European Renaissance History

# The Renaissance: A period of rebirth and cultural advancement The Renaissance marked a significant period in European history characterized by a revival of classical Greek and Roman knowledge and culture, emerging after the devastating Black Death and driven by Humanism, which emphasized worldly achievements and human dignity. This era witnessed profound advancements across political, scientific, religious, artistic, and technological spheres [1](#page=1) [5](#page=5). ### 1.1 The essence of the Renaissance The term "Renaissance" signifies a "rebirth". During this time, Europeans actively embraced the knowledge and culture of ancient Romans and Greeks. It followed the Black Death and spurred advancements in virtually all areas of life, including social, political, religious, economic, and military [1](#page=1) [5](#page=5). ### 1.2 The driving force of Humanism Humanism was the central philosophical and intellectual movement of the Renaissance. In contrast to the medieval focus on God, Renaissance thinkers emphasized the importance of worldly living, human dignity, knowledge, and individual potential. While still deeply Christian, they sought more earthly solutions to life's questions and aimed to improve the world [2](#page=2) [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** Humanism shifted the focus from an exclusively afterlife-oriented perspective to one that valued human experience and potential in the present world. ### 1.3 Advancements in various fields The Renaissance was a revolutionary period due to significant developments in several key areas: #### 1.3.1 Politics * **Niccolò Machiavelli** is considered the father of modern political science, authoring *The Prince*. This work presented a purely logical approach to gaining and maintaining power, unconstrained by religious or moral considerations [3](#page=3) [5](#page=5). * **Absolutism** emerged as a political philosophy, advocating for the absolute power of the monarch, with subjects owing loyalty directly to the king. Louis XIV of France is an example, using his court to control nobles and establish one of the first modern nation-states [3](#page=3) [5](#page=5) . * **Constitutionalism** arose in some states, emphasizing governance by law rather than by royalty, with power residing with the people. England provides an example where Parliament challenged royal absolutism, eventually leading to the temporary installation of a republic [5](#page=5) . * Thomas More, author of *Utopia*, advocated for free speech and conceptualized an ideal society with perfect labor, education, and speech [7](#page=7). #### 1.3.2 Science The Renaissance saw a shift towards examining the real causes and reasoning behind phenomena, leading to new discoveries and a more empirical approach to understanding the world [5](#page=5). #### 1.3.3 Religion While God remained central to life, there was a growing humanist outlook that placed greater emphasis on life in this world rather than solely focusing on the afterlife. This period also witnessed the significant religious upheaval of the Reformation [5](#page=5). * **The Protestant Reformation** challenged the dominance of the Catholic Church due to widespread corruption, particularly the selling of indulgences [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [6](#page=6). * **Martin Luther** was a pivotal figure, profoundly troubled by the selling of indulgences and believing salvation came through faith and good works, not monetary transactions. His 95 Theses, posted in 1517, criticized church practices and called for debate [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). * The **printing press**, invented by Johann Gutenberg, was crucial in disseminating ideas, allowing for the spread of works like Erasmus's *The Praise of Folly* and Luther's 95 Theses across Europe, fueling reform movements [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). * Other groups like the Anabaptists emerged, advocating for adult baptism and the separation of church and state [2](#page=2). * The **Counter-Reformation** was the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant challenge. Key actions included [2](#page=2): * **The Papacy:** Under Paul III, the founding of the Jesuit order, the Council of Trent, and the revival of the Inquisition were key initiatives [1](#page=1) [6](#page=6). * **The Society of Jesus (Jesuits):** Founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, this order was officially recognized in 1540 and took a special vow of obedience to the Pope, excelling as educators. A female equivalent, the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, was popular in Belgium [1](#page=1) [6](#page=6). * **The Council of Trent:** Meeting for 18 years, it clarified Catholic doctrines, instituted reforms for the clergy, and helped the Church consolidate its power and retain followers [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [6](#page=6). * The **Inquisition** was a church agency used to detect and punish religious offenses, employing severe methods to enforce doctrine [6](#page=6). * In England, Henry VIII established the Church of England to circumvent papal authority and enable personal remarriages, though he generally adhered to Catholic doctrine aside from papal supremacy [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.4 Art Renaissance art