samenvatting-gezondheidsopvoeding-januari-2022.pdf

# Neuropsychological development during adolescence This topic examines the intricate development of the adolescent brain, focusing on key neural structures, cognitive control functions, and the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors that shape this crucial developmental period. ### 1.1 The adolescent brain: Key regions and control functions Understanding the adolescent brain is crucial for effectively interacting with and supporting young individuals. During adolescence, several key brain regions and control functions undergo significant development [2](#page=2): * **Hippocampus**: Primarily responsible for long-term memory formation and retrieval [2](#page=2). * **Prefrontal cortex**: Acts as the brain's executive control center, overseeing planning, decision-making, impulse control, and complex cognitive functions [2](#page=2) [9](#page=9). * **Broca's area**: Involved in language production, including speaking, writing, and understanding spoken language [2](#page=2). * **Amygdala**: The brain's primary center for processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression, and plays a role in their regulation [2](#page=2) [9](#page=9). * **Cerebral cortex (hersenschors)**: The outer layer of the brain where information from the body is received, analyzed, and interpreted. It is characterized by folds (gyri), grooves (sulci), and deep grooves (fissures) [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). * **Frontal lobe**: Associated with movement and personality [6](#page=6). * **Temporal lobe**: Involved in hearing and emotion [6](#page=6). * **Parietal lobe**: Responsible for perception and taking action [6](#page=6). * **Occipital lobe**: Plays a role in breathing and vision [6](#page=6). * **Brainstem (hersenstam)**: Connects the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord, and controls autonomic functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and breathing. Dysfunction of the brainstem leads to brain death [4](#page=4) [7](#page=7). * **Thalamus**: Acts as a relay station for sensory information, coordinating the flow of information to higher brain regions [7](#page=7). * **Hypothalamus**: Regulates the relationship between the body and behavior, influencing drives like hunger and thirst [7](#page=7). * **Cerebellum**: Crucial for complex motor skills, language processing, emotional responses (fear, pleasure), and sustained attention [7](#page=7). * **Basal ganglia**: A group of nuclei surrounding the thalamus that control movement, motivation, and reward pathways [7](#page=7). * **Limbic system**: A network of structures including the hypothalamus, thalamus, and amygdala, involved in memory, learning, motivation, and the formation of memories [4](#page=4) [7](#page=7). * **Ventricles (hersenkamers)**: Fluid-filled cavities within the brain, surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres [4](#page=4). * **Cerebral hemispheres (hersenhelften)**: The two halves of the cerebrum [4](#page=4). * **White matter**: Composed of the long projections (axons) of nerve cells, which form connections between different brain areas and are covered in myelin [5](#page=5) [8](#page=8). * **Gray matter**: Composed of the cell bodies of neurons, responsible for processing emotions, thoughts, and stimuli [5](#page=5) [8](#page=8). #### 1.1.1 Neurons and their function Neurons, also known as nerve cells, are the fundamental units of the nervous system. They function like a post office, receiving, processing, and transmitting information [8](#page=8). * **Neurogenesis**: The process of generating new neurons [9](#page=9). * **Neuroplasticity**: The brain's remarkable ability to adapt and change in response to experiences [9](#page=9). * **Myelination**: The process by which axons are covered by myelin sheaths, formed by oligodendrocytes. Myelin insulates axons and speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). * **Axon**: The long projection of a neuron that transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body [8](#page=8). * **Dendrites**: Branched extensions of a neuron that receive incoming signals from other neurons [8](#page=8). * **Cell body (soma)**: The main part of the neuron containing the nucleus and other organelles [8](#page=8). * **Synapses**: The junctions where two neurons communicate with each other [8](#page=8). The exchange of information between neurons involves gathering information at receptors, transmitting it through dendrites to the cell body, combining it with other incoming data, and sending it via an electrical discharge (nerve impulse) along the axon to the axon terminals . ### 1.2 The biopsychosocial model of adolescent development The biopsychosocial model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding adolescent development, acknowledging the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors [3](#page=3). * **Psychosocial factors**: Include family and pedagogical influences (family microculture, living situation, parental education) and socio-demographic factors (neighborhood, economic status) [3](#page=3). * **Cultural factors**: Encompass influences at macro, meso, and micro levels, such as religion, ethnicity, norms, values, and pedagogical approaches [3](#page=3). * **(Neuro)cognitive factors**: Relate to cognitive and neurocognitive processes, skills, perception, attention, information processing, and conditions like ADHD [3](#page=3). * **Psychological and pedagogical factors**: Cover emotional states, motivation, stress, and family dynamics, including the structure of the nuclear family and interactions within it [3](#page=3). * **Biological factors**: Include genetics, environmental factors (diet, sleep), brain maturation processes, and health and illness (anxiety, stress, depression, ADHD) [3](#page=3). #### 1.2.1 Risk and protective factors Adolescent development is influenced by both risk and protective factors: * **Protective factors**: These elements help to mitigate risks and promote positive development. Examples include a supportive family environment, parental education, financial resources, and engaging in free-time activities [3](#page=3). * **Risk factors**: These factors can increase the likelihood of negative outcomes. Examples include medical complications during pregnancy or birth, health problems, and learning or developmental disorders [3](#page=3). > **Tip:** Understanding these factors is crucial for identifying individuals who may need additional support and for developing effective interventions. ### 1.3 Stages of adolescence and associated changes Adolescence is typically divided into three periods, each characterized by distinct developmental changes: * **Early adolescence (10-14 years)**: Marked by hormonal influences, heightened emotions, impulsive behavior, and a reduced tendency to overthink actions. Dependence on parents begins to lessen [4](#page=4). * **Middle adolescence (14-16 years)**: Characterized by increased risk-taking behaviors and experimentation. Emotional intensity often remains high [4](#page=4). * **Late adolescence (16-22 years)**: Brain development approaches completion, leading to a better balance in emotional regulation. Individuals tend to be more socially and emotionally stable and make more well-considered decisions [4](#page=4). ### 1.4 Key cognitive and emotional changes The development of control functions and emotional regulation is a hallmark of adolescence. * **Brain maturation**: Refers to the ongoing development and improved responsiveness of the brain to stimuli [4](#page=4). * **Nurture**: Emphasizes the significant role of the environment and social interactions in shaping the brain. This aligns with the concept that "context shapes the brain" [4](#page=4). * **Self-determination (zelfbepaling)**: Involves personal commitment, perseverance, and making choices that influence behavior. It signifies having influence and control over one's life events [4](#page=4). > **Example:** During early adolescence, the amygdala's heightened activity due to hormonal changes can lead to more intense emotional reactions, while the still-developing prefrontal cortex may struggle to regulate these emotions effectively, contributing to impulsive decisions [2](#page=2) [4](#page=4). The brain can be conceptualized as a system