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# Introduction to literary studies Literary studies is a multifaceted academic discipline that explores the nature, interpretation, and historical development of literary texts [2](#page=2). ### 1.1 The branches of literary studies Literary studies can be broadly divided into three interconnected branches: literary theory, literary criticism, and literary history [10](#page=10) [3](#page=3). #### 1.1.1 Literary theory Literary theory provides the conceptual frameworks and methodologies used to understand and analyze literature. It explores fundamental questions about how literature functions, what it means, and how we can approach its study [4](#page=4). #### 1.1.2 Literary criticism Literary criticism involves the analysis, evaluation, and interpretation of literary works. It applies theoretical approaches to specific texts to offer insights into their meaning, form, and significance [5](#page=5) [8](#page=8). #### 1.1.3 Literary history Literary history examines the evolution of literature over time, considering the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which texts are produced and received. It can be approached diachronically (looking at change over time) or synchronically (examining literature at a specific point in time). Literary history also deals with concepts such as the literary canon, genre, and periodization [32](#page=32) [9](#page=9). ### 1.2 Primary and secondary literature A crucial distinction within literary studies is between primary and secondary literature [6](#page=6). #### 1.2.1 Primary literature Primary literature refers to the original creative works themselves, such as novels, plays, poems, and short stories. These are the texts that scholars and critics engage with directly [6](#page=6) [8](#page=8). #### 1.2.2 Secondary literature Secondary literature comprises critical reflections, analyses, and scholarly discussions *about* primary literature. This category includes articles in journals, articles in edited collections, and monographs (scholarly books) that interpret, analyze, or provide historical context for primary texts [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). ### 1.3 Defining literature Defining what constitutes "literature" is a complex and enduring challenge within the field. Various perspectives have been proposed [11](#page=11) [24](#page=24): #### 1.3.1 Mimetic experience One historical perspective, tracing back to Aristotle, views literature as an imitation or representation of life. According to this view, literary works aim to mirror reality [25](#page=25). #### 1.3.2 Didactic experience Another perspective, articulated by Horace, emphasizes the dual function of literature to both delight and instruct (Latin: *prodesse et delectare*). This view suggests literature should provide pleasure while also imparting moral or intellectual lessons [26](#page=26). #### 1.3.3 Subjective expression William Wordsworth famously defined poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility". This perspective highlights literature as a vehicle for the expression of individual emotions and subjective experience [27](#page=27). #### 1.3.4 Aesthetic experience The concept of "art for art's sake" (French: *l’art pour l’art*), associated with figures like Edgar Allan Poe, posits that literature possesses intrinsic aesthetic value independent of any moral, social, or practical purpose [28](#page=28). #### 1.3.5 Problems with specific definitions Attempts to create definitive criteria for literature often encounter significant problems [29](#page=29) [31](#page=31): * **Fiction vs. Truth:** Defining literature solely as fiction or imaginative writing excludes non-fictional texts that may be considered literary [29](#page=29). * **Linguistic Peculiarity:** While literature often employs language in distinctive ways, distinguishing it from everyday speech can be subjective and difficult [29](#page=29). * **Non-pragmatic Purpose:** The idea that literature lacks immediate practical purpose is debatable, as texts can have significant social, political, or cultural impact [29](#page=29). * **Quality Judgements:** Classifying literature based on "good quality" is inherently subjective and can lead to elitism [29](#page=29). * **Contextual Dependence:** The meaning and classification of a text are heavily influenced by its context of production and reception [30](#page=30). * **Vagueness and Subjectivity:** Many proposed definitions are too broad, vague, or rely on subjective interpretations [31](#page=31). * **Transience and Cultural Variation:** Definitions of literature can change over time and vary significantly across different cultures [31](#page=31). > **Tip:** Recognize that the definition of literature is fluid and contested, and different theoretical approaches may emphasize different aspects of a text's identity. > **Example:** A poem that expresses intense personal grief might be understood through the lens of subjective expression, while a historical novel could be analyzed for its mimetic qualities and its contribution to understanding a particular era. --- # Literary classification and concepts This section explores foundational concepts in literary analysis, including the canon, genre, and periodisation, to understand how literary works are categorized and contextualized [32](#page=32). ### 2.1 Canon The canon refers to a body of literary works considered to be authoritative, influential, and