saw a rediscovery of classical styles, moving away from the purely God-centered art of the Middle Ages to incorporate more meaning and focus on biblical themes, lives of saints, and church leaders [5](#page=5). * **Leonardo da Vinci** exemplified the "Renaissance Man," a polymath skilled in painting, mathematics, architecture, and invention, pushing artistic and scientific boundaries [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). * **Michelangelo** was a younger artist who rivaled Leonardo da Vinci [3](#page=3). * **Donatello** revived ancient Greek and Roman sculptural styles, infusing his work with emotional realism and developing new techniques for depth [7](#page=7). * **Raphael** emphasized perfectionism and balance, embodying the human body and spirit and redefining the depiction of religious figures, influenced by da Vinci and Michelangelo [7](#page=7). #### 1.3.5 Technology The invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg was a monumental technological advancement that enabled the widespread dissemination of knowledge and ideas, significantly impacting the spread of reformist thought [3](#page=3) [5](#page=5). > **Example:** The printing press's ability to rapidly reproduce texts like Martin Luther's 95 Theses allowed his critiques of the Catholic Church to reach a vast audience, a feat impossible before its invention. --- # The Reformation and its impact on religious and political landscapes The Reformation was a pivotal religious movement that fundamentally reshaped the religious and political structures of Europe, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church and leading to the rise of new Christian denominations and nation-states [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). ### 2.1 Causes of the Reformation The Reformation was driven by several key factors, including widespread church corruption, the innovative use of the printing press, and the catalytic actions of influential figures like Martin Luther [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.1 Church corruption By the late Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had become a dominant political and religious force in Western Europe. However, it faced significant criticism for various forms of corruption. These included the practice of nepotism, clergy fathering children despite vows of chastity, and most notably, the sale of indulgences. Indulgences were initially intended as a way for people to atone for their sins through good works, but they evolved into a means for church leaders to profit financially, fostering a mentality where money could supposedly buy salvation. This corruption deeply troubled reformers, who saw it as a perversion of true Christian principles [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). #### 2.1.2 The role of Martin Luther Martin Luther was a central figure in igniting the Reformation. Troubled by the church's corrupt practices, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther believed that salvation was attainable through faith in God alone, a concept he later articulated as *sola fide*, and that the Bible should be the ultimate religious authority (*sola scriptura*). In 1517, he famously posted his 95 Theses on a church door, detailing his arguments against the church's practices and inviting debate. This act, amplified by the printing press, sparked widespread discussion and dissent. The Catholic Church condemned Luther and his ideas, leading to his excommunication at the Diet of Worms. Despite this, Luther's teachings gained traction, particularly in Northern Europe, and his actions fundamentally challenged the established religious order [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.3 The printing press The invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg was instrumental in disseminating reformist ideas. This technology made it possible for works like Erasmus's "The Praise of Folly," which criticized church corruption, to be widely distributed across Europe. The printing press also facilitated the rapid spread of Luther's 95 Theses, allowing his criticisms to reach a broad audience and lay the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.4 Other precursors to the Reformation Prior to Luther, individuals like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus also challenged church authority, advocating for the Bible as the ultimate authority and for religious teachings to be in local languages. These early reformers were often met with severe punishment, including execution, serving as a stark warning to others. Desiderius Erasmus, in 1509, published "The Praise of Folly," a work that called for an end to church corruption and significantly influenced later reformers like Martin Luther [1](#page=1) [3](#page=3). ### 2.2 Emergence of new religious ideologies The Reformation led to the development and spread of various Protestant denominations, each with distinct theological tenets and organizational structures. #### 2.2.1 Protestantism Protestantism, as a movement, represented a direct challenge to the Catholic Church's doctrines and practices. Its core tenets often included the belief that salvation comes from good works and faith and emphasized the Bible as the sole source of religious truth [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). #### 2.2.2 Calvinism Jean Calvin was a prominent figure