25-26 ENG Language System B 1 - new course (1).pdf

# Overview of language system courses This section introduces the fundamental components and objectives of the Language System A and B courses, designed to equip future English teachers with advanced language knowledge and pedagogical skills. ### 1.1 The building blocks of the TEFL course Future English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers require a higher level of English proficiency than that taught for general purposes (E.G.P.) in secondary education. This specialized knowledge, termed English for Specific Purposes (E.S.P.), extends to both cultural understanding and language education. Cultural knowledge, encompassing the customs and societies of native English speakers from various countries (e.g., American, Australian, Canadian, Indian English), is crucial for successful communication and teaching [4](#page=4). Language education requires trainees to possess an extensive vocabulary, near-perfect pronunciation, a strong sense of sentence rhythm, lively intonation, and correct grammar. The teacher serves as a role model, and their English should be practically flawless when addressing a class. The Language System (grammar, vocabulary, phonetics) and Proficiency (skills) courses aim to enhance trainees' meta-knowledge and skills. A third pillar is 'Didactics' or 'Krachtig Leren,' which focuses on effectively transferring knowledge and competencies to pupils at lower proficiency levels [4](#page=4). ### 1.2 Two language system courses The first-year Language System course focuses on the three core components of any language: grammar, language acquisition (vocabulary), and phonetics (the English sound system). The primary goal is to gain insight into the rules of the English language system through extensive knowledge of its grammar and sound system, alongside vocabulary expansion [5](#page=5). The Language System course is divided into two parts: Language System A and Language System B [5](#page=5). #### 1.2.1 Language System A: In-depth grammatical training This course builds upon the grammar knowledge acquired from Flemish secondary education. It revisits the main parts of a simple sentence – verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs – and examines their interaction in formal and informal, written and spoken English. The main emphasis is on developing the student's ability to use specific grammatical structures at an advanced level [5](#page=5). #### 1.2.2 Language System B: Transferring elementary grammar to the classroom This course moves beyond being mere language users to delve into the teacher's meta-knowledge. For grammar, it involves a deeper examination of topics taught in the initial years of English instruction and the ability to explain the rationale behind grammatical choices. The course progresses in three stages: first, refreshing the student's own elementary grammar knowledge; second, mastering the rules and using the correct metalanguage; and finally, integrating this knowledge into modern and varied lesson ideas [5](#page=5). --- # Grammatical components of language system B1 This section of the Language System B1 course focuses on building a strong foundation in English grammar, essential for EFL teachers, and extends to idiomatic language use and spelling. ### 2.1 Elementary grammar A core component of the Language System B1 is the mastery of elementary grammar topics taught in the first four years of English education. As an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher, it is crucial to possess accurate knowledge of these grammatical structures to avoid errors that could undermine both teaching expertise and classroom authority. Consequently, exercises related to this area will be assessed with greater strictness, including a more demanding passing grade. Learning in this area is primarily through self-tuition, with assessments on a written exam in June. The evaluation will emphasize accuracy, completeness, and the ability to clearly explain grammatical rules at a secondary school level, a skill that has historically been challenging for teacher trainees. Effectively simplifying complex grammatical knowledge for pupils, selecting only relevant information, and presenting it in a structured, clear manner is a significant aspect of teacher training [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** Focus on not just understanding grammar rules, but also on how to effectively communicate them to younger learners. ### 2.2 The English tense system active/passive This section delves into the comprehensive English tense system, covering affirmative, negative, and question forms across present, past, and future tenses, in both active and passive voice. Additionally, it includes essential grammatical categories such as personal and possessive pronouns, articles, singular versus plural nouns, determiners and quantifiers, and adjectives. Familiarization with these grammatical items is achieved through a blend of self-tuition, lecture sessions, and blended learning, utilizing the Grammar Guide. A thorough understanding of these elements is vital preparation for teaching practice, as some may be assigned as lesson subjects [7](#page=7). ### 2.3 Tense analysis Beyond grammatical accuracy, teachers must be able to articulate the rationale behind correct and incorrect grammar usage. Tense analysis involves examining authentic texts to understand an author's specific choices regarding tense selection. This includes identifying the tense used, exploring its potential meanings, and determining the most contextually appropriate explanation [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** When analyzing texts, consider the author's intent and the overall message they are trying to convey through their tense choices. At the end of the course, students will be required to create a 'Tense Overview Grid' to consolidate their learning [8](#page=8). ### 2.4 Vocabulary In the realm of language acquisition, the focus shifts from purely literal word meanings to the richer domain of idiomatic phrases, expressions, and proverbs in English [8](#page=8). ### 2.5 Spelling Developing a strong command of spelling is paramount for an English teacher. This section addresses common spelling pitfalls, with a particular emphasis on British spelling conventions. Trainee teachers are expected to be capable of identifying and correcting spelling errors in authentic textual materials [8](#page=8). --- # Detailed exploration of English tenses The English tense system is comprised of time and aspect, with three recognized times (past, present, future) and three aspects (simple, continuous, perfect), which combine to express a wide range of meanings and speaker perceptions [10](#page=10). ### 7.1 Aspects of verbs An aspect adds extra information to a verb's meaning, reflecting the speaker's perspective on an action or state [10](#page=10). #### 7.1.1 Simple aspect The simple aspect primarily affects the verb's form without altering its core meaning. It is used for [10](#page=10): * **Long-term general truths:** e.g., "I like studying English" [10](#page=10). * **Instantaneous actions:** e.g., "I walked through the town" [10](#page=10). * **Habitual actions:** e.g., "It barks all night when the moon is up" [10](#page=10). #### 7.1.2 Continuous (progressive) aspect The continuous aspect is formed with a form of "be" + verb-ING. It portrays events as in progress, temporary, or unfinished, giving them duration. Uses include [10](#page=10): * **At the moment of speaking:** e.g., "I am dancing" [10](#page=10). * **Around a certain time:** e.g., "This week I'm staying with my parents" [11](#page=11). * **Simultaneous with another action:** e.g., "He was eating chips and watching TV when the phone rang" [11](#page=11). > **Tip:** The continuous aspect stretches events by giving them duration, contrasting with the simple aspect's focus on completion or fact [10](#page=10). #### 7.1.3 Perfect aspect The perfect aspect is formed with a version of "have" + past participle. It focuses on connecting events or actions from two different time periods. Types include [11](#page=11): * **Present Perfect:** Links past to present [11](#page=11). * **Past Perfect:** Links one past time to another past time [11](#page=11). * **Future Perfect:** Links present to future [11](#page=11). Perfect aspects can describe: * **States:** e.g., "I’ve loved you since I first met you" [11](#page=11). * **Actions:** e.g., "I have eaten" [11](#page=11). * **Habits:** e.g., "My father had started work at 9 o’clock every day for the last 20 years" [11](#page=11). #### 7.1.4 Perfect continuous aspect This aspect combines the forms of the perfect and continuous aspects (have + been + verb-ING). It emphasizes actions or events