of "storage lockers" for information and experiences. Some lockers, like those controlling breathing and heart rate, are pre-filled at birth. Others are filled with emotions, knowledge, and even trauma. In cases of trauma, the brain may "hide" certain information as a protective mechanism [8](#page=8). The core brain structures involved in emotional and rational processing are: * **Amygdala**: Processes emotions and emotional signals [9](#page=9). * **Nucleus accumbens**: Acts as the brain's reward center [9](#page=9). * **Prefrontal cortex**: Provides cognitive functions such as control and executive abilities [9](#page=9). --- # Executive functions and their impact Executive functions (EFs) are the cognitive processes that manage and regulate our behavior, thoughts, and emotions. ### 2.1 The prefrontal cortex (PFC) as the control center The prefrontal cortex (PFC) acts as the brain's control center, directing other brain regions, sensory organs, and bodily functions. Its primary roles include planning, goal-directed action, prioritizing tasks, and responding appropriately [13](#page=13). ### 2.2 Defining executive functions (EFs) Executive functions (EFs) are defined as the mental processes that enable individuals to control their behavior, thoughts, and emotions. These are the thinking processes that govern self-regulation [13](#page=13). ### 2.3 Domains within executive functions EFs encompass several key domains: * Controlled processing of sensory stimuli from the body and environment, leading to impulse control [13](#page=13). * Processing emotional and motivational values [13](#page=13). * Setting, choosing, and acting on goals [13](#page=13). * Self-awareness and self-management [13](#page=13). * Interaction within social groups and society [13](#page=13). ### 2.4 Key executive functions and their tasks A comprehensive list of executive functions and their associated tasks includes: * **Filtering of sensory and emotional information**: Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant stimuli [13](#page=13). * **Organization of attention**: Managing focus and avoiding distractions [13](#page=13). * **Impulse inhibition**: Suppressing inappropriate or premature responses [13](#page=13). * **Curiosity and initiative-taking**: The drive to explore and begin new activities [13](#page=13). * **Working memory**: Holding and manipulating information in mind [13](#page=13). * **Goal-directedness**: Maintaining focus on achieving objectives [13](#page=13). * **Flexibility**: Adapting to changing circumstances or shifting perspectives [13](#page=13). * **Planful action**: Strategizing and organizing steps to achieve goals [13](#page=13). * **Choosing and deciding**: Making decisions and selecting appropriate actions [13](#page=13). * **Self-insight**: Understanding one's own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors [13](#page=13). * **Self-regulation**: Managing emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively [13](#page=13). * **Metacognition**: Thinking about one's own thinking processes [13](#page=13). * **Monitoring**: Overseeing one's own performance and behavior [13](#page=13). * **Empathy and perspective-taking**: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others, and seeing situations from different viewpoints [13](#page=13). * **Motivation**: The drive and desire to pursue goals [13](#page=13). ### 2.5 The Marshmallow test The Marshmallow test is a famous experiment demonstrating impulse control and delayed gratification. In this test, a child is offered one treat, with the promise of receiving two treats if they can resist eating the first one until the adult returns [14](#page=14). ### 2.6 Consequences of weak executive functions Weak executive functions can lead to various negative outcomes, including increased stress, insufficient sleep, developmental disorders, and depression [14](#page=14). ### 2.7 Strategies for improving executive functions EFs can be improved through environmental modifications and direct learning to manage behavior, thoughts, and emotions [14](#page=14). ### 2.8 Language, thinking, and reasoning Key aspects of language, thinking, and reasoning include: * **Language skills**: A larger vocabulary supports reasoning and debate [14](#page=14). * **Reasoning and argumentation**: Engaging with hypothetical scenarios, such as "what if" questions [14](#page=14). * **Abstract thinking**: Developing mental schemas, fostering creativity, and learning to judge and ask "why" questions [14](#page=14). * **Thinking about thinking (metacognition)**: Reflecting on one's thoughts and associated feelings [14](#page=14). ### 2.9 The cognitive triangle The cognitive triangle illustrates the interconnectedness of three core components: * **Thoughts**: Cognitive interpretations and beliefs [14](#page=14). * **Behavior**: Actions and responses [14](#page=14). * **Feelings**: Emotional states and experiences [14](#page=14). ### 2.10 The role of the limbic system The limbic system plays a role in emotion, motivation, pleasure, and emotional memory [14](#page=14). --- # Sleep and its role in adolescent well-being This section explores the critical relationship between sleep and adolescent well-being, covering sleep hygiene, the stages and importance of sleep, and its impact on academic performance and the limbic system [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). ### 3.1 Understanding sleep Sleep is essential for daily functioning and allows the brain to process information and emotions accumulated throughout the day. The process of falling asleep involves a gradual decrease in awareness of the surroundings, a drop in body temperature, and preparation for rest. Maintaining good ventilation in the bedroom and ensuring a comfortable mattress and bed are crucial for this preparation phase [11](#page=11). #### 3.1.1 The stages of sleep Sleep occurs in cycles, each containing distinct stages: * **Light sleep:** The initial, brief, and light phase of sleep [11](#page=11). * **Deep sleep:** Occurs after approximately 20 minutes, characterized by deep relaxation of the body and brain. Brain activity is at its lowest during this stage, making it difficult to wake up [11](#page=11). * **REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep:** Follows deep sleep after about 30 minutes. It is characterized by a high heart rate and less relaxed body and brain states, during which dreaming occurs [11](#page=11). #### 3.1.2 The importance of sleep Adequate sleep is vital for several key functions: * It provides the brain with time to cleanse itself [11](#page=11). * It allows for the processing of the day's emotions [11](#page=11). * It aids in memory consolidation, helping retain what has been learned during the day [11](#page=11). #### 3.1.3 Factors influencing sleep Numerous factors can affect sleep quality: * Physical discomfort [12](#page=12). * Stress and restlessness [12](#page=12). * Daytime naps [12](#page=12). * Consumption of alcohol or coffee before bedtime [12](#page=12). * Insomnia [12](#page=12). * Sleeping too much or too little [12](#page=12). * Irregular sleep patterns [12](#page=12). * Exposure to light in the bedroom [12](#page=12). ### 3.2 Sleep hygiene in adolescents Sleep hygiene refers to practices that promote healthy sleep habits. Poor sleep hygiene can lead to or exacerbate sleep problems, while good sleep hygiene results in minimal to no sleep issues [11](#page=11). > **Tip:** Implementing consistent sleep hygiene practices is fundamental for ensuring adequate rest and overall well-being in adolescents. #### 3.2.1 Recommendations for good sleep hygiene * Ensure a dark and quiet sleep environment [11](#page=11). * Turn your alarm clock away from view [11](#page=11). * Reserve the bedroom exclusively for sleeping and sexual activity, avoiding other activities like watching TV or reading [11](#page=11). * Get out of bed if you are unable to fall asleep [11](#page=11). * Schedule a dedicated time for worrying or ruminating during the day [11](#page=11). * Maintain a regular sleep schedule [11](#page=11). * Avoid napping during the day [11](#page=11). ### 3.3 Sleep and school performance in adolescents Sleep problems can significantly impair an adolescent's ability to function effectively in school and in general [12](#page=12). #### 3.3.1 Negative impacts of poor sleep