representative of a particular literary tradition or culture [33](#page=33). ### 2.2 Genre Genres are types or classes of literature, often referred to as *Gattungen* in German. The three main types of literary genres are prose, poetry, and drama [34](#page=34). #### 2.2.1 Generic conventions Literary genres are often distinguished by several characteristics, including [36](#page=36): * The form of communication used [36](#page=36). * The prevailing mood or attitude of the work [36](#page=36). * The content and themes explored [36](#page=36). * The work's relation to reality [36](#page=36). * The intended aesthetic effect on the reader [36](#page=36). > **Example:** J.K. Rowling's *Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone* can be classified under multiple genres, such as children's literature, urban fantasy, coming-of-age/Bildungsroman, mystery, adventure, gothic fiction, fairy tales/folklore, and school story [37](#page=37). ### 2.3 Periodisation Periodisation involves dividing literary history into distinct eras or periods, often based on historical events, dominant literary styles, or cultural shifts. This helps in contextualizing literary works within their specific historical and cultural landscapes [38](#page=38). > **Tip:** Periodisation can be broad, like the 'long' nineteenth century (1789-1914), or more specific, such as the 'Victorian era' (1837-1901) [38](#page=38). #### 2.3.1 Further subdivisions of periods Literary periods can be further subdivided into smaller chronological segments to capture nuances in literary development. For example, the Victorian era can be broken down into: * Early Victorian period (1837–1851) [39](#page=39). * Mid-Victorian period (1851–1870s) [39](#page=39). * Transitional period (1870s-1890s) [39](#page=39). * Late Victorian period (1890s–1901) [39](#page=39). --- # Romanticism and its key themes Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged towards the end of the eighteenth century, with its peak roughly between 1800 and 1850. This movement marked a significant departure from Neoclassicism and the Age of Enlightenment's emphasis on reason. The French Revolution played a crucial role in its development. Poetry became the dominant genre during this period, with prominent figures including William Blake, William Wordsworth, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (first generation), and Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats (second generation) [46](#page=46) [47](#page=47). ### 3.1 Contrasting Neoclassicism with Romanticism Neoclassicism, dominant in the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment/Reason, contrasted sharply with Romanticism. While Neoclassicism looked to antiquity and classical literature as its model, adhering to established rhetorical and poetological rules, Romanticism found inspiration in medieval literature and folk traditions, seeking a new aesthetics and valuing originality over tradition. Neoclassicism favored an elaborate style and "poetic diction," whereas Romanticism embraced simple, "natural" language. Furthermore, Neoclassicism idealized objectivity, while Romanticism championed explicit subjectivity, emphasizing emotions and imagination over pure reason [47](#page=47) [48](#page=48). ### 3.2 The Significance of Lyrical Ballads and Wordsworth's Definition of Poetry A pivotal work in the Romantic movement was the volume *Lyrical Ballads*, published by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The preface to the second edition, penned by Wordsworth, offered a groundbreaking definition of poetry. Wordsworth stated that poetry is "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings". He elaborated that it originates from "emotion recollected in tranquillity," where the emotion is contemplated until a similar emotion is produced in the mind, leading to the act of composition. This process, characterized by emotional enjoyment, qualified the expression of any passion [49](#page=49) [51](#page=51). ### 3.3 Major Themes of Romanticism Romanticism explored several key themes: #### 3.3.1 Nature Nature was a central preoccupation for Romantic poets, influenced by works like James Thomson’s *The Seasons*. Nature was associated with moral and physical health, viewed as highly positive, pure, impressing, valuable, and inspiring. As industrialization began to extensively destroy and pollute the natural world, poets used nature as a counter-image to these destructive forces [53](#page=53). #### 3.3.2 The Sublime The concept of the sublime, as articulated by Edmund Burke, was crucial to Romantic thought. Burke defined the sublime as that which is fitted to excite ideas of pain and danger, anything terrible or operating analogously to terror. This experience is productive of the strongest emotions the mind can feel, as ideas of pain are considered more powerful than those of pleasure. When the causes of the sublime operate most powerfully, the resulting passion is astonishment—a state where all mental motions are suspended, with a degree of horror, as the mind is so filled with the object that it cannot reason about it. Lesser effects include admiration, reverence, and respect [54](#page=54) [55](#page=55) [56](#page=56). #### 3.3.3 Imagination and Genius In reaction to the Enlightenment's focus on rationalism, Romanticism celebrated imagination as a powerful creative force enabling individuals to transcend the ordinary. Genius was recognized as a