with duration that are relevant to more than one time period. Examples include [11](#page=11): * "I have been working here for 6 years" [11](#page=11). * "I had been studying hard all that week" [11](#page=11). * "I will have been studying English for 10 years by my next birthday" [11](#page=11). ### 7.2 English tense system overview (active voice) The following table summarizes the active voice tenses, combining time and aspect [12](#page=12): | | **NON-PERFECT SIMPLE** | **NON-PERFECT PROGRESSIVE** | **PERFECT SIMPLE** | **PERFECT PROGRESSIVE** | | :---------- | :----------------------------------- | :----------------------------------- | :------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------- | | **PRESENT** | I work 6 days a week. | I am working as a waiter at the moment. | I have worked hard my entire life. | I have been working as a teacher for 31 years. | | **PAST** | I worked 6 days a week when I was younger. | I was working as a waiter then. | I had worked for that company for 50 years and they still fired me. | I had been working as a waiter when I finally got my teaching degree. | | **FUTURE** | I will work 6 days a week when I get this new job. | I will be working as a waiter then. | I will have worked 50 years next summer. | I will have been working for this company for 50 years next summer. | ### 7.3 English tense system overview (passive voice) The following table summarizes the passive voice tenses, combining time and aspect [13](#page=13): | | **NON-PERFECT SIMPLE** | **NON-PERFECT PROGRESSIVE** | **PERFECT SIMPLE** | **PERFECT PROGRESSIVE** | | :---------- | :---------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------- | :---------------------- | | **PRESENT** | She is brought to school every day. | She is being brought to school as we speak. | She has been brought to school and now she’s sat in class. | N/A | | **PAST** | She was brought to school every weekday. | She was being brought to school when the accident happened. | She’d been brought to school before the thunderstorm broke loose. | N/A | | **FUTURE** | She will be brought to school as soon as she’s old enough. | N/A | She will have been brought to school by the time I’m expected at the doctor’s. | N/A | ### 8 Present tenses Present tenses are used to discuss actions, states, or events occurring in the present. Understanding specific metalanguage related to verb forms and sentence structures is crucial for mastering these tenses [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). #### 8.1 Metalanguage Key terms for understanding present tenses include: * **Bevestigende zin / Affirmative statement:** A positive statement [14](#page=14). * **Ontkennende zin / Negative statement:** A statement expressing negation [14](#page=14). * **Vragen / Questions:** Inquiries about information [14](#page=14). * **Antwoorden / Answers:** Responses to questions [14](#page=14). * **Kort antwoord / Short answer:** A brief response [14](#page=14). * **De infinitiefvorm / Infinitive form:** The base form of a verb [14](#page=14). * **Een klinker / A vowel:** A speech sound made with the mouth open [15](#page=15). * **Een medeklinker / A consonant:** A speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air [15](#page=15). * **Een lettergreep / A syllable:** A unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants [15](#page=15). * **Benadrukken / To stress:** To emphasize [15](#page=15). * **Een sisklank / A sibilant:** A hissing sound [15](#page=15). * **Een werkwoord / A verb:** A word describing an action, state, or occurrence [15](#page=15). * **Regelmatig werkwoord / Regular verb:** A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding -ed [15](#page=15). * **Onregelmatig werkwoord / Irregular verb:** A verb whose past tense and past participle are formed irregularly [15](#page=15). * **Verdubbelen / To double:** To make something twice as much or as many [15](#page=15). * **Een staat van zijn / A state of being:** A condition of existence [15](#page=15). * **Een karaktereigenschap / A character trait:** A quality that makes someone or something distinctive [15](#page=15). * **Routine, hobby, gewoonte / Routine, hobby, habit:** Recurring activities [15](#page=15). * **Een algemene waarheid / A general truth:** A fact that is universally or widely accepted as true [16](#page=16). * **Een beroep / A profession:** A paid occupation, especially one that involves prolonged training and a formal qualification [16](#page=16). * **Een opinie / An opinion:** A view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily based on fact or knowledge [16](#page=16). * **Historisch heden / Historical present:** The use of the present tense when narrating past events [16](#page=16). * **Een dienstregeling / A timetable:** A schedule of events or journeys [16](#page=16). #### 8.2 Rules on form and use Detailed rules for the formation and usage of present tenses can be found in grammar guides [16](#page=16). #### 8.3 Exercises Practice exercises for present tenses are available in online portfolios and student-levelled materials [16](#page=16). ### 9 Past tenses Past tenses are used to describe events, actions, or states that occurred and were completed in the past [18](#page=18) [20](#page=20). #### 9.1 Recap exercise present tenses Exercises are provided to correct sentences that may misuse present tenses, requiring identification of the tense used, the correct tense, and explanations for their application [18](#page=18). #### 9.2 Past simple tense The past simple tense is used to talk about completed actions or states in the past. It is formed using regular or irregular verb forms [20](#page=20) [22](#page=22). ##### 9.2.1 Regular verbs FORM Regular verbs form their past simple and past participle by adding "-ed". Spelling rules for adding "-ed" need to be completed [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). ##### 9.2.2 Irregular verbs Irregular verbs have unique forms for the past simple and past participle that must be memorized [20](#page=20) [22](#page=22). ##### 9.2.3 USE The past simple tense is situated on a timeline to indicate completed past actions. It is used for [22](#page=22): * Talking about completed events or states in the past [22](#page=22). * Expressing habitual actions in the past [22](#page=22). #### 9.3 Past continuous/progressive tense The past continuous tense describes an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past [24](#page=24). ##### 9.3.1 FORM The past continuous is formed with a form of "was/were" + verb-ING. Spelling rules for this formation need to be completed [23](#page=23) [24](#page=24). ##### 9.3.2 USE The past continuous is used for: * Describing an ongoing action that was interrupted by another past action [25](#page=25). * Describing two or more actions happening simultaneously in the past [25](#page=25). * Describing the background setting for a story or event [25](#page=25). > **Tip:** The past continuous often sets the scene or provides context for a past simple event [25](#page=25). #### 9.4 Exercises Practice exercises are available for the past simple and past continuous tenses, including student-levelled and pupil-levelled design tasks [26](#page=26). ### 10 Perfect tenses Perfect tenses connect past events with another point in time, either the present or another point in the past [11](#page=11) [27](#page=27). #### 10.1 Blended learning route – Present Perfect Tense Learning modules are available for the present perfect tense [27](#page=27). #### 10.2 Recap exercise present perfect tenses Exercises involve correcting sentences and identifying the correct usage of the present perfect tense, with explanations provided for why a particular tense should be used or was used incorrectly [27](#page=27) [28](#page=28) [29](#page=29). #### 10.3 Past perfect tense - exercise Videos and transcripts are available for practicing the past perfect tense, which involves highlighting different tenses within a text [30](#page=30). > **Tip:** The past perfect is crucial for indicating the sequence of events when discussing multiple past occurrences [30](#page=30). Phrases often followed by the past perfect include: "thought," "told (reported speech)," "said (reported speech)," "I didn’t know," "I realised," "I was under the impression," and "I noticed" [31](#page=31) [32](#page=32). The past perfect is also used to discuss things that were wanted but not done, representing unrealized dreams or past regrets, often with verbs like "hope," "want," "expect," "mean," and "think about" [32](#page=32). ### 11 Future tenses Future tenses are used to express predictions, intentions, and planned events in the future [34](#page=34). #### 11.1 Exercise – Future Simple, to be going to, present simple, present continuous This exercise