on school performance * Impaired daily functioning [12](#page=12). * Poor mood and irritability [12](#page=12). * Decreased concentration [12](#page=12). * Lack of motivation [12](#page=12). * Increased likelihood of wanting to drop out of school [12](#page=12). * Lower grades and overall poorer academic performance [12](#page=12). #### 3.3.2 Positive impacts of healthy sleep on school performance * Increased motivation [12](#page=12). * Enhanced concentration [12](#page=12). * Improved academic performance [12](#page=12). * Greater overall happiness [12](#page=12). ### 3.4 The link between the limbic system and sleep The limbic system, which is involved in emotions, motivation, and memory, has a significant connection to sleep. While this section refers to external pages for detailed explanation, it highlights that sleep plays a role in the regulation and processing of emotional experiences managed by the limbic system [12](#page=12). --- # Stress, resilience, and self-confidence This section explores the interconnected concepts of stressors, stress reactions, and different stress types, detailing the neurophysiological stress networks and the HPA axis, while defining self-confidence and resilience. ## 4. Stress, resilience, and self-confidence ### 4.1 Stressors and stress reactions A **stressor** is an external cause of stress, such as work-related pressure, challenging situations, or exams. A **stress reaction** occurs when prolonged stress leads to the development of symptoms, indicating the body's response to sustained pressure [18](#page=18). ### 4.2 Types of stress There are three distinct types of stress [18](#page=18): * **Positive stress:** This type of stress keeps an individual alert and can enhance performance. It typically involves short-lived or infrequent stressors of mild to moderate intensity, buffered by social-emotional support, which aids in building resilience and coping mechanisms [18](#page=18). * **Tolerable stress:** This involves more frequent or persistent stressors of moderate to severe intensity, also buffered by social-emotional support. While it does not cause permanent changes, it contributes to the development of resilience and coping skills [18](#page=18). * **Chronic-toxic stress:** This is characterized by frequent or prolonged severe stressors. When social-emotional buffering is insufficient, chronic-toxic stress can lead to alterations in brain networks and the architecture of the developing brain [18](#page=18). ### 4.3 Neuropsychological perspective of stress networks From a neuropsychological viewpoint, the stress response involves intricate networks within the brain that interact with endocrine glands. These networks function as an integrated system, influencing behavior and bodily processes through neurotransmitters and hormones. The biopsychosocial model highlights how influencing factors, categorized as risk and protective elements, are linked to these stress networks [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19) [21](#page=21). #### 4.3.1 The five neurophysiological brain networks The stress network is comprised of five neurophysiological brain networks and their connections to hormone glands. These networks continuously influence each other to orchestrate the stress response. They form a functional system despite their anatomical and physiological diversity. This network, utilizing nerve cells and stress hormones, impacts both the brain and numerous other organs [19](#page=19). The core of the stress network consists of three primary networks [19](#page=19): 1. **The reptilian stress network:** * This network prepares the body for immediate action, facilitating the "fight, flight, or freeze" responses [19](#page=19). * It comprises the locus coeruleus in the brainstem, the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system, and the adrenal medulla, which produces adrenaline [19](#page=19). 2. **The mammalian stress network (emotional brain):** * This network ensures adequate energy availability in specific areas, assesses events based on past experiences and emotions stored in memory, regulates prolonged responses, and plays a role in adapting to environmental changes [20](#page=20). * It includes the limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus) and connects to the pituitary gland and adrenal cortex, which produces cortisol [20](#page=20). * Via neural and hormonal pathways, it directly communicates with nearly all organ systems, and most body cells possess cortisol receptors [20](#page=20). 3. **The human stress network (cognitive brain):** * Located in the cerebral cortex, the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is crucial for the stress response [20](#page=20). * The mPFC houses executive functions such as appraisal, planning, and decision-making, as well as self-regulation [20](#page=20). * Generally, the mPFC exerts an evaluative, controlling, and, if necessary, inhibitory influence on the stress response. It assesses the nature and severity of stressors and determines appropriate actions, functioning as the command center for coordinating the stress response [20](#page=20). These three core networks are closely connected to two additional networks: the emotion and reward network, and the compassion network [20](#page=20). * **The emotion and reward network:** * This network utilizes the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine [20](#page=20). * These hormones significantly influence stress-related emotional reactions and the impact of comfort and support [20](#page=20). * There is a balance between serotonin and dopamine, where each inhibits the production of the other [21](#page=21). * **Serotonin** (the "happiness hormone") affects mood, self-confidence, sleep, and pain processing, promoting enjoyment, liveliness, sociability, optimism, and good sleep. It is also necessary for melatonin production, influencing sleep. A significant portion of serotonin is absorbed in the gut, explaining the link between gut issues and depressive symptoms [21](#page=21). * **Dopamine** (the "reward hormone") can numb negative emotions associated with stress but does not reduce the stress level itself. High dopamine levels can lead to unhealthy "dopamine behaviors" like overeating, smoking, alcohol/drug use, and sex addiction, while the body suffers from the combined effects of stress and these behaviors [21](#page=21). * **The compassion network:** * Composed of neurons using oxytocin (the "cuddle hormone") as a neurotransmitter, this network regulates interpersonal processes [21](#page=21). * Oxytocin links social contact with pleasure, attachment, friendships, and love. It can foster altruism and bonding within a group but may promote aggression towards other groups perceived as threatening [21](#page=21). * Within the context of stress, the oxytocin network plays a vital role in stress reduction through a supportive and comforting environment [21](#page=21). The interplay of these five brain networks enables a sophisticated response to stressors. Beyond the brain's direct influence on behavior and bodily processes, the stress response is largely managed by stress hormones, with adrenaline, cortisol, serotonin, dopamine, and oxytocin being the most recognized. These hormones act as neurotransmitters in the central nervous system and also exert their influence throughout the body via the bloodstream [21](#page=21). #### 4.3.2 Window and tolerance * **Window:** This refers to the zone within which a child can manage stress. It acts as a "frame" for stress experiences [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22). * **Tolerance:** This concept describes what happens within the window. If stress remains within the tolerable limits (within the window), there is no problem. However, if stress exceeds these limits, it can lead to negative outcomes, such as the development of trauma [22](#page=22). #### 4.3.3 The stress response system The stress response system involves the autonomic nervous system and the HPA axis [22](#page=22). * **HPA axis:** This stands for the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis [22](#page=22). * Adrenaline and cortisol are the hormones that drive the physiological stress reaction. Adrenaline is released rapidly by the adrenal medulla, while cortisol acts more slowly to regulate the initial