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# Verbos frasales relacionados con el movimiento y la acción Este tema se centra en verbos frasales que describen acciones físicas de movimiento, como entrar, salir, subir, bajar, marcharse o girarse, y cómo la preposición modifica el significado del verbo principal. ### 1.1 Verbos de entrada y salida * **Get in**: Entrar en un lugar [3](#page=3). * **Ejemplo:** ¿Cómo entraron los ladrones [3](#page=3)? * **Let yourself in**: Permitir la entrada a uno mismo o a otro [3](#page=3). * **Ejemplo:** Aquí tienes una llave, así que puedes entrar por ti mismo [3](#page=3). * **Dive in**: Sumergirse o zambullirse en agua [3](#page=3). * **Ejemplo:** Sally caminó por el borde de la piscina y se sumergió [3](#page=3). * **Move in**: Mudarse o avanzar [3](#page=3). * **Ejemplo:** Tengo un piso nuevo, me mudo el viernes [3](#page=3). * **Walk out**: Irse de algún lugar de forma repentina [3](#page=3). * **Ejemplo:** El tan solo se levantó y se marchó [3](#page=3). * **Lock out**: Quedarse fuera, sin poder entrar por falta de llaves [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** No tenía llaves, así que no pude entrar [4](#page=4). * **Climb out**: Salir o subir con dificultad [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** Ella nadó de un lado a otro de la piscina y entonces se salió [4](#page=4). * **Get away**: Escapar o salir de un sitio con dificultades [22](#page=22). * **Ejemplo:** Intentamos atrapar al ladrón, pero logró escaparse [22](#page=22). * **Keep away (from)**: Mantenerse lejos de algo o alguien [22](#page=22). * **Ejemplo:** Mantente lejos del borde de la piscina. Podrías caer [22](#page=22). ### 1.2 Verbos de subir y bajar * **Get on**: Subir o montarse en un vehículo [1](#page=1). * **Ejemplo:** El autobús estaba completo, no pudimos subirnos [1](#page=1). * **Put something up (on a wall)**: Colgar o poner algo en una pared [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** Colgué varios cuadros en la pared [13](#page=13). * **Pick something up**: Recoger algo del suelo u otra superficie [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** Había una letra en el suelo. La recogí y le eché un vistazo [13](#page=13). * **Stand up**: Levantarse [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** Alan se levantó y caminó [13](#page=13). * **Turn something up**: Elevar o subir el volumen o una intensidad [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** No puedo escuchar la televisión. ¿Puedes subirla un poco [14](#page=14)? * **Take down (from a wall etc.)**: Bajar o quitar algo de una pared u otra superficie [14](#page=14). * **Ejemplo:** No me gustaba el cuadro, así que lo quité [14](#page=14). * **Put something down**: Soltar, dejar o depositar algo [14](#page=14). * **Ejemplo:** Dejé de escribir y solté mi bolígrafo [14](#page=14). * **Sit/Bend/Lie + Down**: Sentarse, agacharse o tumbarse [14](#page=14). * **Ejemplo:** Me agaché para atar mis cordones [14](#page=14). * **Turn something down**: Bajar o reducir algo, como el calor o el volumen [14](#page=14). * **Ejemplo:** El horno está demasiado caliente. Bájalo a 150 grados [14](#page=14). * **Knock/Blow/Cut + down**: Demoler, tirar o echar abajo una estructura [14](#page=14). * **Ejemplo:** Algunas casas viejas fueron demolidas para crear un camino al nuevo centro comercial [14](#page=14). * **Be knocked down**: Ser noqueado, tumbado o golpeado [14](#page=14). * **Ejemplo:** Un hombre fue atropellado por un coche y lo llevaron al hospital [14](#page=14). * **Put something away**: Guardar algo en su lugar habitual, a menudo fuera de la vista [22](#page=22). * **Ejemplo:** Cuando los niños han terminado de jugar con sus muñecos, los guardan [22](#page=22). ### 1.3 Verbos de marcha y movimiento general * **Drive off**: Marcharse de un lugar en un vehículo [1](#page=1). * **Ejemplo:** Una mujer se subió al coche y se marchó [1](#page=1). * **Come back**: Volver a algún lugar [1](#page=1). * **Ejemplo:** Sally se va mañana y vuelve el sábado [1](#page=1). * **Turn round**: Cambiar de dirección o girarse [1](#page=1). * **Ejemplo:** Cuando le toqué en el hombro, él se giró [1](#page=1). * **Look out**: Prestar atención o ser cuidadoso [1](#page=1). * **Tip:** Este verbo se usa comúnmente como una advertencia [1](#page=1). * **Ejemplo:** ¡Presta atención!, Viene un coche [1](#page=1). * **Drive away**: Marcharse lejos de un lugar o persona en un vehículo [21](#page=21). * **Ejemplo:** La mujer entró en el coche y se marchó lejos [21](#page=21). * **Back**: Volver a casa o a algún lugar [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22). * **Ejemplo:** Volveré en 3 semanas [22](#page=22). * **Ejemplo:** Después de comer en un restaurante, caminamos de vuelta al hotel [22](#page=22). * **Take off**: Despegar del suelo (avión) [10](#page=10). * **Ejemplo:** Después de un largo retraso, finalmente despegó el avión [10](#page=10). * **Set off**: Comenzar un camino, viaje o recorrido [10](#page=10). * **Ejemplo:** Empezamos el camino muy temprano para evitar el tráfico [10](#page=10). * **Walk, Run, Drive, Ride + off**: Irse caminando, corriendo, conduciendo, etc. [10](#page=10). * **Ejemplo:** Diane cogió su bicicleta y se fué [10](#page=10). * **Be off (to a place)**: Indicar que alguien estará en un lugar en un momento concreto o que se va de viaje [10](#page=10). * **Ejemplo:** Mañana estaré en París [10](#page=10). * **Ejemplo:** Me voy en vacaciones [10](#page=10). * **Show off**: Tratar de impresionar a otros con habilidades o conocimientos; lucirse [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** Fíjate en ese chico en la bici, conduciendo sin manos. Se está luciendo [13](#page=13). * **Away**: Indica estar lejos de casa o de un lugar [21](#page=21). * **Ejemplo:** Nos vamos lejos de vacaciones hoy [21](#page=21). ### 1.4 Verbos relacionados con la participación y el registro * **Check in**: Registrarse en un hotel o aeropuerto [3](#page=3). * **Ejemplo:** Tan pronto como llegué al aeropuerto, me registré [3](#page=3). * **Check out**: Pagar la cuenta y registrar la salida en un hotel, o comprobar algo [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** ¿A qué hora tenemos que dejar la habitación [4](#page=4)? * **Drop/call in**: Visitar o encontrarse con alguien sin una cita previa [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** Me encontré con Chris en mi camino a casa [4](#page=4). * **Join in**: Tomar parte en una actividad que ya está en curso [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** Estamos jugando. ¿Por qué no te unes [4](#page=4)? * **Plug in**: Conectar algo a una fuente de energía (electricidad) [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** La nevera no está funcionando porque no la has conectado [4](#page=4). * **Fill in (U.K.) – Fill out (U.S.A.)**: Escribir o rellenar un formulario o documento [4](#page=4). * **Rip somebody off**: Engañar a alguien, especialmente cobrando de más (informal) [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** ¿De verdad pagaste 1000 libras por ese cuadro? Creo que te engañaron [13](#page=13). * **Tell somebody off**: Regañar a alguien [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** La madre de Clare la regañó por llevar zapatos sucios dentro de casa [13](#page=13). * **Look something up**: Buscar información sobre algo, usualmente en un diccionario o enciclopedia [21](#page=21). * **Ejemplo:** Si no conoces el significado de alguna palabra, puedes buscarla en un diccionario [21](#page=21). * **Mix up/get people mixed up**: Confundir a personas o cosas [21](#page=21). * **Ejemplo:** Los 2 hermanos se parecen bastante, mucha gente los confunde [21](#page=21). * **Get away with something**: Hacer algo malo sin ser descubierto o castigado [22](#page=22). * **Ejemplo:** Aparqué en zona prohibida, pero me fui sin ser descubierto [22](#page=22). * **Give something away**: Donar o regalar algo que ya no se desea [22](#page=22). * **Ejemplo:** ¿Vendiste tu ordenador? No, lo doné/regalé [22](#page=22). ### 1.5 Verbos de acción y funcionamiento * **Break down**: Dejar de funcionar o averiarse (un vehículo o máquina) [1](#page=1). * **Ejemplo:** Siento llegar tarde. El coche dejó de funcionar (se rompió) [1](#page=1). * **Try on (clothes etc.)**: Probarse ropa para ver si sienta bien o gusta [10](#page=10). * **Ejemplo:** Me probé una chaqueta en la tienda, pero no me quedaba muy bien [10](#page=10). * **Take off (clothes etc.)