special talent or insight that allowed poets and artists to express profound truths and evoke strong emotional responses [57](#page=57). #### 3.3.4 Special interest in childhood Childhood held particular significance for Romantics, symbolizing innocence in contrast to experience. It represented a state of unspoiled imagination, genuine emotion, and a closer connection to nature. This perspective was shaped by Jean-Jacques Rousseau's *Emile, Or on Education*, which posited childhood as a natural state and a distinct phase of life. The concept of childhood was also frequently employed for social criticism [58](#page=58). #### 3.3.5 Emotional intensity Romantic poets believed that poetry should evoke deep feelings and passions. They argued that emotions offered a more authentic way of understanding human experience than reason alone [59](#page=59). ### 3.4 Key Romantic Poets and Works #### 3.4.1 William Blake William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was a painter and poet who achieved little fame during his lifetime. He was a critic of the reason promoted during the Age of Enlightenment and questioned its ideals and motifs. The French Revolution was a significant political event during his life [60](#page=60). #### 3.4.2 William Wordsworth William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was an English poet and Poet Laureate from 1843. He is renowned for his semi-autobiographical poem *The Prelude* and his collaborative work *Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems*, alongside Samuel Taylor Coleridge [78](#page=78). > **Tip:** Pay close attention to Wordsworth's poem "Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802." Its title itself suggests a moment of composition tied to a specific time and place, aligning with the Romantic emphasis on personal experience and emotion. Analyze how the poem depicts London and the stylistic devices used to evoke a sense of the sublime [79](#page=79) [86](#page=86) [89](#page=89) [90](#page=90). > **Example:** In "Composed Upon Westminster Bridge," Wordsworth describes the city as wearing "the human heart" and being "asleep," using personification to imbue the urban landscape with a sense of life and tranquility. This contrasts with the typical chaotic imagery associated with cities and highlights his particular perception of London at dawn. The poem also employs imagery related to clothing, which affects the reader's perception of the city [88](#page=88) [91](#page=91). --- # Analysis of specific poems This section delves into the detailed analysis of specific poems, examining their themes, stylistic devices, and historical contexts to understand how poets represent urban landscapes and personal experiences. ## 4. Analysis of specific poems This unit provides an in-depth analysis of four significant poems: Shakespeare's Sonnet 18, Queen Elizabeth I's "When I Was Fair and Young," William Blake's "London," and Wordsworth's "Composed Upon Westminster Bridge." The analysis focuses on understanding the thematic concerns, the use of poetic devices, and the historical backdrop against which these works were created. ### 4.1 Shakespeare's Sonnet 18: "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" Shakespeare's Sonnet 18 is a seminal work exploring themes of beauty, time, and immortality through poetry [41](#page=41). #### 4.1.1 Theme: Beauty and Immortality The poem contrasts the transient beauty of a summer's day with the eternal beauty of the beloved. While summer is prone to harsh winds, short durations, and dimming sunlight, the beloved's beauty is presented as unfading and everlasting. The speaker suggests that the beloved's "eternal summer shall not fade" [41](#page=41) [42](#page=42). #### 4.1.2 Stylistic Devices * **Metaphor and Simile:** The central comparison is between the beloved and a summer's day. However, the speaker argues that the beloved surpasses the day in loveliness and temperance [41](#page=41). * **Personification:** Death is personified as a figure who might boast of claiming the beloved, but is thwarted by the poem itself [41](#page=41). * **Imagery:** The poem uses vivid imagery of nature, such as "Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May," "summer's lease hath all too short a date," and "the eye of heaven" (referring to the sun) [41](#page=41). * **Rhyme Scheme and Meter:** Sonnet 18 follows the Shakespearean sonnet form, with a rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCD EFEF GG and is written in iambic pentameter. #### 4.1.3 The Power of Poetry The ultimate triumph over time and mortality is achieved through the enduring power of the sonnet itself. The final couplet states, "So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, / So long lives this, and this gives life to thee". This emphasizes that as long as the poem exists, the beauty and essence of the beloved will be preserved and "given life" through the verses [41](#page=41) [42](#page=42). ### 4.2 Queen Elizabeth I's "When I Was Fair and Young" This poem reflects on themes of beauty, pride, love, and regret, presented from the perspective of a speaker who has experienced the consequences of her youthful vanity [42](#page=42). #### 4.2.1 Thematic Exploration The poem charts the speaker's journey from youthful arrogance and dismissal of suitors to a later understanding and perhaps regret. Initially, she possessed beauty that attracted many, but she scorned their advances, telling them to "Go, go, go, seek