stress response [22](#page=22). * In cases of continuous stress, the body produces cortisol (a glucocorticosteroid), which is regulated by the HPA axis [22](#page=22). * The HPA axis functions as a feedback or thermostat system [22](#page=22). ### 4.4 Self-confidence and resilience #### 4.4.1 Self-confidence Self-confidence is defined as the feeling that one does not need anyone else to achieve their goals [22](#page=22). **Characteristics of self-confidence include:** * Trust in one's own strength [22](#page=22). * A feeling of balance, with the body and mind working in unison [22](#page=22). * The ability to laugh at oneself, either during or after an event [22](#page=22). * Proactive rather than defensive behavior and communication [22](#page=22). * The capacity to articulate one's feelings [22](#page=22). * Determination [22](#page=22). * Confident self-belief [22](#page=22). * Assertiveness [22](#page=22). * Firmness [22](#page=22). * Adherence to one's own values [22](#page=22). #### 4.4.2 Resilience Resilience is defined as how individuals cope with challenging and/or stressful situations, and how well-being can be understood, predicted, and/or promoted within a given context [22](#page=22). > **Tip:** Resilience and self-confidence are intertwined. Strong self-confidence can be a significant protective factor, contributing to an individual's ability to navigate and recover from stressful situations. ### 4.5 Personal builders and breakers **Personal builders** refer to one's own behavior that contributes to personal growth and self-assurance. However, individuals can also "break" themselves; an excessive buildup of self-assurance can become detrimental [22](#page=22). --- # Nutrition, physical activity, and healthy habits This topic examines the multifaceted relationship between movement, sedentary behavior, healthy eating, and the prevention of common health issues, particularly back pain. ### 5.1 Understanding movement and sedentary behavior Sedentary behavior refers to activities that involve a low energy expenditure while in a sitting, reclining, or lying posture. The energy expenditure during sedentary behavior is typically between 1 to 1.5 MET (Metabolic Equivalent of Task) values. The total energy expenditure of an activity per minute can be calculated using the formula: (MET value of activity) x 3.5 x body weight. Prolonged sedentary behavior can lead to various physiological processes occurring within the body [23](#page=23). #### 5.1.1 The movement triangle The movement triangle categorizes physical activities into different intensity levels [23](#page=23): * **Sedentary behavior:** This includes activities like sitting in school or doing homework [23](#page=23). * **Light intensity movement:** Examples include talking on the phone while standing, yoga, or playing snooker [23](#page=23). * **Moderate intensity movement:** This encompasses activities such as cycling or washing windows [23](#page=23). * **High intensity movement:** Examples include walking up stairs, brisk cycling, or jogging [23](#page=23). ##### 5.1.1.1 Tips for a healthy lifestyle There are several key tips for adopting a healthy lifestyle: * **Sit less and move more:** Stand up and walk for a few minutes every half hour [23](#page=23). * **Take it step by step:** Even small amounts of movement are better than none [23](#page=23). * **Aim for a healthy mix of sitting, standing, and moving daily:** Try to engage in light-intensity movement for the majority of the day [24](#page=24). * **Vary your movement and reduce sitting:** Alternate between different activities and sitting positions [24](#page=24). * **Exchange unhealthy choices for healthy ones:** Opt for cycling more frequently [24](#page=24). * **Feel good:** Choose activities you enjoy [24](#page=24). * **Think ahead and plan:** Define who, what, where, and when activities will occur [24](#page=24). * **Adapt your environment:** Create surroundings that encourage less sitting and more movement [24](#page=24). ##### 5.1.1.2 Benefits of movement by age group Different age categories experience specific benefits from physical activity [24](#page=24): * **Babies, toddlers, and preschoolers (0-5 years):** * Healthy growth and development [24](#page=24). * Improved social skills [24](#page=24). * Strengthened muscles and bones [24](#page=24). * **Children and adolescents (6-17 years):** * Better sleep [24](#page=24). * Reduced risk of depression [24](#page=24). * Healthy weight maintenance [24](#page=24). * **Adults and seniors (65+):** * Improved sleep quality [24](#page=24). * Healthy weight maintenance [24](#page=24). * Reduced risk of depression and anxiety [24](#page=24). ##### 5.1.1.3 Establishing an active and fit lifestyle Creating an active lifestyle involves setting achievable goals and planning effectively. Key elements include [24](#page=24): * **Five achievable goals to sit less and move more** [24](#page=24). * **Four contexts for physical activity:** * Home environment [24](#page=24). * Commuting/Travel [24](#page=24). * School [24](#page=24). * Leisure time [24](#page=24). * **Alternatives for potential obstacles** within these contexts [24](#page=24). * **Tools to support activity:** * Diary [24](#page=24). * Pedometer [24](#page=24). * Apps [24](#page=24). * **The 5 W's for a movement plan:** What, Why, When, Where, and With Whom [24](#page=24). ### 5.2 Good posture and safe movement Maintaining good posture and moving safely are crucial for preventing common ailments, particularly back pain [24](#page=24). #### 5.2.1 Understanding back pain Back pain can arise from several factors [24](#page=24): * **Overload of the back:** This can be caused by stress, being overweight, or incorrect movement patterns [24](#page=24). * **Underload:** This is often due to an increase in sedentary behavior, leading to muscle weakening [24](#page=24). #### 5.2.2 Maintaining balance and spinal health To maintain balance and support spinal health: * **Ergonomics:** Optimizing the environment and tools to fit the user [24](#page=24). * **Stabilization:** Strengthening core muscles to support the spine [24](#page=24). #### 5.2.3 Spinal structure for a healthy back The spine is designed to support the body and facilitate movement [25](#page=25): * It consists of 24 stacked vertebrae [25](#page=25). * The vertebrae are supported by the sacrum [25](#page=25). * The natural curves of the spine provide balance and act as shock absorbers through the intervertebral discs [25](#page=25). #### 5.2.4 Achieving good standing posture A good standing posture involves aligning key body points [25](#page=25): * The ear, middle of the shoulders, middle of the hips, and middle of the knees should align on a single vertical line [25](#page=25). * Distribute weight evenly on both legs [25](#page=25). * Slightly bend the knees [25](#page=25). * Pull the shoulder blades back [25](#page=25). #### 5.2.5 Posture types and their characteristics Different posture types exist, each with distinct characteristics [25](#page=25): * **Sway-back posture:** Often described as a "lazy" posture [25](#page=25). * **Kypholordotic posture:** A combination of excessive thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis. * **Hyperlordotic posture:** An excessive inward curve of the lumbar spine. * **Flattened posture:** A loss of the natural spinal curves. #### 5.2.6 Achieving good sitting posture A good sitting posture involves several key elements [25](#page=25): * Feet should be flat on the floor with knees lower than the hips [25](#page=25). * Ensure there is space between the back of the knees and the edge of the seat [25](#page=25). * The lower back support should be positioned just above the beltline [25](#page=25). * Shoulders should be against the back support [25](#page=25). * It is recommended to stand up every 20 to 30 minutes [25](#page=25). #### 5.2.7 Stabilizing exercises for back pain prevention Specific stabilizing exercises can help prevent back pain [25](#page=25). ### 5.3 Nutrients Nutrients are essential components of food that support life and health [25](#page=25). #### 5.3.1 Macronutrients Macronutrients are the nutrients the body needs in large amounts. They include [25](#page=25): * **Proteins:** Serve as building blocks for the body [25](#page=25). * **Fats:** Provide energy [25](#page=25). * **Carbohydrates:** Act as fuel