**: Quitarse la ropa [10](#page=10). * **Ejemplo:** Hacía calor, así que me quité la chaqueta [10](#page=10). * **Hold up (a person, a plan)**: Retrasar a alguien o algo [21](#page=21). * **Ejemplo:** No me esperes. No quiero retrasarte [21](#page=21). * **Put up with something**: Tolerar o soportar algo molesto [21](#page=21). * **Ejemplo:** Vivimos en una zona muy concurrida, así que tenemos que aguantar bastante ruido del tráfico [21](#page=21). --- # Verbos frasales relacionados con el funcionamiento y el estado Este tema se centra en verbos frasales que describen cómo funcionan o dejan de funcionar objetos, máquinas o situaciones, abarcando estados de operación, fallo, finalización y mejora. ### 2.1 Descripción general de verbos frasales de funcionamiento y estado Los verbos frasales en esta categoría a menudo indican cambios en el estado operativo o la condición de algo. Pueden describir cuándo algo deja de operar, se completa, se mejora, se rompe o incluso se rechaza [15](#page=15) [19](#page=19) [1](#page=1) [20](#page=20) [4](#page=4) [8](#page=8). ### 2.2 Verbos frasales que indican fallo o cese de funcionamiento Varios verbos frasales se utilizan para expresar que un objeto o máquina ha dejado de funcionar correctamente. * **Break down**: Este es uno de los verbos frasales más comunes para indicar que una máquina, vehículo o sistema ha dejado de operar o ha fallado [15](#page=15) [1](#page=1). > **Example:** The car broke down and I had to phone for help [15](#page=15). > (El coche se estropeó y tuve que llamar por ayuda). * **Go out**: Se refiere a que algo se apaga por sí solo, particularmente luces [6](#page=6). > **Example:** Suddenly all the lights in the building went out [6](#page=6). > (De repente, todas las luces del edificio se vinieron abajo). * **Close/Shut down**: Se utiliza para indicar el cierre de un negocio o el apagado de una máquina o coche [15](#page=15). > **Example:** There used to be a shop at the end of the street; it closed down a few years ago [15](#page=15). > (Solía haber una tienda al final de la calle; cerró hace algunos años). ### 2.3 Verbos frasales que indican finalización o completitud Algunos verbos frasales describen la acción de terminar algo o que algo se complete. * **Finish something off**: Implica hacer la última parte de una tarea o proyecto [12](#page=12). > **Example:** I’ll finish it off tomorrow [12](#page=12). > (Lo terminaré mañana). * **Run out (of something)**: Significa que se ha agotado algo, que algo se ha vaciado o que ya no queda más [8](#page=8). > **Example:** We ran out of petrol on the motorway [8](#page=8). > (Nos quedamos sin gasolina en la autovía). ### 2.4 Verbos frasales que indican mejora o cambio positivo Ciertos verbos frasales se refieren a la mejora de un estado o situación. * **Turn out+good/nice**: Se usa específicamente para indicar que el tiempo ha mejorado [8](#page=8). > **Example:** The weather wasn’t so good in the morning, but it turned out nice later [8](#page=8). > (El tiempo no era muy bueno esta mañana, pero ha mejorado después). * **Do up (a room, a building)**: Significa reparar y mejorar algo, o renovar [20](#page=20). > **Example:** The Kitchen looks great now that it has been done up [20](#page=20). > (La cocina se ve genial ahora que se ha renovado). * **Clear up**: Se refiere a que el tiempo se aclara, pasando de un estado nublado o lluvioso a uno más despejado [19](#page=19). > **Example:** It was raining when I got up, but it cleared up during the morning [19](#page=19). > (Estaba lloviendo cuando me levanté, pero se aclaró a lo largo de la mañana). ### 2.5 Verbos frasales relacionados con el manejo y la operación Estos verbos frasales describen acciones de manejo, conexión o comprobación de funcionamiento. * **Plug in**: Se refiere a conectar algo, especialmente a una fuente de electricidad, para que funcione [4](#page=4). > **Example:** The fridge isn’t working because you haven’t plugged it in [4](#page=4). > (La nevera no está funcionando porque no la has conectado). * **Try out (a machine, a system)**: Implica probar algo para verificar que funciona correctamente [8](#page=8). * **Check out**: Puede referirse a comprobar algo o, en el contexto de un hotel, a pagar la cuenta y dejar la habitación [4](#page=4). > **Example:** What time do we have to check out? [4](#page=4). > (¿A qué hora tenemos que dejar la habitación?). ### 2.6 Verbos frasales que indican rechazo o exclusión Algunos verbos frasales describen la acción de ser rechazado o de excluir algo. * **Turn somebody/something down**: Se utiliza para rechazar a alguien o algo [15](#page=15). > **Tip:** This verb often implies a rejection of an offer, proposal, or even a person applying for something. * **Leave something out**: Significa omitir algo, no incluirlo en una lista, texto o explicación [6](#page=6). > **Example:** In the sentence “She said that she was ill”, you