some other where; importune me no more". Her pride grew with each rejection she inflicted [41](#page=41) [42](#page=42). #### 4.2.2 Divine Intervention and Consequences Cupid, the god of love, intervenes, warning the speaker that her "coy" behavior will lead to her downfall. Following Cupid's words, a significant change occurs in the speaker's heart, leading to restlessness, lack of sleep, and a profound sense of guilt and loneliness. This internal torment fills her soul with regret for her past haughtiness [41](#page=41) [42](#page=42). #### 4.2.3 Stylistic Elements * **Repetition:** The refrain "Go, go, go, seek some other where, importune me no more" powerfully underscores the speaker's initial rejection and later remorse [41](#page=41) [42](#page=42). * **Narrative Structure:** The poem unfolds as a recollection of past events, moving from a proud youth to a humbled realization [42](#page=42). * **Voice:** The lyrical "I" shifts from a voice of confident dismissal to one of regretful reflection [42](#page=42). #### 4.2.4 Historical Context Written by Queen Elizabeth I, the poem can be interpreted through the lens of her own life and reign, particularly her deliberate decision not to marry, famously known as the "Virgin Queen." The poem's exploration of power, desire, and the consequences of choice resonates with historical understandings of her personal and political life [42](#page=42). ### 4.3 William Blake's "London" Blake's "London," published in 1794 as part of the "Songs of Experience," offers a stark and critical portrayal of the city, highlighting its social decay and the suffering of its inhabitants [61](#page=61). #### 4.3.1 Context: Songs of Innocence and Experience The collection "Songs of Innocence and Experience" is characterized by its exploration of dualities, such as childhood versus adulthood and freedom versus imprisonment. "London" aligns with the darker themes of the "Songs of Experience," depicting a world marked by suffering and oppression [61](#page=61). #### 4.3.2 Thematic Concerns * **Urban Despair and Oppression:** The poem vividly portrays a London suffocated by misery, poverty, and the oppressive weight of its institutions. The lyrical I walks through the city, observing its "marks of weakness, marks of woe" [61](#page=61) [67](#page=67) [77](#page=77). * **Social Critique:** Blake criticizes the social and political structures that perpetuate suffering, particularly for the vulnerable, such as children and women [67](#page=67) [71](#page=71) [74](#page=74). * **Loss of Innocence:** The poem reflects the "Songs of Experience" by showing a world where innocence has been corrupted or destroyed by the harsh realities of urban life [61](#page=61). #### 4.3.3 Stylistic Devices and Structure * **Stanzaic Structure:** The poem is divided into four quatrains, each presenting a distinct aspect of London's misery [67](#page=67) [68](#page=68) [71](#page=71) [74](#page=74). * **Repetition:** The repeated use of "charter'd" for streets and rivers emphasizes the sense of ownership, control, and lack of freedom imposed upon the city and its people [67](#page=67). * **Sensory Imagery:** Blake employs both visual and auditory imagery. The first stanza focuses on visual aspects of despair while the second delves into the sounds of the city, such as the "woe" in the "voice of every Man" and the "cry" of the chimney sweepers [65](#page=65) [67](#page=67) [68](#page=68) [70](#page=70). * **Metaphor and Symbolism:** Blake uses powerful metaphors, such as "mind-forg'd manacles" to represent the internal constraints and psychological oppression experienced by the citizens. The "harlot's curse" symbolizes the societal ills born from poverty and despair [71](#page=71) [73](#page=73) [74](#page=74). * **Form:** The poem utilizes a relatively simple structure with a consistent rhyme scheme (ABAB) and meter, which paradoxically amplifies the grimness of its subject matter by creating a sense of unrelenting rhythm [63](#page=63). #### 4.3.4 Vision of London Blake's vision of London is one of pervasive suffering, where every aspect of life, from the physical streets to the human psyche, is marked by "woe". The poem presents a damning indictment of the city and the societal forces that create such conditions [77](#page=77). ### 4.4 William Wordsworth's "Composed Upon Westminster Bridge" This sonnet, composed on September 3, 1802, presents a serene and idealized view of London at dawn, offering a striking contrast to Blake's portrayal [79](#page=79). #### 4.4.1 Context of Composition Wordsworth arrived in London on Westminster Bridge very early in the morning while traveling from the Lake District with his sister Dorothy. The poem captures a specific moment of quiet contemplation before the city awakens to its usual bustle [79](#page=79). #### 4.4.2 Depiction of London and Stylistic Devices * **Serene Urban Landscape:** The poem describes a breathtaking, almost otherworldly scene where the city appears "bright and fair". The morning light transforms the urban environment into something beautiful and majestic [86](#page=86) [88](#page=88). * **Personification:** The city itself is personified, with the "heart" of the city seeming to "sleep" and the "very houses seem asleep" [88](#page=88). * **Imagery of Stillness and Majesty:** Wordsworth employs imagery that emphasizes tranquility and grandeur. The Thames "glideth at his own sweet will," and the city is adorned with elements that evoke