in the Reformation, developing a theological system deeply rooted in Protestantism. Calvinism emphasized God's absolute control over all of life and proposed a model where the church and state should collaborate to serve God's purposes. Calvin was instrumental in organizing the Reformation and defining the role of the church within society [4](#page=4). #### 2.2.3 Anabaptists The Anabaptists were a group within the Protestant Reformation who advocated for adult baptism, opposed the union of church and state, and favored voluntary church communities [2](#page=2). ### 2.3 The Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation In response to the Protestant challenge, the Catholic Church initiated a series of reforms and defensive measures known as the Counter-Reformation. This effort aimed to address internal issues, reaffirm Catholic doctrines, and regain lost influence [2](#page=2) [6](#page=6). #### 2.3.1 The Papacy The Papacy played a crucial role in the Counter-Reformation, with Pope Paul III overseeing key developments. These included the founding of the Jesuit order, the convening of the Council of Trent, and the revival of the Inquisition. The Inquisition was an ecclesiastical tribunal established to investigate and prosecute religious offenses, employing severe methods to enforce church teachings and maintain control [1](#page=1) [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). #### 2.3.2 The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) Founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola, the Society of Jesus was a religious order officially recognized by the Pope in 1540. The Jesuits took an extra vow of special obedience to the Pope and became renowned as successful educators. They valued poverty, chastity, and obedience, and a female branch, the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, was established and became popular in areas like Belgium where Protestantism was dominant [1](#page=1) [6](#page=6). #### 2.3.3 The Council of Trent The Council of Trent was a significant agency of the Catholic reform, meeting over an 18-year period. Its primary objective was to meet the challenge of the Protestant Reformation by clarifying Catholic doctrines, instituting reforms within the clergy, and improving the quality of church leadership. The Council helped the Church consolidate its existing power, reclaim what it had lost, and maintain its overall strength [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [6](#page=6). ### 2.4 The English Reformation The Reformation in England took a distinct path, largely driven by political motivations rather than purely theological ones. #### 2.4.1 Henry VIII and the break with Rome King Henry VIII of England sought to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, his late brother's wife, due to his desire for a male heir and his interest in Anne Boleyn. When his request for an annulment was denied by the Pope, Henry VIII decided to assert his own authority over the church in England. In 1531, he was officially recognized as the head of the church in England, "as far as Christ allowed," signifying a definitive break with papal authority. Despite this assertion of independence, Henry VIII largely maintained Catholic doctrines, differing from the Pope's supremacy. Those who opposed this move, such as Thomas More, were executed [2](#page=2) [4](#page=4). #### 2.4.2 Elizabeth I Elizabeth I, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, later ruled England and played a significant role in shaping the religious landscape of the nation. She was the longest-reigning monarch of the House of Tudor [4](#page=4). ### 2.5 Impact on political landscapes The Reformation had profound and lasting effects on the political structures of Europe, contributing to the rise of nation-states, shifts in power dynamics, and new forms of governance. #### 2.5.1 Rise of nation-states and absolutism The religious upheaval provided political leaders with opportunities to consolidate power and assert greater control over their territories. The weakening of the universal authority of the Pope allowed monarchs to establish more centralized states. Niccolò Machiavelli, in "The Prince," advocated for a purely logical approach to rulership, unbound by religion, and laid out tactics for leaders to gain and maintain power. This philosophy contributed to the development of absolutism, the idea that a ruler should hold absolute power, with subjects owing loyalty directly to the king. Louis XIV of France exemplifies this, using his court to control nobles and establishing one of the first modern nation-states by implementing detailed court etiquette that could influence social standing [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [7](#page=7). #### 2.5.2 Constitutionalism In contrast to absolutism, some regions saw a demand for power to reside with the people, leading to the development of constitutionalism. In England, Parliament challenged the King's push for absolutism, advocating for governance by law rather than royalty. This conflict eventually led to the removal of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic, albeit a short-lived one [5](#page=5) [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** The Reformation was not just a religious movement; it was deeply intertwined with political ambitions and power struggles across