focuses on distinguishing between various future-expressing forms, including the future simple ("will"), "to be going to," present simple, and present continuous, analyzing their usage in different contexts [34](#page=34) [35](#page=35). #### 11.2 Exercise on Future Perfect Simple tense This exercise requires completing sentences using the future perfect tense, which describes an action that will be completed before a specific point in the future [35](#page=35). #### 11.3 Exercise on Future Perfect Continuous tense This exercise focuses on the future perfect continuous tense, which describes an action that will have been ongoing for a period of time up to a specific point in the future [36](#page=36). #### 11.4 Exercise on Future Perfect Continuous & Future Perfect Simple This exercise combines practice for both the future perfect continuous and future perfect simple tenses, highlighting their distinct uses in expressing future accomplishments and durations [36](#page=36). #### 11.5 Mixed exercise – Use all tenses expressing ideas about the future This comprehensive exercise requires applying various tenses to express different future ideas, including planned actions, predictions, and ongoing future events [37](#page=37) [38](#page=38). --- # The passive voice in English grammar The passive voice is a grammatical construction where the subject of a sentence receives the action of the verb, rather than performing it [39](#page=39). ### 4.1 Formation and usage of the passive voice The passive voice is formed using a form of the auxiliary verb "to be" followed by the past participle (PP) of the main verb. The active voice structure (Subject + Verb + Object) is transformed into the passive voice structure (Object + "to be" + Past Participle + by + Subject) [39](#page=39). #### 4.1.1 Passive voice in different tenses The passive voice can be used in various tenses, with the auxiliary verb "to be" changing to match the tense of the original active sentence [39](#page=39). * **Present Simple:** Active: "They sell ice cream here." Passive: "Ice cream is sold here." [39](#page=39). * **Present Continuous:** Active: "Someone is washing my car at the moment." Passive: "My car is being washed at the moment." [39](#page=39). * **Present Perfect Simple:** Active: "They have repaired my bike." Passive: "My bike has been repaired." [39](#page=39). * **Past Simple:** Active: "They sold a car yesterday." Passive: "A car was sold yesterday." [39](#page=39). * **Past Continuous:** Active: "He was painting my bedroom then." Passive: "My bedroom was being painted then." [39](#page=39). * **Past Perfect Simple:** Active: "Somebody had left an envelope on the table." Passive: "An envelope had been left on the table." [40](#page=40). * **Future Simple:** Active: "They will send an e-mail." Passive: "An e-mail will be sent." [40](#page=40). * **Future (going to):** Active: "Somebody is going to call Peter." Passive: "Peter is going to be called." [40](#page=40). > **Tip:** When converting from active to passive, the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. The subject of the active sentence can be omitted in the passive sentence or introduced with the preposition "by" [39](#page=39). #### 4.1.2 Matching formations to tenses The following chart matches passive voice formations with their corresponding tenses: * **Present Continuous:** was + PP / were + PP (Incorrectly matched in document, should be: is being + PP / are being + PP) [40](#page=40). * **Future going to:** is going to be + PP / are going to be + PP [40](#page=40). * **Present Simple:** is + PP / are + PP [40](#page=40). * **Past Simple:** was + PP / were + PP [40](#page=40). * **Present Perfect Simple:** has been + PP / have been + PP [40](#page=40). * **Past Continuous:** was being + PP / were being + PP [40](#page=40). * **Past Perfect Simple:** had been + PP [40](#page=40). * **Future Simple:** will be + PP [40](#page=40). > **Note:** The document presents a matching exercise where one tense's formation appears to be misaligned in the initial list. The correct formations are listed above based on standard English grammar. ### 4.2 Exercises on the passive voice This section provides various exercises to practice the formation and use of the passive voice [41-45](#page=41-45). #### 4.2.1 Make passive sentences These exercises require converting active sentences or phrases into passive ones, specifying the tense to be used [41](#page=41). * A Roman pavement **was found** under Oxford Street. (just find: pres.perf.) [41](#page=41). * Chinese **is spoken** in Singapore. (speak: present simple) [41](#page=41). * The Taj Mahal **was built** around 1640. (build – past simple) [41](#page=41). * The new hospital **will be opened** next year. (open – future simple) [41](#page=41). * She **is being interviewed** now. (interview – present progressive) [41](#page=41). * I realised I **was being watched**. (watch – past progressive) [41](#page=41). * Who **has been invited** to Andy’s party?. (invite – present perfect) [41](#page=41). * He found that all his money **had been stolen**. (steal – past perfect) [41](#page=41). * Passengers **are asked** not to speak to the driver. (ask – present simple) [41](#page=41). * The village church **was destroyed** in a fire last year. (destroy – past simple) [41](#page=41). * You **will be examined** by Dr. Capel. (examine – future simple) [41](#page=41). #### 4.2.2 Put in present progressive or past progressive verbs These exercises focus on using the passive progressive forms (present and past) [41](#page=41). * ‘Is my car ready’?‘ It **is being repaired** now.’. (repair) [41](#page=41). * I kept looking round, because I thought I **was being followed**. (follow) [41](#page=41). * We had to keep very quiet while the students **were being examined**. (examine) [41](#page=41). * I can’t use my office this weekend because it **is being painted**. (painted) [41](#page=41). * ‘Where’s Polly?’ ‘She **is being interviewed** for a new job.’. (interview) [41](#page=41). * They say they’ll put things right, but nothing **is being done**. (do) [41](#page=41). * I had to wait for a few minutes while the papers **were being translated**. (translate) [41](#page=41). * Why do I always feel nervous while my passport **is being checked**?. (check) [41](#page=41). #### 4.2.3 Circle the best way to continue This exercise involves choosing between active and passive constructions to logically continue a sentence [42](#page=42). * This ice cream has a very unusual taste. * b) I think it’s made with coconut milk. (passive) [42](#page=42). * Rice is important in Cajun cooking. * b. It’s served with every meal. (passive) [42](#page=42). #### 4.2.4 Make passive sentences using specified subjects and verbs These exercises require transforming active sentences into passive ones, using provided italicized words as the new subjects and verbs [42](#page=42). * All the passengers received meal tickets. (give) * Meal tickets **were given** to all the passengers [42](#page=42). * Someone sent a bill for the repairs to Laura. (send) * A bill for the repairs **was sent** to Laura [43](#page=43). * Laura **was sent** a bill for the repairs [43](#page=43). * They did not explain all the facts to the police. (not tell) * All the facts **were not told** to the police [43](#page=43). * The police **were not told** all the facts [43](#page=43). #### 4.2.5 Complete sentences with passive verbs This exercise involves selecting appropriate passive verb phrases to complete sentences, often using prepositional phrases [43](#page=43). * The children like to be **talked to** when they’re going to sleep [43](#page=43). * I don’t like being **talked about** behind my back [43](#page=43). * The new secretary’s working very badly. He’ll have to be **spoken to** [43](#page=43). * I don’t think he came home last night. His bed hasn’t been **slept in** [43](#page=43). * That antique chair’s not really meant to be **sat on** [43](#page=43). * It’s not really our house yet. It hasn’t been **paid for** [43](#page=43). * He left for America in 1980, and he hasn’t been **heard of** since [43](#page=43). * The cat loves being **looked after** [43](#page=43). * He’s so shy: it even upsets him to be **looked at** [43](#page=43). * Please talk calmly. I don’t like being **shouted at** [43](#page=43). #### 4.2.6 Write sentences using 'want' with passive infinitives This exercise practices the construction "want + to be + past participle" [44](#page=44). * ‘Remember me’ / He **wants to be remembered** [44](#page=44). * ‘Respect me!’ / He **wants to be respected** [44](#page=44). * ‘I hope you’ll listen to me!’ / She **wants to be listened to** [44](#page=44). * ‘Don’t pay me!’ / She **wants to be paid** [44](#page=44). * ‘Please look at me!’ / He **wants to be looked at** [44](#page=44). #### 4.2.7 Write sentences using modal verbs with passive infinitives This exercise focuses on using modal verbs followed by passive infinitives (without "to") [44](#page=44). * You can’t criticise her. She **cannot be criticised** [44](#page=44). * You mustn’t fold this. **This mustn’t be folded** [44](#page=44). * You should keep this cool. **This should be kept cool** [44](#page=44). * We ought to tell Ann. **Ann ought to be told** [44](#page=44). * They may invite him. **He may be invited** [44](#page=44). * You can’t send this through the post. **This cannot be sent** through the post [44](#page=44). * You should open this immediately. **This should be opened** immediately [44](#page=44). * You mustn’t open this before Christmas. **This mustn’t be opened** before Christmas [44](#page=44). #### 4.2.8 Fill out active or passive structures This exercise requires choosing between active and passive forms in a dialogue based on context [44-45](#page=44-45). Interviewer: Your new Smartphone Z ............................................ now. (sell) * **is being sold** [44](#page=44). Steve Hobs: Yes, it does. Smartphone Z .......................................... last week (launch) * **was launched** [44](#page=44). with all the revolutionary features which ............................................... (develop) for the previous Smarthone Y. * **were developed** [44](#page=44). And two new functionalities .................................. ....................... now to generation Z. (add) * **are being added** [44](#page=44). Interviewer: Could you give us more details? Steve Hobs: There is no home button in Smartphone Z. The home screen ................................ (access) by tapping on the screen. * **is accessed** [45](#page=45). Interviewer: And the second functionality? Steve Hobs: Unlocking the device ................................. (done) with a new voice recognition system. It means that your phone can recognize your voice and it unlocks if you ask it to do so. * **is done** [45](#page=45). Interviewer: It is something like the facial recognition system in other phones. Steve Hobs: Exactly. But the voice recognition system .............................................................. (design) for Smartphone Z because your voice, unlike your face, never changes. * **was designed** [45](#page=45). Interviewer: Are you planning any other revolutionary features for the next generation of your smartphones? Steve Hobs: Next year we want to release a phone which, apart from other functions, ............................................ (use) as a microwave oven. * **will be used** [45](#page=45). Interviewer: Pardon? --- # Tense analysis and application This section focuses on analyzing the use of tenses in authentic texts from a teacher's perspective, emphasizing the reasoning behind tense choices and their explanation to pupils [46](#page=46). ### 5.1 The teacher's perspective on tense analysis As a language teacher, understanding the rationale behind an author's tense selection is crucial for effectively explaining these choices to students. This course examines authentic texts to analyze tense usage and the underlying reasons for those choices. This knowledge helps teachers become more familiar with the diverse applications of different tenses and equips them to explain why a particular tense is preferable in specific circumstances [46](#page=46). ### 5.2 Step-by-step approach to tense analysis The course provides a structured, step-by-step method for analyzing tense use in authentic texts [46](#page=46). #### 5.2.1 Step 1: Identify the tense The initial step involves identifying the tense of underlined verbs within a given text [47](#page=47) [48](#page=48). > **Tip:** As a teacher, you must know the names of the tenses and avoid making mistakes in their identification [48](#page=48). > **Tip:** Remember the basic structures for common forms: > * To be + present participle (ing-form) = Progressive form [48](#page=48). > * To have + past participle (ed-form) = Perfect form [48](#page=48). > * To be + past participle (ed-form) = Passive form (which is not a tense) [48](#page=48). #### 5.2.2 Step 2: Match explanations to tense choices Following tense identification, the next step is to match the verbs with the most appropriate explanations for the author's choice of tense in that specific context. This involves referring to resources like the OEGC (presumably an "Oxford English Grammar Course" or similar) [47](#page=47) [48](#page=48). #### 5.2.3 Step 3: Critically evaluate provided explanations This step requires identifying what is inaccurate or incomplete in pre-existing explanations for tense usage. It also involves determining which tenses these vague explanations might refer to. The goal is to be accurate and complete, addressing each aspect of the tense's function [47](#page=47) [49](#page=49). #### 5.2.4 Step 4: Provide independent explanations In this step, students read a text, name the underlined tenses, and provide their own explanations for why each particular tense was used. This reinforces the understanding of tense function and application in authentic communication [47](#page=47) [50](#page=50). #### 5.2.5 Step 5 (Optional): Explore alternative tense choices An optional, but valuable, step involves considering other tenses that might have been possible in a given sentence and how such alternatives would alter the sentence's meaning [47](#page=47). ### 5.3 Analyzing tense usage in an interview extract An example extract from a phone interview with Dame Judi Dench is used to illustrate tense analysis. The focus is on identifying changes in the interviewee's life and understanding the grammatical reasoning behind the author's tense selections [46](#page=46). **Example Analysis Points from the Judi Dench Extract:** * **"I have been working (a) harder since Michael died."** * **Tense:** Present Perfect Continuous [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** Activity started in the past, with duration up to the present, emphasizing the extended period of time, often indicated by the keyword 'since'. This highlights an ongoing situation that began after a specific past event (Michael's death) [48](#page=48). * **"You see we always made (b) sure that we made time for each other."** * **Tense:** Simple Past [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This refers to a past habit or a finished event in a finished period of time, especially when accompanied by adverbs like 'always'. It signifies a routine or a pattern of behaviour in the past [48](#page=48). * **"She and Williams had been married (c) for 30 years when he died of cancer in 2001."** * **Tense:** Past Perfect Continuous [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This tense describes a state or activity that started in the past and continued up to another event in the past. It's used here to establish the duration of their marriage *before* his death [48](#page=48). * **"He bought (d) her a single rose once a week throughout their marriage."** * **Tense:** Simple Past [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This describes a past habit or a recurring event within a finished period of time. The phrase "once a week" clearly indicates a repeated action in the past [48](#page=48). * **"No, my daughter Finty lives (e) with me, and her son ..."** * **Tense:** Present Simple [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This indicates a fact or a permanent/ongoing situation in the present. It describes her current living arrangement [48](#page=48). * **"Family, she says, has always been (f) vitally important to her..."** * **Tense:** Present Perfect [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This describes a state that started in the past and continues up to the present, potentially into the future, or it describes a state in an unfinished time frame. The emphasis is on the enduring importance of family throughout her life up to the current moment [48](#page=48). ### 5.4 Example application with different text Another short text is provided to practice identifying tenses and their explanations, involving sentences like: * "I don’t think my stepfather much minded dying." - Present Simple, indicating a current belief about a past event [1](#page=1). * "That he almost took me with him wasn’t really his fault." - Simple Past, describing a past event and its context. * "Perhaps I’d better tell you your stepfather has had a heart attack" - Present Perfect, indicating an event that happened in the past with relevance to the present [2](#page=2). * "where I went every two weeks to collect my letters." - Simple Past, describing a habitual action in the past [3](#page=3). * "The postcard had lain there unread for approximately ten days." - Past Perfect, indicating an action or state that occurred before another past event (being read) [4](#page=4) [50](#page=50). --- # Spelling pitfalls and common confusions This section addresses frequent spelling errors in English and clarifies the distinctions between commonly confused words. ### 6.1 Understanding 'too', 'to', and 'two' #### 6.1.1 'Too' 'Too' functions as an adverb or a submodifier. It can be used to indicate that a previous statement also applies to someone or something else. It is also used before an adverb or adjective to signify an excessive amount or degree that is more than desirable or acceptable. When using 'too' with an adverb or adjective, 'very' is not used; instead, 'much' or 'far' are employed (e.g., "much too big" or "far too big"). 