can leave out the word “that” [6](#page=6). > (En la frase “She said that she was ill”, puedes quitar la palabra “that”). * **Cross/rub something out**: Consiste en dibujar una línea sobre algo para borrarlo o excluirlo [6](#page=6). > **Example:** Some of the names on the list had been crossed out [6](#page=6). > (Algunos de los nombres en la lista fueron seleccionados/rodeados (por una línea)). ### 2.7 Verbos frasales que indican acciones físicas o de estado Esta sección cubre verbos frasales que describen acciones físicas, estados o eventos. * **Climb out**: Se refiere a salir o subir de un lugar con alguna dificultad [4](#page=4). > **Example:** She swam up and down the pool, and then climbed out [4](#page=4). > (Ella nadó de un lado a otro de la piscina y entonces se salió). * **Lock out**: Significa quedarse fuera y no poder entrar en un lugar por falta de llaves u otro medio de acceso [4](#page=4). > **Example:** I had no key, so I was locked out [4](#page=4). > (No tenía llaves, así que no pude entrar). * **Put out (a fire, a cigarette, a light)**: Significa extinguir, apagar algo [6](#page=6). > **Example:** We managed to put the fire out [6](#page=6). > (Logramos apagar el fuego). * **Turn out (a light)**: Indica apagar luces [6](#page=6). > **Example:** I turned the lights out before leaving [6](#page=6). > (Apagué las luces antes de irme). * **Blow out**: Puede significar apagar fuego o velas, o también reventar algo [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20) [6](#page=6). > **Example:** We don’t need a candle. You can blow it out [6](#page=6). > (No necesitamos una vela. Puedes apagarla). * **Go off**: Puede indicar que algo explota o que suena algo, como una alarma [12](#page=12) [19](#page=19). > **Example:** Did you hear the alarm go off? [12](#page=12). > (¿Escuchaste sonar la alarma?). * **Cheer up**: Implica alegrarse o hacer que alguien se sienta mejor y más feliz [19](#page=19). * **Blow up (Active Form)**: Se refiere a que algo explota [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20). > **Example:** The engine caught fire and blew up [20](#page=20). > (El motor se incendió y explotó). * **Blow something up (Passive Form)**: Significa destruir algo con una bomba [20](#page=20). > **Example:** The bridge was blown up during the war [20](#page=20). > (El puente fué destruido durante la guerra). * **Tear something up**: Significa despedazar o romper algo en pedazos [20](#page=20). > **Example:** I didn’t read the letter. I just tore it up and threw it away [20](#page=20). > (No leí la carta. Tan sólo la rompí y la tiré). * **Beat somebody up**: Describe la acción de tumbar a alguien a golpes, con la intención de hacer daño [20](#page=20). > **Example:** A friend of mine was attacked and beaten up a few days ago [20](#page=20). > (Un amigo fué atacado y golpeado hace unos días). * **Break/Split up (with somebody)**: Se utiliza para indicar que se rompe una relación sentimental con alguien [20](#page=20). > **Example:** I’m surprised to hear that Sue and Paul have split up. They seemed very happy together [20](#page=20). > (Estoy sorprendido de escuchar que Sue y Poul han roto. Parecían muy felices juntos). * **Do up (a coat/a shoelace/buttons)**: Significa abrochar, atar o amarrar [20](#page=20). > **Example:** It’s quite cold. Do up your coat before you go out [20](#page=20). > (Hace frío. Abróchate el abrigo antes de salir fuera). --- # Verbos frasales para la comunicación y la interacción social Esta sección detalla verbos frasales empleados para expresar acciones relacionadas con la comunicación y la interacción entre personas. ### 3.1 Verbos frasales para iniciar, continuar o finalizar interacciones #### 3.1.1 Verbos para iniciar o unirse a actividades * **Join in**: Tomar parte en alguna actividad que ya está en curso [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** Estamos jugando. ¿Por qué no te unes [4](#page=4)? * **Come up**: Introducir algo en una conversación [18](#page=18). * **Ejemplo:** Algunos temas interesantes salieron en nuestra discusión de ayer [19](#page=19). * **Bring up (a topic etc.)