Europe. Understanding this connection is crucial for grasping its full impact. > **Example:** Henry VIII's desire for a divorce and an heir directly led to the English Reformation, demonstrating how personal and political motives could override religious doctrine and established authority [2](#page=2) [4](#page=4). --- # Key figures and their contributions during the Renaissance and Reformation This topic explores the pivotal individuals whose ideas and actions shaped the artistic, political, and religious landscapes of the Renaissance and Reformation eras. ### 3.1 The Renaissance and its key figures The Renaissance, meaning "rebirth," was a period of renewed interest in the knowledge and culture of ancient Rome, fostering advancements across various fields. Humanism was a driving force, emphasizing human dignity, knowledge, and living in the present world rather than solely focusing on the afterlife [2](#page=2) [5](#page=5). #### 3.1.1 Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo da Vinci epitomized the Renaissance ideal of the "Renaissance Man". He excelled in numerous fields, including painting, mathematics, architecture, and invention, with ideas often far ahead of his time. His talent was recognized and commissioned by patrons like the Medici family, and he aimed to use his skills to advance his social standing. Da Vinci's innovations influenced artists like Michelangelo [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). #### 3.1.2 Michelangelo Michelangelo was a younger artist who entered into a rivalry with Leonardo da Vinci. He adapted techniques from artists like Donatello and Leonardo, contributing significantly to Renaissance art [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). #### 3.1.3 Niccolo Machiavelli Niccolo Machiavelli is recognized as the father of modern political science for his work, *The Prince*. This treatise presented a purely logical approach to leadership, unconstrained by religious or moral considerations, outlining strategies for acquiring and maintaining power. Machiavelli favored absolutism, the concept that a ruler should hold absolute power, arguing that humans are inherently flawed and require strong leadership. He posited that absolute loyalty should be directed towards the king, and wealth could be leveraged to maintain an army [3](#page=3) [5](#page=5). #### 3.1.4 Johann Gutenberg Johann Gutenberg, a German inventor, revolutionized the spread of ideas with his invention of the printing press. This technology made the dissemination of texts, like those by Erasmus and Martin Luther, possible across Europe, significantly influencing the intellectual and religious currents of the era [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). #### 3.1.5 Desiderius Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus, in his 1509 publication *The Praise of Folly*, called for an end to church corruptions. The widespread distribution of his work, facilitated by the printing press, spurred calls for church reform and laid groundwork for Martin Luther's criticisms [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). #### 3.1.6 Thomas More Thomas More coined the term "utopia," referring to a society with perfect ideals. He is considered a hero of the Reformation era for his defiance of King Henry VIII, despite personal danger, and his advocacy for free speech. He also conceptualized a utopia with ideal labor, education, and speech systems [2](#page=2) [7](#page=7). #### 3.1.7 Donatello Donatello revived ancient Greek and Roman styles in art and sculpting, infusing his work with emotional realism rather than idealism. He developed new techniques to add depth to his art, influencing later artists like da Vinci and Michelangelo [7](#page=7). #### 3.1.8 Raphael Raphael's work emphasized perfectionism and balance, which were highly valued during the Renaissance. Influenced by da Vinci and Michelangelo, he embodied the human body and spirit in his art and redefined the portrayal of religious figures [7](#page=7). ### 3.2 The Reformation and its key figures The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that challenged the authority and practices of the Catholic Church, leading to significant schisms and societal changes. #### 3.2.1 Martin Luther Martin Luther was a central figure in the Protestant Reformation. Deeply troubled by the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences, which he viewed as a form of false salvation, he advocated that salvation is achieved through faith in God and good works. In 1517, he published his 95 Theses, a list of arguments against church practices, and posted them on a church door to invite debate. This act led to protest and his eventual excommunication from the Catholic Church. His core belief, "Sola Scriptura," emphasized the Bible as the sole key to salvation. Northern Europe largely embraced his ideas, while the Catholic Church condemned them [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6). #### 3.2.2 Jean Calvin Jean Calvin was a significant organizer of the Reformation. He promoted the ideology of God's absolute control over life and advocated for the church and state to collaborate in serving God's purpose [4](#page=4). #### 3.2.3 Henry VIII Henry VIII of England played a pivotal role in the English Reformation. Initially married to Catherine of Aragon, his brother's widow, he sought an annulment to