for the body [25](#page=25). * **Alcohol:** Also provides energy [25](#page=25). * **Water:** Essential for numerous bodily functions [25](#page=25). #### 5.3.2 Carbohydrates: Simple vs. complex Carbohydrates are classified into two main types [25](#page=25): * **Simple carbohydrates ("fast sugars"):** Provide immediate energy. Examples include [25](#page=25): * (Specific examples not detailed in the provided text, but generally include monosaccharides like glucose and disaccharides like sucrose). * **Complex carbohydrates ("slow sugars"):** Provide energy over a longer period. Examples include [25](#page=25): * (Specific examples not detailed in the provided text, but generally include polysaccharides like starch and fiber). ##### 5.3.2.1 Consequences of low carbohydrate intake Insufficient carbohydrate intake can lead to several negative effects [25](#page=25): * Increased hunger [25](#page=25). * Energy dips or fatigue [25](#page=25). * Constant cravings for sweets [25](#page=25). * Increased snacking [25](#page=25). ##### 5.3.2.2 Glycemic Index (GI) factor The Glycemic Index (GI) factor describes the effect of carbohydrate-containing foods on blood glucose levels. It indicates the speed and degree to which glucose appears in the blood after consuming a carbohydrate-rich food [25](#page=25). #### 5.3.3 Vitamins and their functions Vitamins are essential micronutrients with specific roles in the body. Deficiencies can lead to various health consequences [26](#page=26): * **Vitamin A:** * Function: Growth of teeth and bones, protection against infection [26](#page=26). * Sources: Full-fat dairy products, fatty fish, green leafy vegetables [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Night blindness, kidney stones, skin problems [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin D:** * Function: Growth of teeth and bones, maintenance of heart activity and nervous system [26](#page=26). * Sources: Egg yolk, fatty fish, full-fat dairy products [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Bone pain, muscle weakness, muscle cramps [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin E:** * Function: Protects blood cells and tissues from breakdown [26](#page=26). * Sources: Whole grains, fruits, eggs [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin K:** * Function: Blood clotting, bone metabolism [26](#page=26). * Sources: Green leafy vegetables, meat, full-fat dairy products [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin B1 (Thiamine):** * Function: Carbohydrate metabolism, growth, and muscle tension [26](#page=26). * Sources: Potatoes, brown rice, oat flakes [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Fatigue, depression, nausea [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin):** * Function: Digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats [26](#page=26). * Sources: Grain products, dairy, green leafy vegetables [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Eczema, fatigue [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin B3 (Niacin):** * Function: Extracting energy from food [26](#page=26). * Sources: Meat, fish, and grain products [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Diarrhea, skin conditions [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid):** * Function: Role in digestion [26](#page=26). * Sources: Grain products, vegetables, and meat [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Cramps, fatigue, insomnia [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine):** * Function: Production of body tissues [26](#page=26). * Sources: Meat, fish, eggs [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Anemia, neurological disorders, skin problems [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin B9 (Folate):** * Function: Development of genetic material [26](#page=26). * Sources: Whole grain products, fruits, eggs [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Lethargy, listlessness, irritability [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin):** * Function: Cell development [26](#page=26). * Sources: Exclusively animal products [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Anemia, tremors, menstrual irregularities [26](#page=26). * **Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid):** * Function: Defense against diseases, hormone production, promotes iron absorption [26](#page=26). * Sources: Potatoes, vegetables, and fruits [26](#page=26). * Deficiency consequences: Joint pain, heart problems, weakness [26](#page=26). #### 5.3.4 Bioactive substances Bioactive substances are not essential for the body's functioning but can have health-promoting effects [27](#page=27). #### 5.3.5 Contaminants Contaminants are unwanted substances found in food products [27](#page=27). #### 5.3.6 Aromas Aromas are substances that contribute to the smell and taste of food [27](#page=27). #### 5.3.7 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) GMOs involve manipulating DNA to change the characteristics of organisms [27](#page=27). ### 5.4 Dietary patterns Dietary patterns refer to the habitual consumption of foods. The document lists some popular diets from the last decade [27](#page=27): * **Paleo Diet:** * Description: Eating like humans did in the Stone Age [27](#page=27). * Goal: To mimic ancestral eating habits [27](#page=27). * Potential Advantages: (Not specified in the text) [27](#page=27). * Potential Disadvantages: Expensive diet and can be detrimental to the planet [27](#page=27). * Weight Loss: Can result in weight loss if essential nutrients are omitted, leading to reduced calorie intake [27](#page=27). * **Low-carbohydrate Diet:** * Description: Limiting bread, rice, potatoes, and pasta [27](#page=27). * Goal: To reduce carbohydrate intake [27](#page=27). * Potential Advantages: (Not specified in the text) [27](#page=27). * Potential Disadvantages: Can lead to deficiencies in magnesium, calcium, and potassium [27](#page=27). * Weight Loss: Rapid initial weight loss, with weight regain upon cessation of the diet [27](#page=27). * **Ketogenic Diet (Keto Diet):** * Description: An extreme form of a low-carbohydrate diet [27](#page=27). * Goal: To induce ketosis for weight loss [27](#page=27). * Potential Advantages: Very rapid weight loss [27](#page=27). * Potential Disadvantages: Digestive problems, including constipation [27](#page=27). * Weight Loss: Very rapid weight loss [27](#page=27). * **Protein Diet:** * Description: Emphasizes high protein intake over fats [27](#page=27). * Goal: To leverage muscle's calorie-burning potential [27](#page=27). * Potential Advantages: Muscles consume calories [27](#page=27). * Potential Disadvantages: (Not specified in the text) [27](#page=27). * Weight Loss: (Not specified in the text) [27](#page=27). * **Intermittent Fasting:** * Description: A pattern of eating, such as the 5:2 method (eating normally for 5 days and restricting calories for 2 days) [27](#page=27). * Goal: To regulate calorie intake through timed eating periods [27](#page=27). * Potential Advantages: Skipping snacks can lead to reduced overall intake [27](#page=27). * Potential Disadvantages: Increased hunger [27](#page=27). * Weight Loss: Can lead to weight loss by eliminating snacks, promoting mindful eating, and reducing alcohol consumption [27](#page=27). ### 5.5 Food labeling Food labels provide essential information for making informed dietary choices [28](#page=28). #### 5.5.1 Mandatory information on food labels Several pieces of information are legally required on food labels [28](#page=28): * The sales name (and the work) [28](#page=28). * The ingredients list [28](#page=28). * Nutritional value [28](#page=28). * Contact details of the manufacturer, location, and origin [28](#page=28). * The minimum shelf life [28](#page=28). * Special storage and usage instructions [28](#page=28). * The net weight [28](#page=28). * Alcohol content (if applicable) [28](#page=28). * Instructions for use (if applicable) [28](#page=28). #### 5.5.2 Steps for making healthy food choices Three steps can guide healthy food choices [28](#page=28): * Review the nutritional information table [28](#page=28). * Check the ingredients list [28](#page=28). * Consider the portion size [28](#page=28). #### 5.5.3 Types of nutrition tables There are three types of nutrition tables, each with distinct characteristics [28](#page=28): * **Neutral tables:** Present figures and percentages without a direct judgment of health value [28](#page=28). * **Positive tables:** Products marked with a "+" are considered a healthier choice [28](#page=28). * **Color-coded tables:** Such as the Nutri-Score, use a color system to indicate health value [28](#page=28). #### 5.5.4 Understanding Nutri-Score The Nutri-Score system uses a letter-based scale from dark green (best nutritional value) to red (worst nutritional value). It provides a global assessment of the product's nutritional quality [28](#page=28). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Adolescentie | The period of human development between puberty and adulthood, characterized by significant physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes, typically ranging from ages 10 to 22. This stage is further divided into early (10-14 years), middle (14-16 years), and late (16-22 years) adolescence. | | Amygdala | A brain structure, part of the limbic system, primarily responsible for processing emotions and emotional signals, playing a crucial role in fear and pleasure responses. It is considered a key component in emotional regulation during adolescence. | | Biopsychosocial Model | A comprehensive framework that explains development by considering the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. This model emphasizes how genetic predispositions, brain maturation, individual emotions and cognition, and environmental influences collectively shape an individual's development. | | Brain Networks | Interconnected systems within the brain that facilitate communication and processing. These networks can grow and adapt based on experiences but can also be disrupted by trauma, highlighting the dynamic nature of brain structure and function. | | Cerebellum | A major structure of the hindbrain that controls coordinated movement, posture, balance, coordination, and speech, thus contributing to complex motor skills and also playing a role in attention, language, and emotional responses. | | Cerebral Cortex | The outermost layer of the cerebrum, often referred to as the "gray matter," responsible for processing sensory information, higher-level cognitive functions, and conscious thought. It is highly folded, creating sulci and gyri, and is divided into lobes. | | Cerebrum Hemispheres | The two symmetrical halves of the cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, which are responsible for different functions but work together. These hemispheres surround the ventricles and are composed of gray and white matter. | | Cerebrum Ventricles | Fluid-filled cavities within the brain that produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions the brain and spinal cord, providing nourishment and removing waste. The two cerebral hemispheres enclose these four ventricles. | | Control Functions | Cognitive abilities that enable individuals to plan, initiate, and monitor goal-directed behaviors. During adolescence, key control functions develop, including those managed by the hippocampus (long-term memory), prefrontal cortex (executive control), Broca's area (language), and amygdala (emotion). | | Early Adolescence | The initial phase of adolescence, typically spanning from ages 10 to 14 years, characterized by significant hormonal influences, intensified emotions, impulsive behavior, and a decrease in parental dependence as individuals begin to explore independence. | | Executive Functions | A set of cognitive processes, largely controlled by the prefrontal cortex, that are essential for goal-directed behavior. These include planning, working memory, impulse control, and decision-making, all of which undergo significant development during adolescence. | | Frontal Lobe | The largest of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, located at the front of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as planning, decision-making, personality, voluntary movement, and social behavior. | | Genes | Hereditary units of DNA that carry genetic information, influencing a wide range of physical and psychological traits. Genes interact with environmental factors to shape an individual's development, including brain maturation and susceptibility to certain conditions. | | Gray Matter | Brain tissue composed primarily of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons, responsible for processing information, including emotions, thoughts, and sensory stimuli. It forms the outer layer of the cerebral cortex. | | Hippocampus | A crucial brain structure within the limbic system, primarily involved in the formation, consolidation, and retrieval of long-term memories. Its development during adolescence is vital for learning and adaptation. | | Hypothalamus | A small but vital brain region located below the thalamus that plays a key role in regulating bodily functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, sleep-wake cycles, and the release of hormones. It also links the nervous system to the endocrine system. | | Limbic System | A complex set of structures in the brain, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus, that plays a primary role in emotion, memory, motivation, and learning. Its development and maturation are critical during adolescence. | | Middle Adolescence | The intermediate stage of adolescence, generally occurring between ages 14 and 16, often marked by increased risk-taking behavior, experimentation with identity and social roles, and continued emotional intensity as individuals navigate more complex social environments. | | Myelin | A fatty insulating sheath that surrounds the axons of neurons, increasing the speed and efficiency of electrical signal transmission. The process of myelination is crucial for brain development and cognitive function, particularly during adolescence. | | Myelination | The process by which myelin sheaths are formed around nerve cell axons. This process, driven by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system, significantly enhances the speed and efficiency of neural communication and is a key aspect of brain maturation in adolescence. | | Neurocognition | The study of the relationship between brain function and cognitive processes. This includes examining how neural mechanisms underlie attention, perception, memory, language, and executive functions, all of which are rapidly developing during adolescence. | | Neurogenesis | The process by which new neurons are generated in the brain. While most neurogenesis occurs during prenatal development, some limited generation of new neurons continues in specific brain regions throughout adulthood, including during adolescence. | | Neuron | A nerve cell, the fundamental unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals. Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites (receiving signals), and an axon (transmitting signals). | | Neuroplasticity | The brain's remarkable ability to reorganize its structure, function, and connections in response to experiences, learning, injury, or environmental changes. This adaptability is particularly pronounced during adolescence, allowing for significant learning and development. | | Neuropsychology | The scientific study of the relationship between brain structure and function and behavior. It aims to understand how the brain influences cognitive processes, emotions, and actions, especially in the context of development and potential disorders. | | Nurture | The environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual's development. This concept emphasizes the role of upbringing, education, social interactions, and cultural context in shaping the brain and behavior, often contrasted with nature (genetics). | | Occipital Lobe | One of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, located at the back of the brain, primarily responsible for processing visual information, including sight and visual perception. | | Parietal Lobe | One of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, located behind the frontal lobe, responsible for processing sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain, and pressure, as well as spatial awareness, navigation, and integrating sensory input. | | Prefrontal Cortex | The anterior part of the frontal lobe, considered the "control center" of the