natural beauty, such as "garment," "veils," and "smoke" that contribute to a soft, ethereal atmosphere [88](#page=88) [91](#page=91). * **The Sublime:** The poem evokes a sublime feeling in the lyrical I, characterized by awe and wonder. The sheer scale and unexpected beauty of the city at this hour inspire a profound emotional response, akin to the aesthetic experience of the sublime, which often involves a mixture of pleasure and a sense of overwhelming power [89](#page=89) [90](#page=90). * **Clothing Imagery:** Wordsworth uses imagery related to clothing, describing the city as wearing the "sun" as a "garment" and being covered by "veils" of smoke, creating a sense of gentle adornment rather than industrial grime [91](#page=91). #### 4.4.3 Historical Context: The Industrial Revolution The depiction of London in "Composed Upon Westminster Bridge" can be understood in light of the Industrial Revolution. While the poem presents an idealized view, it implicitly contrasts with the growing industrialization. The softened light and quietude might be seen as a temporary escape or a romanticized perception of a city undergoing rapid change. The poem focuses on the picturesque and the potential for beauty even within an urban setting, offering a counterpoint to the more dystopian visions of urban life that emerged during this period [93](#page=93). #### 4.4.4 Comparison with Blake's "London" A comparison of Wordsworth's "Composed Upon Westminster Bridge" and Blake's "London" reveals two vastly different perspectives on the same city [94](#page=94) [95](#page=95). * **Wordsworth:** Presents an idealized, tranquil, and sublime vision of London at dawn, emphasizing beauty and peacefulness [86](#page=86) [89](#page=89). * **Blake:** Offers a stark, critical, and bleak portrayal of London, highlighting suffering, oppression, and social decay [61](#page=61) [77](#page=77). This comparison highlights how poetic perspective, historical context, and thematic focus can lead to dramatically different interpretations of a single subject [94](#page=94) [95](#page=95). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Literary Theory | The systematic study of the nature of literature and the methods for analyzing literature. It provides frameworks and concepts for understanding literary works. | | Literary Criticism | The evaluation and interpretation of literature. It involves analyzing texts, making judgments about their quality, and explaining their meanings. | | Literary History | The study of literature within its historical context, examining the evolution of literary forms, movements, and authors over time. | | Primary Literature | Original creative works such as novels, poems, plays, and short stories that are the direct objects of literary study. | | Secondary Literature | Texts that analyze, interpret, or comment on primary literature, including scholarly articles, critical essays, and monographs. | | Canon | A collection of literary works considered to be the most important, influential, or representative within a particular tradition or period. | | Genre | A category of artistic composition characterized by similarities in form, style, or subject matter. Common literary genres include prose, poetry, and drama. | | Periodisation | The division of history or literature into distinct periods, often characterized by specific styles, themes, or socio-political conditions. | | Mimetic Experience | An approach to literature that emphasizes its function as imitation or representation of life and reality, as proposed by Aristotle. | | Didactic Experience | An approach to literature that highlights its role in teaching or instructing, often summarized by the Latin phrase prodesse et delectare (to profit and delight), attributed to Horace. | | Subjective Expression | A view of literature that sees it as an outlet for personal emotions and feelings, exemplified by William Wordsworth's definition of poetry. | | Aesthetic Experience | An approach that views literature primarily as art, valued for its beauty and artistic merit, often encapsulated by the concept of \"art for art's sake.\" | | Romanticism | An artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing emotion, individualism, nature, and imagination over reason and classical forms. | | Neoclassicism | A cultural movement dominant in the 18th century, characterized by a focus on reason, order, tradition, and classical models from antiquity. | | The Sublime | A concept in aesthetics referring to experiences that evoke awe, terror, or overwhelming emotion due to their vastness, power, or grandeur, often found in nature. | | Imagination/Genius | In Romanticism, imagination is seen as a potent creative force, and genius refers to an exceptional talent for producing original insights and evocative works. | | Lyrical Ballads | A seminal collection of poetry published by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, notable for its preface which defined key tenets of Romantic poetry. | | Urban Fantasy | A subgenre of fantasy that is set in a modern urban environment, often incorporating elements of magic and the supernatural into city life. | | Coming-of-Age/Bildungsroman | A narrative that follows the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth to adulthood. | | Gothic Fiction | A genre characterized by elements of horror, mystery, and romance, often set in old castles or decaying mansions, and featuring supernatural or psychological terror. |