**: Introducir algo en una conversación, mencionar algo [18](#page=18). * **Ejemplo:** No quiero escuchar nada más de este tema. Por favor no lo menciones [18](#page=18). #### 3.1.2 Verbos para continuar o finalizar interacciones * **Get on (with something)**: Continuar haciendo algo que tienes que hacer, normalmente después de un descanso o interrupción [12](#page=12). * **Ejemplo:** Debo continuar con mi trabajo [12](#page=12). * **Finish something off**: Hacer la última parte de algo [12](#page=12). * **Ejemplo:** Lo terminaré mañana [12](#page=12). * **End up (somewhere/doing something)**: Terminar en algún lugar, o algo que se está haciendo [17](#page=17). * **Ejemplo:** Había una pelea en la calle y 3 hombres terminaron en el hospital [17](#page=17). * **Give up**: Tirar la toalla, rendirse [17](#page=17). * **Ejemplo:** No tires la toalla. ¡Sigue intentándolo! [17](#page=17). * **Give something up**: Dejar de hacer algo [17](#page=17). * **Ejemplo:** Sue se aburrió de su trabajo y decidió dejarlo [18](#page=18). * **Use something up**: Usar la totalidad de algo hasta que no quede nada [18](#page=18). * **Ejemplo:** Voy a tomar algunas más fotografías. Quiero acabar con el resto del carrete [18](#page=18). #### 3.1.3 Verbos para retirarse o irse * **Take off**: Despegar (un avión) [2](#page=2). * **Ejemplo:** Estaba nervioso cuando el avión despegó [2](#page=2). * **Get out**: Evitar hacer algo, no tener que hacer algo nunca más [5](#page=5). * **Ejemplo:** He prometido que iría a la boda. No quiero ir, pero ahora no puedo echarme atrás [5](#page=5). * **Drop out**: Dejar de hacer algo justo antes de terminar [5](#page=5). * **Ejemplo:** Gary fue a la universidad pero dejó de ir después de un año [5](#page=5). ### 3.2 Verbos frasales para informar y preguntar #### 3.2.1 Verbos para obtener información * **Find out**: Recoger/tener/descubrir/recopilar algo de información, hechos, situaciones [7](#page=7). * **Ejemplo:** La policía nunca descubrió quién cometió el asesinato [7](#page=7). * **Work something out**: Calcular, pensar acerca de un problema y hallar la respuesta [7](#page=7). * **Ejemplo:** ¿345 x 76? Necesito un papel. No puedo calcularlo mentalmente [7](#page=7). * **Write something Down**: Escribir algo en un papel porque quizás necesitas la información más tarde [16](#page=16). * **Ejemplo:** No puedo recordar la dirección de Tim. La escribí pero no puedo encontrarla [16](#page=16). * **Pick something up**: Recoger algo [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** Había una carta en el suelo. La recogí y le eché un vistazo [13](#page=13). * **Look back (on something)**: Pensar sobre algo que ha pasado con anterioridad [23](#page=23). * **Ejemplo:** Mi primer trabajo fue en una agencia de viajes. No me gustaba mucho pero mirando hacia atrás, aprendí mucho [23](#page=23). #### 3.2.2 Verbos para dar información o instrucciones * **Give/hand (things) out**: Dar a cada persona, distribuir [7](#page=7). * **Ejemplo:** Al final de la conferencia, el ponente hizo entrega de hojas de información al público [7](#page=7). * **Carry out (order, experiment, survey)**: Hacer algo y finalizarlo (cumplir con algo, alguien) [7](#page=7). * **Ejemplo:** De los soldados se espera que cumplan las órdenes [7](#page=7). * **Fill in (U.K) / Fill out (U.S.A)**: Escribir, rellenar un formulario o documento [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** Por favor rellena el formulario y envíanoslo [5](#page=5). ### 3.3 Verbos frasales para la interacción social y las relaciones #### 3.3.1 Verbos para interactuar socialmente * **Get on (with somebody)**: Tener una buena relación [12](#page=12). * **Ejemplo:** Carlos y Sara no se llevan bien. Están siempre discutiendo [12](#page=12). * **Fall out (with somebody)**: Dejar de ser amigos [7](#page=7). * **Ejemplo:** Solían ser buenos amigos. Me sorprende escuchar que han dejado de serlo [7](#page=7). * **Drop/call in**: Visitar/encontrarse a alguien sin tener intención previa de hacerlo [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** Me encontré con Chris en mi camino a casa [4](#page=4). * **Go up/come up/walk up (to..)