brain, responsible for complex cognitive functions such as planning, decision-making, working memory, impulse control, and social behavior. It undergoes extensive development throughout adolescence. | | Pruning | A neurodevelopmental process in which unnecessary or unused synaptic connections between neurons are eliminated. This "use it or lose it" mechanism refines neural circuits, making brain processing more efficient, and is particularly active during adolescence. | | Psychosocial Factors | Elements related to an individual's psychological state and their social environment, including family dynamics, peer relationships, cultural norms, and socioeconomic status. These factors significantly influence adolescent development and mental health. | | Risk Factors | Elements that increase the likelihood of negative developmental outcomes or the onset of health problems. In adolescence, these can include prenatal complications, health issues, learning disabilities, and challenging environmental conditions. | | Self-determination | The capacity of an individual to exert personal effort, demonstrate perseverance, and make choices that influence their own life and behavior. It involves a sense of control and autonomy over one's actions and experiences. | | Sulci | The grooves or infoldings on the surface of the cerebral cortex, which increase the surface area of the brain and allow for more neurons to be packed into the skull. | | Synapses | Specialized junctions between neurons where information is transmitted from one neuron to another, typically via chemical neurotransmitters. These are the sites of communication within the brain. | | Temporal Lobe | One of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, located beneath the temples, primarily responsible for processing auditory information, memory, and language comprehension. It also plays a role in emotions and emotional responses. | | White Matter | Brain tissue composed mainly of myelinated axons, which form the connections between different brain regions. Its primary function is to facilitate rapid communication throughout the brain by transmitting nerve impulses efficiently. | | Zenuwcel | (Neuron) A nerve cell, the fundamental unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals. Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites (receiving signals), and an axon (transmitting signals). | | Executive Functions (EFs) | The cognitive processes that control and regulate behavior, thoughts, and emotions, enabling goal-directed actions and adaptive responses to the environment. These functions are primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex. | | Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) | The foremost part of the frontal lobe of the brain, acting as the control center for executive functions. It orchestrates planning, goal-directed behavior, prioritization, and reactive responses. | | Marshmallow Test | A classic experiment where a child is offered one treat (e.g., a marshmallow) and told that if they can resist eating it until the adult returns, they will receive two treats. This test is used to assess impulse control and delayed gratification, which are components of executive functions. | | Weak EFs | A deficiency or impairment in executive functions, which can lead to various negative consequences such as increased stress, sleep disturbances, developmental disorders, and depression. | | Impulse Control (Impulsbeheersing) | The ability to resist immediate urges and refrain from acting on them, allowing for more considered and appropriate behavior. This is a key component of executive functions. | | Goal Setting and Action (Doelen stellen, kiezen en handelen) | The executive function domain that involves identifying objectives, making choices about how to achieve them, and initiating and carrying out the necessary actions. | | Metacognition | The cognitive process of "thinking about thinking," which involves being aware of one's own thought processes, monitoring them, and regulating them effectively. | | Self-Regulation (Zelfregulatie) | The ability to manage one's emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in response to different situations, aligning them with desired outcomes and maintaining control. | | Flexibility | The executive function that allows individuals to adapt their thinking and behavior in response to changing circumstances or new information, switching between tasks or perspectives. | | Planning (Planmatig handelen) | The executive function responsible for developing strategies and sequences of actions to achieve a specific goal, involving foresight and organization. | | Cognitive Development | The process through which individuals acquire and develop their thinking abilities, including reasoning, problem-solving, memory, and language, from infancy through adulthood. | | Sleep Hygiene | Practices that promote good sleep, such as maintaining a dark, quiet, and cool bedroom, establishing a regular sleep schedule, and avoiding stimulating activities before bed. | | Sleep Stages | Distinct phases of sleep characterized by different brain wave patterns and physiological activity, including light sleep, deep sleep, and REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. | | Light Sleep | The initial stage of sleep, characterized by a transition from wakefulness and a state of reduced awareness of the environment, being relatively easy to awaken from. | | Deep Sleep | A stage of sleep that occurs after light sleep, during which the body and brain are highly relaxed with the lowest brain activity, making it difficult to be awakened. | | REM Sleep | A stage of sleep following deep sleep, characterized by increased heart rate, brain activity similar to wakefulness, and vivid dreaming, where the body and brain are less relaxed. | | Sleep Deprivation | The condition of not getting enough sleep, which can negatively impact cognitive functions, mood, motivation, and academic performance. | | School Performance | The academic achievements and success of students, which can be significantly influenced by factors such as concentration, motivation, and cognitive function, all of which are affected by sleep. | | Sleep Cycle | A repeating pattern of sleep stages that occurs throughout the night, typically consisting of cycles of light sleep, deep sleep, and REM sleep. | | Emotional Processing | The mechanism by which the brain manages and integrates daily emotional experiences during sleep, contributing to emotional regulation and well-being. | | Stressor | An event or factor that triggers a stress response in the body, such as work-related pressures, challenging situations, or examinations. | | Stress Reaction | The physiological and psychological response that occurs when prolonged stress is present, leading to the development of complaints or symptoms as the body reacts to sustained pressure. | | Positive Stress | A type of stress that enhances alertness and performance, typically associated with short-lived or infrequent stressors of mild to moderate intensity, which aids in building resilience and coping mechanisms. | | Tolerable Stress | Stress that arises from more frequent or persistent stressors of moderate to severe intensity, which, when buffered by socio-emotional support, does not lead to lasting changes and contributes to the development of resilience and coping strategies. | | Chronic-Toxic Stress | Severe stressors that are frequent or persistent, coupled with insufficient socio-emotional buffering, leading to changes in brain networks and the architecture of the developing brain. | | Neurophysiological Stress Networks | The interconnected systems within the brain and their links to endocrine glands that collectively manage the body's response to stress. These networks work together to regulate the stress response. | | Reptilian Stress Network | A fundamental stress network responsible for preparing the body for immediate action, initiating "fight," "flight," or "freeze" responses. It comprises the locus coeruleus, the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system, and the adrenal medulla, which releases adrenaline. | | Mammalian Stress Network | Also referred to as the "emotional brain," this network ensures energy availability, assesses events based on past emotional experiences stored in memory, regulates