'Slightly' and 'a bit' can also precede 'too' (e.g., "slightly too big," "a bit too tight"). In formal or literary English, 'too' can precede an adjective before a noun, with 'a' placed after the adjective (e.g., "too easy a solution") [51](#page=51). #### 6.1.2 'To' 'To' is primarily used as a preposition or as part of the infinitive form of a verb [51](#page=51). #### 6.1.3 'Two' 'Two' is the numeral representing the quantity of two [70](#page=70). ### 6.2 Distinguishing 'than' and 'then' #### 6.2.1 'Than' 'Than' is predominantly used after comparative adjectives and adverbs. It is followed by a noun group, clause, or adverbial to make a comparison [53](#page=53). > **Example:** Writing is more difficult than speaking [53](#page=53). #### 6.2.2 'Then' 'Then' indicates time, meaning 'at that time', 'at that moment', 'afterwards', or 'subsequently' [53](#page=53). > **Example:** And then he went home [53](#page=53). ### 6.3 Clarifying 'there', 'their', and 'they're' #### 6.3.1 'There' 'There' has two main uses: 1. In front of a verb like 'to be' to indicate existence or location [53](#page=53). > **Example:** There was an accident and people got killed [53](#page=53). 2. As an adverb referring to a specific place [53](#page=53). > **Example:** I spend most of my time in there, the bedroom [53](#page=53). #### 6.3.2 'Their' 'Their' is a possessive determiner indicating that something belongs to or relates to particular people [54](#page=54). > **Example:** Look at their faces! [54](#page=54). #### 6.3.3 'They're' 'They're' is a contraction of 'they' and 'are' [54](#page=54). > **Example:** They’re late! [54](#page=54). ### 6.4 Differentiating 'quiet' and 'quite' #### 6.4.1 'Quiet' 'Quiet' is an adjective describing something or someone that makes little noise, or a place with little or no noise [54](#page=54). > **Example:** He said in a quiet voice [54](#page=54). #### 6.4.2 'Quite' 'Quite' is used to indicate something is true to a fair or great extent, used to show degree, and is placed before an adjective or adverb. When 'quite' precedes a noun, an article must be inserted between them. 'Quite' cannot be used before comparative adjectives or adverbs [54](#page=54). > **Example:** He was quite young [54](#page=54). > **Example:** It was quite cold [54](#page=54). > **Example:** He caught quite a bit of fish [54](#page=54). ### 6.5 Understanding 'piece' and 'peace' #### 6.5.1 'Piece' A 'piece' is a part or fragment of something [55](#page=55). > **Example:** I have a piece of broken glass in my foot [55](#page=55). #### 6.5.2 'Peace' 'Peace' refers to a state of no fighting; it is the antonym of war [55](#page=55). > **Example:** Everything was at peace [55](#page=55). ### 6.6 Distinguishing 'desert' and 'dessert' #### 6.6.1 'Desert' 'Desert' can be used as a noun or a verb, with different pronunciations. As a noun, a desert is a dry area with little water, rain, trees, or plants. As a verb, 'to desert' means to leave a place, person, or group, often without the intention of returning, such as a soldier deserting from the army [56](#page=56). #### 6.6.2 'Dessert' 'Dessert' is a food served at the end of a meal [56](#page=56). > **Example:** For dessert, there was ice cream [56](#page=56). ### 6.7 Clarifying 'of' and 'off' #### 6.7.1 'Of' 'Of' is used to indicate possession or relationships between people and things. It can be used before possessive pronouns like 'mine' (e.g., "a friend of mine") and in constructions with 'this', 'these', 'that', and 'those' followed by a possessive. 'Of' is not used before short noun groups; instead, the possessive 's' is used (e.g., "my friend's car," not "the car of my friend"). 'Of' is also not used to denote authorship; 'by' is used instead (e.g., "a painting by Rubens"). 'Of' can indicate location for countries or states but 'in' is used for villages or towns [56](#page=56) [57](#page=57). #### 6.7.2 'Off' 'Off' is a preposition or adverb indicating removal from an object or surface. It can also indicate leaving a place [57](#page=57). > **Example:** Take your hand off my arm [57](#page=57). > **Example:** The train was taking off [57](#page=57). ### 6.8 Rules for forming possessives #### 6.8.1 Singular nouns Add 's' to a singular noun (person or animal) to form the possessive. If the noun already ends in 's', typically another 's' is added, though sometimes only an apostrophe is accepted in modern usage. For classical and biblical names ending in 's', only an apostrophe is added [58](#page=58). #### 6.8.2 Plural nouns If a plural noun ends in 's', add an apostrophe to form the possessive. If a plural noun does not end in 's', add apostrophe + 's' [58](#page=58). #### 6.8.3 Nouns referring to things Generally, 's' is not added to nouns referring to things; the 'of' construction is used instead (e.g., "the front of the building") [58](#page=58). #### 6.8.4 Special use in British English In British English, apostrophe + 's' is added to a person's name to refer to their place of residence or to shops (e.g., "at Lucy's," "the chemist's") [59](#page=59). ### 6.9 Distinguishing 'dead', 'death', and 'died' #### 6.9.1 'Died' 'Died' is the past tense and past participle of the verb 'to die' and is never used as an adjective [60](#page=60). > **Example:** He died yesterday [60](#page=60). #### 6.9.2 'Dead' 'Dead' is typically used as an adjective to describe someone no longer alive. It can also refer to a group of people when used as a noun [60](#page=60). > **Example:** He still remembers his dead sister [60](#page=60). > **Example:** Among the dead was a seven-year-old girl [60](#page=60). #### 6.9.3 'Death' 'Death' is a noun indicating the process of dying, the end of life, or the state of being dead [60](#page=60). > **Example:** His death was a terrible blow to her [60](#page=60). ### 6.10 Understanding 'to live', 'a life', 'lively', and 'alive' When someone is not dead, they 'live' [60](#page=60). * **To live:** verb [60](#page=60). * **The life:** noun (plural: lives) [60](#page=60). * **Lively:** adjective [60](#page=60). * **Alive:** adverb [60](#page=60). > **Tip:** 'Alive' is never used in front of nouns. Instead, 'living' is used for people and 'live' for animals [60](#page=60). > **Example:** I have no living relatives [60](#page=60). > **Example:** Problems with the transport of live animals [60](#page=60). ### 6.11 Differentiating 'to wish', 'a wish', 'which', and 'witch' * **To wish:** to desire something [61](#page=61). * **A wish:** what you want or desire (noun) [61](#page=61). * **A witch:** an evil creature or sorceress (noun) [61](#page=61). * **Which:** used as a determiner or a pronoun [61](#page=61). > **Example:** Which station do I take? [61](#page=61). ### 6.12 Distinguishing 'no', 'to know', and 'now' * **To know:** verb meaning to have knowledge [61](#page=61). * **No:** used as a negative reply, a negative determiner before nouns, before comparative adjectives instead of 'not', and to forbid things [61](#page=61). > **Example:** Will you come? No [61](#page=61). > **Example:** She has no money and no friends [61](#page=61). * **Now:** an adverb of time meaning 'at this moment' or 'presently'; it can also contrast present with earlier situations. 'Right now' and 'just now' indicate a present situation that may change. 'Nowadays' means 'at the present time' [62](#page=62). ### 6.13 Understanding 'fate' and 'faith' * **Fate:** the power that supposedly predetermines events. 'Fateful' and 'fated' are related adjectives [62](#page=62). > **Example:** Fate stepped in and prevented the meeting [62](#page=62). * **Faith:** trust, confidence, or religion. 