**: Acercarse, acelerar el ritmo, acelerar [16](#page=16). * **Ejemplo:** Un hombre se me acercó en la calle y me pidió dinero [16](#page=16). * **Cheer up**: Alegrarse [19](#page=19). * **Ejemplo:** ¡Pareces triste, alégrate! [19](#page=19). * **Cheer somebody up**: Hacer que alguien se sienta mejor (más feliz) [19](#page=19). * **Ejemplo:** Helen está deprimida. ¿Qué podemos hacer para alegrarla? [19](#page=19). * **Wave/Smile/Shout/Write/Hit smbd BACK**: Devolver un saludo, una sonrisa [23](#page=23). * **Ejemplo:** La saludé y me devolvió el saludo [23](#page=23). * **Call/Phone/Ring somebody BACK**: Devolver una llamada [23](#page=23). * **Ejemplo:** No puedo hablar ahora contigo. Te llamaré de vuelta en 10 minutos [23](#page=23). * **Get back (to somebody)**: Responder a alguien [23](#page=23). * **Ejemplo:** Le envié un e-mail, pero nunca me contestó [23](#page=23). #### 3.3.2 Verbos para expresar emociones o actitudes * **Look forward (to)**: Estar pendiente/emocionado por algo que va a pasar, esperar algo, mirar hacia adelante [2](#page=2). * **Show off**: Tratar de impresionar a la gente con tu habilidad, conocimiento, etc., lucirse, exhibirse [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** Fíjate en ese chico en la bici, conduciendo sin manos. Se está luciendo [13](#page=13). * **Put somebody off (doing something)**: Perder las ganas, hacer algo aunque no se quiera, disuadir, cansar [12](#page=12). * **Ejemplo:** Queríamos ir a la exhibición, pero nos desanimó la larga cola [12](#page=12). * **Cheer up**: Alegrarse [19](#page=19). * **Ejemplo:** ¡Pareces triste, alégrate! [19](#page=19). * **Cheer somebody up**: Hacer que alguien se sienta mejor (más feliz) [19](#page=19). * **Ejemplo:** Helen está deprimida. ¿Qué podemos hacer para alegrarla? [19](#page=19). ### 3.4 Verbos frasales para describir acciones específicas de interacción #### 3.4.1 Verbos relacionados con el engaño y el castigo * **Take somebody in**: Engañar, ser engañado [5](#page=5). * **Ejemplo:** El hombre dijo que era policía y lo creí. Estaba totalmente engañado [5](#page=5). * **Rip somebody off**: Engañar a alguien (informal) [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** ¿De verdad pagaste 1000 libras por ese cuadro? Creo que te engañaron [13](#page=13). * **Make something up**: Inventar algo que no es cierto, contar mentiras [19](#page=19). * **Ejemplo:** Lo que Kevin te dijo de él no era verdad. Se lo inventó todo [19](#page=19). * **Tell somebody off**: Regañar [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** La madre de Clare la regañó por llevar zapatos sucios dentro de casa [13](#page=13). #### 3.4.2 Verbos relacionados con la logística y la organización * **Check out**: Comprobar algo, pagar la cuenta, registrar la salida (hotel) [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** ¿A qué hora tenemos que dejar la habitación? [4](#page=4). * **Plug in**: Conectar algo a otra cosa (ejemplo conectar a la electricidad) [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** La nevera no está funcionando porque no la has conectado [4](#page=4). * **Fix up (a meeting)**: Organizar, arreglar [16](#page=16). * **Ejemplo:** Hemos organizado una reunión para el próximo lunes [16](#page=16). * **Set up (organisation, company, business, system, website etc)**: Designar, elegir, seleccionar [16](#page=16). * **Ejemplo:** El gobierno ha elegido un comité para investigar el problema [16](#page=16). #### 3.4.3 Verbos relacionados con la comunicación verbal y no verbal * **Keep up (with)**: Llevar el ritmo [2](#page=2). * **Ejemplo:** Estás andando muy rápido. No puedo llevar tu ritmo [2](#page=2). * **Look up (at)**: Fijarse en algo [2](#page=2). * **Ejemplo:** Nos fijamos en el avión hasta que nos pasó por encima [2](#page=2). * **Get on (how did you get on?)**: ¿Cómo te fue? (en referencia a un examen o situación) [2](#page=2). * **Put something up (on a wall)**: Colgar, poner alguna cosa en algún sitio [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** Colgué varios cuadros en la pared [13](#page=13). * **Turn something up**: Elevar, subir (el volumen, por ejemplo) [13](#page=13). * **Turn/Show UP**: Llegar, aparecer, mostrar [18](#page=18). * **Ejemplo:** Quedamos con Dave anoche, pero no apareció [18](#page=18). * **Pay back (money)**: Devolver dinero [23](#page=23). * **Ejemplo:** Si pides prestado dinero, tienes que devolverlo [23](#page=23). * **Pay somebody back**: Devolver dinero a alguien [23](#page=23). ### 3.5 Verbos frasales para acciones físicas en la interacción * **Climb out**: Salir/subir con dificultades [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** Ella nadó de un lado a otro de la piscina y entonces se salió [4](#page=4). * **Stand up**: Levantarse [13](#page=13). * **Ejemplo:** Alan se levantó y caminó [13](#page=13). * **Run away (from)**: Escaparse, huir, alejarse [2](#page=2). * **Ejemplo:** ¿Por qué huiste de mí? [2](#page=2). ### 3.6 Verbos frasales relacionados con la vida cotidiana y las rutinas sociales * **Eat out**: Comer fuera [5](#page=5). * **Ejemplo:** No había nada en casa para comer, así que