prolonged responses, and facilitates adaptation to environmental changes. It includes the limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus) and is connected to the pituitary gland and adrenal cortex, which produces cortisol. | | Human Stress Network | Located in the cerebral cortex, also known as the "cognitive brain," this network is crucial for stress response, particularly the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). It houses executive functions like assessment, planning, decision-making, and self-regulation, exerting an evaluative, controlling, and inhibitory influence on the stress response. | | Emotion and Reward Network | This network involves brain cells utilizing neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine, which significantly influence stress-related emotional reactions and the impact of comfort and support. | | Compassion Network | Composed of neurons that use oxytocin as a neurotransmitter, this network regulates interpersonal processes, linking social contact with pleasure, attachment, friendship, and love. It can foster altruism and bonding within groups but may induce aggression towards other groups perceived as threatening. | | Serotonin | A neurotransmitter, often called the "happiness hormone," that influences mood, self-confidence, sleep, and pain processing. It promotes enjoyment, liveliness, sociability, optimism, and aids in sleep by being necessary for melatonin production. | | Dopamine | Known as the "reward hormone," high levels can numb negative emotions associated with stress but do not reduce the stress level itself. This can lead to detrimental behaviors like overeating, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or sex addiction. | | Oxytocin | The "cuddle hormone," a neurotransmitter that regulates interpersonal processes. It connects social interactions with positive feelings, attachment, and friendships, strengthening in-group bonds and altruism, but potentially increasing aggression towards out-groups perceived as threats. | | HPA Axis (Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis) | A neuroendocrine system that regulates the body's response to stress. It involves the hypothalamus releasing corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), the pituitary gland releasing adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and the adrenal glands releasing cortisol and adrenaline. | | Self-Confidence | The internal feeling of not needing anyone else to achieve one's desired goals, characterized by trust in one's own abilities and a balanced state of mind and body. | | Resilience | The capacity of individuals to effectively navigate and adapt to challenging and/or stressful situations, encompassing the understanding, prediction, and promotion of well-being within specific contexts. | | Window | A metaphorical zone representing the capacity of a child to manage stress. If stress remains within this tolerable range, there is no issue; however, if it exceeds this window, negative outcomes like trauma can occur. | | Tolerance | The ability to withstand stress without experiencing negative consequences. It relates to the concept of the "window," where stress is manageable if it remains within acceptable limits. | | Sedentary behavior | A behavior characterized by low energy expenditure, typically while sitting, reclining, or lying down. Examples include sitting at school or doing homework. | | MET value | Metabolic Equivalent of Task, a measure of the energy expenditure of physical activity. 1 MET is the energy expenditure of sitting quietly. | | Energy expenditure formula per minute | The calculation to determine energy expenditure for an activity per minute: (MET value of activity) x 3.5 x body weight. | | Movement categories | Classification of physical activities based on intensity: sedentary behavior, light-intensity, moderate-intensity, and high-intensity movement. | | Light-intensity movement | Physical activities with a low energy expenditure, such as standing and talking, or practicing yoga. | | Moderate-intensity movement | Physical activities that increase heart rate and breathing, such as cycling or washing windows. | | High-intensity movement | Vigorous physical activities that significantly raise heart rate and breathing, such as climbing stairs, brisk cycling, or jogging. | | Healthy lifestyle tips | Recommendations for maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including reducing sedentary time, increasing physical activity, choosing healthy food options, and planning activities. | | Age categories and benefits | Groupings of ages with associated health benefits from physical activity, such as healthy growth and development for young children, better sleep for children and adults, and reduced risk of depression for older adults. | | Contexts for movement | Different environments or situations where physical activity can occur, including the home environment, during transportation, at school, and in leisure time. | | Five W's of a movement plan | Key questions to consider when developing a plan for physical activity: What, Why, When, Where, and With Whom. | | Back pain causes | Factors contributing to back pain, such as overuse from stress, excess weight, or incorrect movement, and underuse due to sedentary behavior and muscle weakening. | | Spinal column structure | The composition of the spine, including 24 stacked vertebrae, the sacrum, and spinal curves that provide balance and shock absorption via intervertebral discs. | | Good standing posture | An upright stance where the ear, middle of the shoulder, middle of the hip, and middle of the knee are aligned vertically, with weight distributed evenly and knees slightly bent. | | Posture types | Different bodily alignments, including sway-back, kypholo-dotic, hyperlordotic, and flattened postures, each with distinct characteristics. | | Good sitting posture | A seated position with feet flat on the floor, knees lower than hips, space between the seat and knees, lumbar support just above the belt, shoulders against the backrest, and regular standing breaks. | | Macronutrients | Essential nutrients required in large amounts, including proteins (building blocks), fats (energy), carbohydrates (fuel), alcohol (energy), and water. | | Simple carbohydrates | Sugars that provide immediate energy, often referred to as "fast sugars." | | Complex carbohydrates | Sugars that provide energy over a longer period, known as "slow sugars." | | Glycemic Index (GI) factor | A measure of how quickly carbohydrate-containing foods raise blood glucose levels after consumption, indicating the speed and extent of glucose entry into the blood. | | Vitamins and their functions | Essential organic compounds required in small amounts for various bodily functions, including bone growth (Vitamin A, D), immune protection (Vitamin A, C), blood clotting (Vitamin K), and energy metabolism (B vitamins). | | Bioactive substances | Compounds not essential for life but may have health-promoting effects. | | Contaminants | Undesirable substances found in food that can impact health. | | Aromas | Substances that contribute to the smell and taste of food products. | | Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) | An organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques to change its characteristics. | | Popular diets | Various eating plans designed for weight loss or health improvement, such as the Paleolithic diet, low-carbohydrate diet, ketogenic diet, protein diet, and intermittent fasting. | | Food label information | Required data on food packaging, including the product name, ingredient list, nutritional values, manufacturer's details, expiry date, storage instructions, net weight, and alcohol content. | | Steps for healthy food choices | A three-step process for making healthier food selections: reviewing the nutrition facts table, checking the ingredient list, and considering the portion size. | | Types of nutrition tables | Different formats for presenting nutritional information: neutral tables (data and percentages without judgment), positive tables (indicating healthier choices), and color-coded tables (like Nutri-Score). | | Nutri-Score | A color-coded system that provides a global assessment of a food product's nutritional quality, using a scale from dark green (best) to red (worst). |