'Faithful' and 'faithless' are related adjectives [62](#page=62). > **Example:** I have great faith in my doctor [62](#page=62). ### 6.14 Differentiating 'son' and 'sun' * **Son:** a male human being in relation to his parents [63](#page=63). > **Example:** She has seven sons [63](#page=63). * **Sun:** the heavenly body that gives warmth and light [63](#page=63). > **Example:** The sun was shining [63](#page=63). ### 6.15 Distinguishing 'weather' and 'whether' * **Weather:** the general atmospheric conditions [63](#page=63). > **Example:** The weather is nice today [63](#page=63). * **Whether:** used to introduce a clause expressing doubt or choice; meaning 'if it be the case that' [63](#page=63). > **Example:** Whether or not it is true, I’ll look into the matter [63](#page=63). ### 6.16 Clarifying 'suit' and 'suite' * **Suit:** can be a noun (a set of clothes from the same material) or a verb (to be convenient or appropriate). Both are pronounced the same [63](#page=63). > **Example:** He arrived at the office in a suit and tie [63](#page=63). > **Example:** Would Monday suit you? [63](#page=63). * **Suite:** refers to a set of rooms in a hotel or a set of matching furniture. It is pronounced differently from 'suit' [64](#page=64). > **Example:** They are always staying at a suite in the Ritz [64](#page=64). ### 6.17 Rules for days, dates, and times #### 6.17.1 Days of the week and months Days of the week and months are always written with a capital letter. Days are usually used without a determiner, unless referring to any specific day (e.g., "on a Friday"). For months, 'early', 'mid', and 'late' can be added for specificity [64](#page=64). #### 6.17.2 Years Years are typically pronounced and written in two parts (e.g., "nineteen seventy"). The year 2000 is often referred to as "the year two thousand" [65](#page=65). #### 6.17.3 AD and BC 'AD' (Anno Domini, 'in the year of our Lord') is added before or after a year to indicate years after Christ's birth. 'BC' (Before Christ) is added after a year to indicate years before Christ's birth [65](#page=65). #### 6.17.4 Writing dates Dates can be written in various formats (e.g., "20 April," "20th April," "April 20," "April 20th"). When including the year, a comma is used (e.g., "December 15, 1993"). Dates can be written entirely in figures (e.g., "20/4/92") [65](#page=65). > **Tip:** Americans place the month before the day when writing dates in figures (e.g., "4/20/92"), which can cause confusion with European formats [65](#page=65). #### 6.17.5 Saying dates Dates are said using ordinal numbers, with British English speakers often including 'the' before the number, while Americans may omit it [66](#page=66). #### 6.17.6 Seasons Seasons are written in lower-case letters (e.g., "spring," "autumn"). 'Fall' is the American English term for 'autumn' [66](#page=66). #### 6.17.7 Decades and centuries A decade is a 10-year period (e.g., "the sixties" or "the 1960s"). A century is a 100-year period, often written with figures (e.g., "the 18th century"). Centuries can also be referred to using plural forms of the first year (e.g., "the 1800s," "the early eighteen hundreds") [66](#page=66). #### 6.17.8 Prepositions for time * **AT:** used for religious festivals and short periods [67](#page=67). > **Example:** at Christmas, at the weekend [67](#page=67). * **IN:** used for months, seasons, years, decades, and centuries [67](#page=67). > **Example:** in July, in autumn, in 1992 [67](#page=67). * **ON:** used for days and dates [67](#page=67). > **Example:** on Mondays, on 12 July [67](#page=67). ### 6.18 Common spelling patterns and confusions #### 6.18.1 Single and double consonants Words like 'also', 'almost', 'although', 'already', and 'always' have only one 'l'. Many words feature double consonants, including: 'necessary', 'accommodation', 'address', 'success', 'different', 'possessive', 'immediately', 'Mediterranean', 'exaggerate', 'marvellous', 'recommend', 'abbreviate', 'excellent', 'professor', 'tobacco', 'coffee', 'immigrate', 'connect', 'commit', 'committee', 'parallel', 'embarrass', 'occasion', and 'opportunity' [67](#page=67). #### 6.18.2 Frequently confused word pairs * **whose** (possessive pronoun) vs. **who's** (contraction of who is) [67](#page=67). * **it's** (contraction of it is) vs. **its** (possessive pronoun) [67](#page=67). * **to lose** (verb) vs. **loose** (adjective, not tight) [67](#page=67). * **stationary** (not moving) vs. **stationery** (paper for writing) [67](#page=67). * **to affect** (to influence) vs. **the effect** (the result) [67](#page=67). * **past** (referring to time before now) vs. **passed** (simple past of to pass) [67](#page=67). * **taught** (past tense of teach) vs. **thought** (past tense of think) [67](#page=67). * **principal** (headmaster, main) vs. **principle** (basic rule or idea) [67](#page=67). #### 6.18.3 Verb pairs: rise/raise and lie/lay * **rise – rose – risen** (intransitive: to go up) vs. **raise – raised – raised** (transitive: to lift something) [67](#page=67). > **Example:** Taxes will rise. Prices will be raised by the shopkeepers [68](#page=68). * **lie – lay – lain** (intransitive: to be in a horizontal position) vs. **lay – laid – laid** (transitive: to put something down) [68](#page=68). > **Example:** Italy lies in Europe. Lay the book on the table [68](#page=68). #### 6.18.4 Pronunciation and spelling variations * The number 'four' and 'fourteen' are distinct from 'forty' [68](#page=68). * The pronunciation of 'to' does not always match its spelling [68](#page=68). * Words like 'pyramid', 'system', 'mystery', 'myth', 'physical', 'hymn', 'symphony', and 'gymnasium' use 'y' instead of 'i' [68](#page=68). #### 6.18.5 Silent letters Many words contain silent letters that are written but not pronounced. Examples include: 'miscellaneous', 'exhausted', 'exhibition', 'psychological', 'acquaintance', 'knee', 'knife', 'scholar', 'guard', 'debt', 'scissors', 'spaghetti', 'honest', 'rhythm', 'receipt', 'character', 'scene', 'comb', 'hour', 'autumn', 'solemn', 'acquire', 'wrong', and 'column' [68](#page=68). #### 6.18.6 's' in verbs and 'c' in nouns Some words use 's' in their verb form and 'c' in their noun form: 'to advise'/'the advice', 'to license'/'the licence', 'to practise'/'the practice', 'to prophesy'/'the prophecy', 'to devise'/'the device' [68](#page=68). #### 6.18.7 Adverb formation Adjectives ending in '-ic' typically form their adverbs by adding '-ally' (e.g., 'basic' -> 'basically', 'tragic' -> 'tragically', 'rustic' -> 'rustically', 'heroic' -> 'heroically'). The exception is 'public', which becomes 'publicly' [69](#page=69). #### 6.18.8 One word or two Confusion can arise with word pairs that are sometimes written as one word and sometimes as two: 'maybe'/'may be', 'all right'/'alright', 'everyday'/'every day', 'altogether'/'all together', 'nobody'/'no body', 'sometimes'/'some times' [69](#page=69). > **Tip:** When in doubt, consult a dictionary to confirm the correct spelling and usage of commonly confused words [72](#page=72). --- # Vocabulary: Idiomatic language use This topic explores idiomatic expressions, common phrases, proverbs, similes, and metaphors, detailing their definitions, usage, and inherent translation challenges [73](#page=73). ### 15.1 Definitions Idioms, or idiomatic expressions, are defined as a group of words in a fixed order that possess a specific meaning, which cannot be deduced from the individual meanings of the words themselves. They are characteristic of a particular language and must be learned by heart, similar to new vocabulary. The ability to use idioms effectively is a key indicator of language proficiency [73](#page=73). **Examples of idioms:** * To have bitten off more than you can chew: to have attempted something too difficult [73](#page=73). * To kick the bucket: to die [73](#page=73). Literal translations of idioms are often nonsensical or humorous because corresponding fixed expressions frequently do not exist across languages. For instance, the Dutch expression "een plakje cake" (a slice of cake) translates to "a piece of cake" in English, meaning something easy. However, "het is niet hun kopje thee" (it's not their cup of tea) in Dutch has the equivalent English meaning, while a literal translation of the Dutch phrase for not understanding something ("Ze hebben er geen kaas van gegeten" - they haven't eaten cheese from it) would not convey the intended meaning [73](#page=73). A proverb or saying is a concise, widely known sentence that states a general truth, a common experience, or offers advice. In Dutch, these are referred to as 'een gezegde', 'een spreekwoord', or 'een spreuk' [74](#page=74). **Examples of proverbs:** * Waste not, want not [74](#page=74). * A watched kettle never boils [74](#page=74). Proverbs do not always contain idioms but may incorporate them. Similar proverbs can exist in different languages, but direct translation should be approached with caution to avoid sounding ridiculous [74](#page=74). **Cross-linguistic proverb examples:** * (DUTCH) Eind goed, al goed. = (ENG) All is well that ends well [74](#page=74). * (DUTCH) Door schade en schande wordt men