) [42](#page=42). ### 4.5 Soviet Communist Press Theory The Soviet Communist theory of the press is deeply intertwined with Marxist ideology and traces its roots to the 1917 Russian Revolution. It builds upon Hegel's thesis/antithesis dialectic, as modified by Marx to represent class struggle. The ultimate goal was a society run by the proletariat, free from the dominance of the aristocracy, clergy, and the self-interested bourgeoisie [44](#page=44). #### 4.5.1 Philosophical underpinnings and postulates This theory was perfected in the former USSR and persists in modified forms in countries like China, Cuba, and North Korea. The media's primary purpose was to support the success and continuation of the socialist movement. The state acts as the custodian of the press until a classless society is achieved, at which point the media is expected to be entirely state-owned. In the former USSR, surveillance ensured only state-approved information reached the public, and media access was restricted to loyal party members. Editors and senior press members were selected based on political affiliation rather than merit [45](#page=45) [46](#page=46). #### 4.5.2 Nature of society, individual, and state In the Soviet communist perspective, the needs of the individual are expected to align with those of the state. Freedom is found by working with the government for national betterment. Criticism of the ruling party is forbidden and punishable by law. These principles are still applied in one-party communist states where the press is a state-controlled tool [46](#page=46). #### 4.5.3 Role and function of media Media is envisioned as being under the control of the working class, serving their interests. Private ownership of the press is prohibited. The media must fulfill positive functions like informing, educating, motivating, and mobilizing, supporting progressive movements both domestically and internationally. While subject to ultimate state control and integrated with political life, the media is expected to be self-regulatory. It must act responsibly, evolve professional norms, and respond to people's needs and aspirations. Importantly, Soviet communist media are not subject to arbitrary interference as in authoritarian systems [47](#page=47) [48](#page=48). > **Example:** Soviet communist media often present world affairs from an ethnocentric viewpoint, criticizing capitalism and promoting communism as the sole acceptable way of life. They may omit reports on natural disasters or accidents to avoid reflecting negatively on the state and potentially prompting public questioning of its authority [49](#page=49). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Communication | The purposeful effort to establish common understanding between a source and receiver through the exchange of information, ideas, and feelings. | | Information | Facts, thoughts, or data conveyed or described through various communication methods, representing knowledge shared or obtained through study, instruction, investigation, or news. | | Media | All means of communication that serve functions such as informing, raising awareness, education, socialization, entertainment, and agenda setting, encompassing all forms of oral, written, and visual images. | | Intrapersonal Communication | Communication that takes place within an individual, where the individual acts as both the source and receiver, involving internal use of language or thought, reflection, and contemplation. | | Interpersonal Communication | Communication, verbal or nonverbal, between two or more people, often characterized by immediacy, a strong feedback component, and personal, direct interaction. | | Group Communication | A communication process involving multiple people who share a commonality, working together towards common goals, and where communication tends to become more of a monologue as the group size increases. | | Public Communication | Communication that occurs when a group becomes too large for all members to contribute, with a few individuals addressing a public audience who remain largely passive listeners. | | Mass Communication | The process of delivering information, ideas, and attitudes to a large and diverse audience through specialized media like newspapers, radio, television, and the internet. | | Aristotle’s Model of Communication | An early mass communication model focused on public speaking, consisting of five elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience, and Effect. | | Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication | A model developed to improve technical communication, introducing concepts like Information Source, Transmitter, Noise, Channel, Message, Receiver, and Information Destination. | | Noise (in communication) | Distractions or interference that affect the messages or signals during the communication process, originating from external sources or transmission issues. | | Lasswell’s Model of Communication | A model describing an act of communication by answering five questions: Who, Says What, In Which Channel, To Whom, and With What Effect. It also outlines three functions of communication: surveillance of the environment, correlation of societal components, and cultural transmission. | | Rumour | An unverified piece of information that is not necessarily false and may turn out to be true, or false information spread with an intent to mislead for political or financial gain. | | Propaganda | The art of influencing, manipulating, controlling, promoting, changing, inducing, or securing the acceptance of opinions, attitudes, actions, or behaviors. | | Disinformation | Deliberately deceptive information spread with a predefined intention to mislead. | | Misinformation | Information that becomes false inadvertently due to an honest mistake, carelessness, or cognitive bias. | | Advertising | A paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of goods, services, or ideas by an identified sponsor, aimed at a target audience to persuade, remind, create demand, or build brand loyalty. | | Authoritarian Theory (of the press) | A theory where the press is controlled by the state, expected to support ruling class policies and maintain the status quo, with journalists lacking independence and freedom due to strict censorship. | | Libertarian Theory (of the press) | A theory that emerged in the 17th century, advocating for the press's freedom from government interference, with the belief that truth emerges from the competition of ideas in open discourse, and the press acting as a watchdog. | | Social Responsibility Theory (of the press) | A theory that posits the press has freedom but also obligations to society, expected to be responsible for carrying out essential functions, adhering to a code of ethics, and self-regulating. | | Soviet Communist Press Theory | A theory tied to communist ideology, where the media is an instrument of the state, contributing to the success of the socialist movement and serving the proletariat, with private ownership ruled out. |