decidimos salir a comer fuera [5](#page=5). * **Wash up**: Limpiar los platos y cubiertos después de comer [17](#page=17). * **Ejemplo:** Odio lavar los platos [17](#page=17). * **Clean/Clear/Tidy UP**: Dejar algo limpio, recogido [17](#page=17). * **Ejemplo:** Mira todo este desastre, ¿quién va a recogerlo? [17](#page=17). * **Grow up**: Crecer, hacerse mayor [17](#page=17). * **Ejemplo:** Sarah nació en Irlanda pero creció en Inglaterra [17](#page=17). * **Bring up (a child)**: Levantar, cuidar a un niño, hacerse cargo [17](#page=17). * **Ejemplo:** Sus padres murieron cuando era una niña y sus abuelos se hicieron cargo de ella [17](#page=17). * **Save up (for something, to do something)**: Guardar algo para otra cosa (por ejemplo guardar dinero para comprar algo) [19](#page=19). * **Ejemplo:** Dan está guardando dinero para un viaje alrededor del mundo [19](#page=19). ### 3.7 Verbos frasales para acciones específicas y ejemplos * **Cut something out**: Recortar algo de un periódico o una revista, especialmente fotos o imágenes [5](#page=5). * **Ejemplo:** Había una bonita imagen en la revista, así que la recorté [5](#page=5). * **Take somebody in**: Engañar, ser engañado [5](#page=5). * **Ejemplo:** El hombre dijo que era policía y lo creí. Estaba totalmente engañado [5](#page=5). * **Work out**: Hacer ejercicio en el gimnasio [7](#page=7). * **Ejemplo:** Rachel hace ejercicio en el gimnasio tres veces por semana [7](#page=7). * **Work out**: Desarrollarse, progresar, elaborar [7](#page=7). * **Ejemplo:** Buena suerte en el futuro. Espero que todo mejore/progrese para ti [7](#page=7). * **Catch up (with somebody)**: Alcanzar una velocidad o nivel determinado [16](#page=16). * **Ejemplo:** Lo estás haciendo bien. ¡Sigue así! No puedo alcanzarte [16](#page=16). * **Take up (a hobby, a sport, an activity)**: Comenzar algo [16](#page=16). * **Ejemplo:** Laura empezó con la fotografía hace unos años. Hace fotos realmente buenas [16](#page=16). * **Take up (space or time)**: Usar el espacio o el tiempo [18](#page=18). * **Ejemplo:** La mayor parte del espacio de la habitación estaba ocupado por una gran mesa [18](#page=18). * **Throw something away**: Tirar algo a la basura [23](#page=23). * **Ejemplo:** Guardé la carta, pero tiré el sobre [23](#page=23). * **Go off**: Que algo explote [12](#page=12). * **Ejemplo:** Una bomba explotó en el centro de la ciudad pero afortunadamente nadie resultó herido [12](#page=12). * **Go off**: Sonar, que algo suene (una alarma, por ejemplo) [12](#page=12). * **Ejemplo:** ¿Escuchaste sonar la alarma? [12](#page=12). * **Lock out**: Quedarse encerrado, no poder entrar [4](#page=4). * **Ejemplo:** No tenía llaves, así que no pude entrar [4](#page=4). * **Doze/drop/nod OFF**: Caer dormido [12](#page=12). * **Ejemplo:** La lectura no era muy interesante. De hecho caí dormido en la mitad [12](#page=12). * **Clear up**: Que algo se aclare (para el tiempo) [19](#page=19). * **Ejemplo:** Estaba lloviendo cuando me levanté, pero se aclaró a lo largo de la mañana [19](#page=19). * **Blow up (Active Form)**: Que algo explote [19](#page=19). ### 3.8 Verbos frasales para el mantenimiento de relaciones y la expresión de opiniones * **Get on (with somebody)**: Tener una buena relación [12](#page=12). * **Fall out (with somebody)**: Dejar de ser amigos [7](#page=7). * **Tell somebody off**: Regañar [13](#page=13). * **Rip somebody off**: Engañar a alguien (informal) [13](#page=13). * **Show off**: Exhibirse, intentar impresionar [13](#page=13). * **Cheer somebody up**: Hacer que alguien se sienta mejor [19](#page=19). * **Make up something (active form)**: Formar parte de algo [18](#page=18). * **Ejemplo:** Los niños menores de 16 años forman la mitad de la población de la ciudad [18](#page=18). * **Be made up of something (passive form)**: Estar hecho de parte de algo [18](#page=18). * **Ejemplo:** El aire está formado principalmente por nitrógeno y oxígeno [18](#page=18). --- # Verbos frasales relacionados con el desarrollo y la progresión Este tema agrupa verbos frasales que indican crecimiento, desarrollo, aprendizaje o la consecución de metas, como crecer, empezar algo nuevo, calcular, mejorar o terminar una tarea. ### 4.1 Introducción a los verbos frasales de desarrollo y progresión Los verbos frasales son una parte fundamental del vocabulario en inglés, y aquellos que describen el desarrollo y la progresión son particularmente útiles para expresar conceptos de crecimiento, mejora, aprendizaje