wijs. (Through damage and shame one becomes wise.) = (ENG) A burnt child fears the fire [74](#page=74). ### 15.2 Common expressions Many common expressions are already familiar, and proficiency can be assessed through exercises that involve completing or understanding their meanings [74](#page=74). **Examples from exercises:** * When in Rome, do as the Romans do [74](#page=74). * Two heads are better than one [74](#page=74). * Every cloud has a silver lining [74](#page=74). * The early bird catches the worm [74](#page=74). * To let the cat out of the bag: to reveal a secret [75](#page=75). * To spread like wildfire: to disseminate information very quickly [75](#page=75). * To buy a pig in a poke: to purchase something without inspecting it properly beforehand [75](#page=75). * To give the game away: to reveal a secret, often unintentionally [75](#page=75). * There is something rotten in the state of Denmark!: a situation is corrupt or not as it seems [75](#page=75). * To take one for the road: an alcoholic drink taken just before leaving [75](#page=75). * A nest-egg: savings put aside for future use [75](#page=75). The following table lists expressions and their meanings, as presented in the exercises: | Expression | Meaning | | :----------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | To kill two birds with one stone | To achieve two goals with a single action | | To beat about the bush | To avoid coming to the point in conversation | | To fly a kite | A hopeful plan with little chance of success | | To carry coals to Newcastle | To take goods to a place where they are already plentiful | | It’s like water off a duck’s back | Something that has no effect on a person | | To buy a pig in a poke | To purchase something unseen, potentially worthless | | To be in Queer Street | To be in trouble, especially financial difficulties | | To die | To die | | To put your foot in it | To say or do something embarrassing or tactless | | To bury the hatchet | To make peace after a disagreement | | To pay through the nose | To pay an excessive amount of money | | It’s only a drop in the bucket | A quantity too small to have a significant effect | | Pie in the sky | An unrealistic or unattainable plan or prospect | | To make your hair stand on end | To cause extreme fear or fright | | To shoot (for) the moon | To aim for very ambitious goals | **Further expressions and their meanings:** * Something you have is better than a lot of things you don't have (bird) [78](#page=78). * This is often said when the weather is bad in England or Belgium (cats) [78](#page=78). * To concern yourself with something in an unwelcome way (pie) [78](#page=78). * To waste your energies or repeat something already understood (horse) [78](#page=78). * To make fun of someone playfully (leg) [78](#page=78). * To have enough money or remain rich after spending [78](#page=78). * This expression comments on the rapid flow of time [78](#page=78). * To take risks or be in a dangerous position (ice) [78](#page=78). * To live a good life due to having a lot of money (street) [78](#page=78). * A person in trouble will try anything, however useless (straw) [78](#page=78). * To be fired or become redundant (sack) [79](#page=79). * To keep yourself out of debt (water) [79](#page=79). * Don't complain about a gift (mouth) [79](#page=79). * Keep calm and don't lose your temper (hair) [79](#page=79). * People of the same kind (especially bad) tend to associate with each other (feather) [79](#page=79). ### 15.3 Less familiar expressions These expressions may be less common, and their meanings are best deduced from contextual examples. **Examples from exercises:** * **ALL BURNED OUT**: Refers to lacking energy after intense activity [84](#page=84). * Translation: Uitgeput, opgebrand [84](#page=84). * **FRISKY AS A PUP**: Describes having lots of energy [84](#page=84). * Translation: Vol energie, monter [84](#page=84). * **A BIRD IN THE HAND IS WORTH TWO IN THE BUSH**: Better to have something certain than the possibility of more [85](#page=85). * Translation: Beter iets in de hand dan tien in de lucht [85](#page=85). * **BUSY AS A BEE**: To be fully occupied [85](#page=85). * Translation: Druk als een bij [85](#page=85). * **HELP CARRY THE BALL**: To take on the most difficult part of an action or undertaking [85](#page=85). * Translation: De zwaarste last dragen, helpen om de klus te klaren [85](#page=85). * **EAGER BEAVER**: A person who is always ready to do something extra [86](#page=86). * Translation: Een ijverig persoon, een harde werker [86](#page=86). * **TO COME OUT SMELLING LIKE A ROSE**: To emerge from a difficult or questionable situation without blame or damage [86](#page=86). * Translation: Er zonder kleerscheuren vanaf komen [86](#page=86). * **WHAT'S COOKING?**: What is happening? [86](#page=86). * Translation: Wat is er aan de hand? [86](#page=86). * **TO CRY OVER SPILLED MILK**: To complain about something that has already happened and cannot be changed [87](#page=87). * Translation: Zonde van de tijd, jammeren over iets wat niet meer te veranderen is [87](#page=87). * **TO FACE THE MUSIC**: To accept criticism or punishment for something you have done [87](#page=87). * Translation: De consequenties onder ogen zien [87](#page=87). * **TO GO TO PIECES**: To become emotionally unstable or break down [87](#page=87). * Translation: De moed verliezen, instorten [87](#page=87). * **TO BE IN A STEW**: A state of fretting or worry [88](#page=88). * Translation: In de penarie zitten, in de nesten zitten [88](#page=88). * **TO GET MORE THAN YOU BARGAINED FOR**: To experience something more difficult or problematic than anticipated [88](#page=88). * Translation: Meer krijgen dan je aankunt [88](#page=88). * **IT'S NEVER TOO LATE TO TEACH AN OLD DOG NEW TRICKS**: It is possible to learn new things or change one's habits at any age [88](#page=88). * Translation: Je bent nooit te oud om te leren [88](#page=88). ### 15.4 Expressions and pictures Visual aids, such as pictures and drawings, can be effective tools for learning and remembering expressions [89](#page=89). **Examples using visual cues:** * Someone who is a coward or easily scared is described using terms related to fear, such as "chicken-livered," "lily-livered," "yellow-livered," "scaredy-cat," or "fraidy-cat" [89](#page=89). * A person who praises themselves excessively and draws attention to their own skills is said to "blow/toot their own horn" [89](#page=89). * Confidential information or gossip being exchanged is described as going "by word of mouth" or being heard "through the grapevine" [91](#page=91). * A clumsy or unskillful person is described as being "all thumbs" [91](#page=91). * A person who drives excessively fast is a "speeder," "speed merchant," or "road hog" [91](#page=91). ### 15.5 Proverbs in class Proverbs can be a starting point for oral discussions, allowing students to share their favorites, explain their meanings, and explore potential equivalents in their native languages [92](#page=92). **Proverbs for discussion:** * Do as you would be done by [93](#page=93). * If at first you don't succeed, try, try, and try again [93](#page=93). * Don't look a gift horse in the mouth [93](#page=93). * It takes two to tango [93](#page=93). ### 15.6 Proverbs in grammar lessons The simple present tense is frequently used in proverbs because they express general truths or make generalizations. This makes them suitable for grammar lessons focusing on the formation or use of the present simple [94](#page=94). **Examples of proverbs used in grammar exercises:** * A rolling stone gathers no moss [94](#page=94). * Still waters run deep [94](#page=94). * Money makes the world go round [94](#page=94). * Actions speak louder than words [94](#page=94). * Too many cooks spoil the broth [94](#page=94). * A bad workman blames his tools [94](#page=94). * Absence makes the heart grow fonder [94](#page=94). * A new broom sweeps clean [94](#page=94). * It's an ill wind that blows nobody good [94](#page=94). * Pride breeds contempt [94](#page=94). * Gossip travels fast [94](#page=94). * The more you have, the more you want [94](#page=94). * Nothing succeeds like success [94](#page=94). * God helps those that help themselves [94](#page=94). * Practice makes perfect [94](#page=94). * Two wrongs don't make a right [94](#page=94). * To kill two birds with one stone [94](#page=94). * Barking dogs seldom bite [94](#page=94). * First come, first served [94](#page=94). * Better safe than sorry [94](#page=94). ### 15.7 Proverbs and their meanings Understanding the meaning of proverbs is crucial for their effective use. **Examples of proverbs and their meanings:** * **All his geese are swans**: To consider everything belonging to oneself as excellent [96](#page=96). * **All