marry Anne Boleyn. When the Pope denied his request, Henry declared himself the supreme head of the Church in England, asserting his independence from papal authority. He believed in Catholic doctrine but rejected the Pope's supremacy [2](#page=2) [4](#page=4). #### 3.2.4 Elizabeth I Elizabeth I, daughter of Anne Boleyn, was a long-reigning monarch of the House of Tudor in England [4](#page=4). #### 3.2.5 The Anabaptists The Anabaptists were a group within the Protestant Reformation who advocated for adult baptisms, separation of church and state, and voluntary church communities [2](#page=2). ### 3.3 Counter-Reformation and its key figures/actions The Counter-Reformation was the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, aiming to clarify beliefs and implement reforms [2](#page=2) [6](#page=6). #### 3.3.1 The Papacy The papacy, as the first agency of the Counter-Reformation, played a crucial role. Under Pope Paul III, the Jesuit order was founded, the Council of Trent was convened, and the Inquisition was revived. The Inquisition was a church agency responsible for investigating and punishing religious offenses, employing severe methods to enforce church teachings and control adherents [6](#page=6). #### 3.3.2 The Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, formed the second agency of the Counter-Reformation. Founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola and officially recognized by the Pope in 1540, they adhered to vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, with a special emphasis on obedience to the Pope. A female counterpart, the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, also emerged, particularly in areas with a strong Protestant presence [6](#page=6). #### 3.3.3 The Council of Trent The Council of Trent, the third agency, met for eighteen years to address the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation. Its efforts focused on clarifying Catholic doctrine, instituting reforms, and improving the quality of the clergy. This council was instrumental in helping the Church retain its existing territories, regain lost ground, and maintain its power [2](#page=2) [6](#page=6). --- # Societal transformations following the Black Death The Black Death profoundly reshaped European society, leading to significant demographic, economic, social, and political shifts [4](#page=4). ### 4.1 Demographic collapse and its immediate aftermath The plague, originating in China, spread to Europe along established trade routes, reaching its peak between 1347 and 1351. This pandemic resulted in the deaths of approximately 35 million people in Europe alone causing extreme population fluctuations. The sheer number of fatalities led to bodies being piled in the streets of cities highlighting the overwhelming mortality. The devastating loss of life also resulted in the tragic scapegoating of the Jewish population, who were frequently targeted and slaughtered [4](#page=4). ### 4.2 Economic consequences The drastic reduction in the workforce due to the plague had severe economic repercussions. The deaths of merchants led to a decline in trade which in turn caused prices to rise. Similarly, the loss of workers and employers resulted in decreased production and further price inflation. These economic pressures, particularly the unsustainable wage demands from surviving laborers, contributed to widespread social unrest [4](#page=4). ### 4.3 Social and political upheaval The economic instability and the profound sense of loss and disruption fostered by the Black Death contributed to significant social and political transformations. #### 4.3.1 Peasant revolts The altered economic landscape, characterized by rising prices and the disruption of traditional labor structures, fueled discontent among the peasantry. This discontent manifested in peasant revolts, as wages became unsustainable and the existing social order was challenged [4](#page=4). #### 4.3.2 Weakened church power The Church's authority and influence were diminished in the wake of the plague. The inability of the clergy to provide effective explanations or remedies for the widespread devastation, coupled with the loss of many church officials, eroded public trust [4](#page=4). #### 4.3.3 Emergence of nationalism The period following the Black Death also witnessed the nascent stirrings of nationalism. This was partly fueled by conflicts such as the Hundred Years' War, where national identities began to solidify. People started looking beyond their immediate feudal lords and developing a sense of belonging to a larger nation [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** The Black Death acted as a catalyst, accelerating existing social and economic trends and creating new ones, ultimately paving the way for profound changes in European society and the emergence of concepts like nationalism. ### 4.4 The Renaissance and subsequent changes The period following the Black Death, often referred to as the Renaissance, marked a "rebirth" where Europeans rediscovered and embraced the knowledge and culture of ancient Rome and Greece. Humanism became a driving force, emphasizing secular life and the improvement of the earthly world. Despite the advancements, the societal impact of the plague, including a shortage of people, continued to be felt [5](#page=5). #### 4.4.1 Political developments In politics, Machiavelli's "The Prince" offered a purely logical approach to acquiring and maintaining power, unburdened by religious or moral constraints. This era saw the rise of Absolutism, where monarchs like Louis XIV of France consolidated power, creating early modern nation-states. Louis XIV used his court to control nobles and subtly governed the country. Conversely, Constitutionalism emerged in states like England, where people demanded power and governance by law, leading to conflicts between Parliament and the monarchy [5](#page=5). #### 4.4.2 Scientific and religious shifts The Renaissance fostered a spirit of inquiry, leading to new discoveries as people began to seek rational explanations for phenomena. While God remained central, religion saw a more humanist outlook, with increased focus on life in this world [5](#page=5). #### 4.4.3 Artistic and technological advancements Artistically, the period saw a revival of classical styles, moving away from the purely God-centered art of the Dark Ages towards more meaningful and narrative expressions, often drawing from biblical themes and the lives of saints. Technology also advanced, notably with the invention of the printing press [5](#page=5). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Renaissance | Known as a rebirth period where Europeans embraced the knowledge and culture of ancient Romans and Greeks, marking a time of advancement in various aspects of life after the Black Death. | | Reformation | A religious movement that challenged the authority and practices of the Catholic Church, leading to the establishment of Protestant denominations and significant shifts in religious and political power across Europe. | | Humanism | An intellectual movement during the Renaissance that emphasized human potential, achievements, and worldly concerns over purely religious or spiritual matters, while still maintaining Christian faith. | | Utopia | A concept describing an ideally perfect society, characterized by ideal conditions in labor, education, and speech, as envisioned by Thomas More. | | Indulgences | A practice within the Catholic Church where forgiveness for sins could be granted, initially through good works, but later evolving into a system where money was exchanged for spiritual benefits, contributing to church corruption. | | Diet of Worms | A significant event in 1521 where Martin Luther was summoned to appear before the Holy Roman Emperor and the Edict of Worms was issued, condemning his teachings and excommunicating him from the Catholic Church. | | Protestantism | A branch of Christianity that emerged from the Reformation, characterized by beliefs such as salvation through faith and good works, and the Bible as the ultimate religious authority, in opposition to Catholic doctrines. | | Anabaptists | A radical group during the Protestant Reformation advocating for adult baptism, the separation of church and state, and the formation of voluntary religious communities. | | Council of Trent | A pivotal council of the Catholic Church convened in response to the Protestant Reformation, meeting for eighteen years to clarify doctrines, institute reforms within the clergy, and strengthen the Church's position. | | Inquisition | A Church agency established to investigate and prosecute heresy and other religious offenses, often employing severe methods to enforce religious conformity and maintain Church control. | | Counter Reformation | The Catholic Church's organized response to the Protestant Reformation, involving reforms, the establishment of new religious orders like the Society of Jesus, and efforts to reaffirm Catholic teachings and practices. | | Printing Press | An invention attributed to Johann Gutenberg that revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge by enabling mass production of books, which facilitated the spread of new ideas, including those of Erasmus and Martin Luther. | | 95 Theses | A list of propositions for academic debate composed by Martin Luther in 1517, which critically questioned the practice of selling indulgences and other doctrines of the Catholic Church, sparking the Reformation. | | Sola Scriptura | A core tenet of Protestantism, meaning "Scripture alone," asserting that the Bible is the ultimate and sole infallible source of Christian doctrine and authority. | | Absolutism | A political doctrine and system of government in which a monarch or ruler holds supreme and unlimited power, with no checks or balances from legislative or judicial bodies. | | Constitutionalism | A system of government where the ruler's power is limited by law, and the state is governed by established legal frameworks rather than absolute monarchical authority, often involving a parliament or representative body. | | Black Death | A devastating pandemic of bubonic plague that swept through Asia and Europe in the mid-14th century, causing immense loss of life and profound societal, economic, and religious changes. | | Peasant Revolts | Uprisings and rebellions by the peasantry, often triggered by harsh economic conditions, heavy taxation, or social inequalities, which occurred in various periods of European history, including after the Black Death. | | Nationalism | A strong identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, often arising from shared culture, language, or history, and leading to a sense of unity and loyalty beyond immediate feudal ties. |