that glitters is not gold**: Appearances can be deceptive; not everything that looks valuable is truly so [96](#page=96). * **An army marches on its stomach**: Effective military operations depend on adequate supplies and provisions for soldiers [96](#page=96). * **Better lose the saddle than the horse**: It is better to lose a less valuable part of something than the whole [96](#page=96). * **Blood is thicker than water**: Family ties are stronger than other relationships [96](#page=96). * **Comfort is better than pride**: It is wiser to be comfortable than to maintain dignity at the expense of comfort [96](#page=96). * **Cut your coat according to your cloth**: Live within your means; do not spend more than you earn [96](#page=96). * **Do not keep a dog and bark yourself**: If you delegate a task, allow the person responsible to perform it without your interference [96](#page=96). * **Fools run in where angels fear to tread**: Inexperienced or reckless people often venture into dangerous situations where wise people would hesitate [96](#page=96). * **It was the last straw that broke the camel's back**: The final problem or burden, however small, that causes a complete collapse or breakdown [96](#page=96). * **Hasty climbers have sudden falls**: Those who try to achieve success too quickly often fail spectacularly [96](#page=96). * **He who rides a tiger can never dismount**: If one gets involved in a dangerous or difficult situation, it is hard to escape from it [96](#page=96). * **Know on which side your bread is buttered**: Understand where your own best interests lie and act accordingly [96](#page=96). * **Every ass likes to hear himself bray**: People often enjoy hearing their own opinions or voices, even if they are not particularly valuable [96](#page=96). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | TEFL | Teaching English as a Foreign Language. This term refers to the pedagogical approach and training for educators who teach English to non-native speakers in countries where English is not the primary language. | | EGP (English for General Purposes) | A standard English curriculum designed for learners to achieve communicative competence for everyday interactions, reading, and writing, typically encountered in secondary education. | | ESP (English for Specific Purposes) | A specialized approach to English language teaching that focuses on meeting the particular needs of a learner within a specific professional or academic context, going beyond general communicative skills. | | Metalanguage | The specialized vocabulary and terminology used to discuss and describe language itself, particularly grammar. Mastering metalanguage is crucial for teachers to effectively explain grammatical concepts to students. | | Tense | A grammatical category that indicates the time of the action or state of being of a verb, typically relating to past, present, or future. English tenses are often formed by combinations of auxiliary verbs and main verbs. | | Aspect | A grammatical category that describes the duration or completion of an action or state, such as simple, continuous (or progressive), and perfect. Aspects add nuance to the meaning of a verb in relation to time. | | Simple Aspect | An aspect of a verb that typically describes long-term general truths, instantaneous actions, or habitual occurrences without emphasizing duration or completion. | | Continuous/Progressive Aspect | An aspect formed with a form of "be" plus the "-ing" form of a verb. It describes events as ongoing, temporary, or unfinished, emphasizing their duration. | | Perfect Aspect | An aspect formed with a form of "have" plus the past participle of a verb. It connects events or actions from one time period to another, indicating a relationship between different points in time. | | Perfect Continuous Aspect | A verb phrase that combines the forms of the perfect and continuous aspects (e.g., have been + verb-ING). It emphasizes actions or events with duration that have relevance across multiple time periods. | | Active Voice | A grammatical construction where the subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb. For example, in "The dog chased the ball," the dog is the subject performing the action of chasing. | | Passive Voice | A grammatical construction where the subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb. The focus shifts from the doer of the action to the action itself or the recipient of the action. For example, "The ball was chased by the dog." | | Past Participle | The third principal part of a verb, used to form perfect tenses (e.g., "eaten" from "eat") and the passive voice (e.g., "broken" in "the vase was broken"). | | Idiom | A phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal meanings of its individual words. Idioms are fixed expressions that are part of a language's figurative lexicon. | | Proverb | A short, well-known saying that states a general truth, offers advice, or expresses a common sentiment, often using metaphorical or allegorical language. | | Simile | A figure of speech that directly compares two different things, typically using the words "as" or "like," to highlight a shared quality. For example, "as brave as a lion." | | Metaphor | A figure of speech that compares two unlike things by stating that one thing is another, without using "as" or "like." It implies a direct resemblance or shared characteristic. For example, "The world is a stage." | | Homophones | Words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings, such as "there," "their," and "they're," or "piece" and "peace." | | Homonyms | Words that are spelled the same and/or sound the same but have different meanings. This category can sometimes include homophones and homographs. | | Homographs | Words that are spelled the same but have different pronunciations and meanings, such as "lead" (the metal) and "lead" (to guide). | | Preposition | A word that typically precedes a noun or pronoun and expresses a relation to another word or element in the clause, indicating time, place, direction, or manner (e.g., "in," "on," "at," "off," "of"). | | Determiner | A word that precedes a noun to specify its quantity or to clarify which noun is being referred to (e.g., "a," "an," "the," "this," "that," "my," "your," "some," "many"). | | Quantifier | A type of determiner that indicates the amount or quantity of a noun, such as "much," "many," "few," "little," "some," and "all." | | Possessive Pronoun | A pronoun that indicates ownership or possession, such as "mine," "yours," "his," "hers," "its," "ours," and "theirs." | | Contraction | The shortened form of a word or group of words, made by omitting letters and replacing them with an apostrophe (e.g., "it's" for "it is," "they're" for "they are"). | | Adverb | A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, providing information about manner, time, place, degree, or frequency (e.g., "quickly," "yesterday," "here," "very," "always"). | | Adjective | A word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun, providing more information about its qualities or characteristics (e.g., "big," "happy," "red," "interesting"). | | Article | A type of determiner that precedes a noun, indicating whether the noun is specific or general. The English articles are "a," "an," and "the." | | Noun | A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., "teacher," "school," "book," "freedom"). | | Verb | A word that describes an action, occurrence, or state of being (e.g., "run," "is," "think," "happen"). | | Affirmative Sentence | A sentence that makes a positive statement or asserts something to be true. | | Negative Sentence | A sentence that makes a negative statement, usually by including words like "not," "never," or "no." | | Interrogative Sentence | A sentence that asks a question, typically characterized by inversion of the subject and auxiliary verb or the use of question words. | | Ordinal Number | A number that indicates position or order in a sequence (e.g., "first," "second," "third," "twentieth"). | | Cardinal Number | A number that denotes quantity or count (e.g., "one," "two," "three," "twenty"). | | Phrasing | The way words are arranged in a sentence or clause to convey meaning. | | Sentence Structure | The grammatical arrangement of words and clauses in a sentence, dictating its meaning and complexity. | | Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) | An international standard for describing language ability, defining proficiency levels from A1 (beginner) to C2 (mastery) across reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills. | | Blended Learning | An educational approach that combines online digital media with traditional classroom methods, integrating face-to-face and computer-mediated instruction. |