y finalización de tareas. Este grupo de verbos ayuda a matizar el proceso de alcanzar objetivos, superar obstáculos o simplemente avanzar en diversas situaciones. ### 4.2 Verbos frasales para el desarrollo y la mejora Varios verbos frasales se centran en la idea de que las cosas mejoren, se desarrollen o se resuelvan de manera positiva. * **Work out**: Este verbo frasal tiene múltiples significados. Puede referirse a la acción de hacer ejercicio físico. Sin embargo, en el contexto de desarrollo y progresión, significa que algo se desarrolla, progresa o se elabora bien. Por ejemplo, se puede desear que "everything works out well for you" (todo progrese bien para ti) [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** Presta atención al contexto para diferenciar entre "work out" como ejercicio y como desarrollo positivo. * **Turn out to be**: Indica que alguien tenía razón al final, especialmente si al principio no se le creía. Por ejemplo, "Nobody believed Paul at first, but he turned to be right" (Nadie creía a Paul al principio, pero resultó que tenía razón) [8](#page=8). * **Turn out** (seguido de adjetivos como `good` o `nice`): Se utiliza específicamente para indicar que el tiempo ha mejorado. Por ejemplo, "The weather wasn’t so good in the morning, but it turned out nice later" (El tiempo no era muy bueno esta mañana, pero mejoró después) [8](#page=8). * **Turn out** (seguido de `that`): Significa que algo resultó ser de una manera particular, a menudo de forma inesperada. Ejemplo: "I thought they knew each other, but it turned out that they’d never met" (Pensaba que se conocían, pero resultó que nunca se habían conocido) [8](#page=8). * **Carry out**: Implica realizar y finalizar algo, como cumplir con una orden, un experimento o una encuesta. Los soldados, por ejemplo, "are expected to carry out orders" (se espera que cumplan las órdenes) [7](#page=7). * **Sort something out**: Se refiere a encontrar una solución o poner algo en orden. Si hay problemas, es necesario "sort them out" (solucionarlos) [8](#page=8). ### 4.3 Verbos frasales para iniciar y progresar Algunos verbos frasales se centran en el acto de comenzar algo nuevo o en la idea de progreso continuo. * **Take up**: Este verbo frasal se utiliza para indicar que se comienza una nueva actividad, un hobby o un deporte. Por ejemplo, "Laura took up photography a few years ago" (Laura empezó con la fotografía hace unos años). También puede referirse al espacio o tiempo que algo utiliza [16](#page=16) [18](#page=18). * **Set up**: Significa designar, elegir o seleccionar algo, comúnmente para establecer una organización, empresa, sistema o sitio web. "The government has set up a committee to investigate the problem" (El gobierno ha elegido un comité para investigar el problema) [16](#page=16). * **Drive on / Walk on / Play on**: Estos verbos frasales indican la continuación de una acción, como seguir conduciendo, andando o jugando. La pregunta "¿Shall we drive on to the next one?" (¿Deberíamos seguir conduciendo hasta la siguiente?) ilustra su uso [11](#page=11). * **Go on / Carry on**: Ambos verbos significan continuar. Pueden usarse solos ("The show must go on" - El show debe continuar) o seguidos de `+ doing something` o `+ with something` para indicar la continuación de una acción específica. Por ejemplo, "I don’t want to carry on working here" (No quiero continuar trabajando aquí) [11](#page=11). * **Keep on (doing something)**: Implica hacer algo continuamente o de forma repetida, a menudo con una connotación de persistencia. "He keeps on criticising me" (Él continúa criticándome) es un ejemplo [11](#page=11). * **Get on**: En el contexto de progreso, este verbo frasal significa hacer progresos. Se pregunta "¿How are you getting on in your new job?" (¿Cómo te va haciendo progresos en tu trabajo?) [11](#page=11). ### 4.4 Verbos frasales para finalizar tareas y alcanzar metas Este conjunto de verbos frasales se relaciona con la culminación de acciones, la consecución de resultados o la finalización de algo. * **Work something out**: Se refiere a calcular o pensar sobre un problema para hallar una respuesta. Si un cálculo es demasiado complejo para hacerlo mentalmente, se necesita "to work it out" en papel. La operación `345 x 76` se puede representar matemáticamente como [7](#page=7): $$ 345 \times 76 $$ y el cálculo para encontrar la respuesta sería: $$ 345 \times 76 = 26220 $$ * **Find out**: Significa recopilar o descubrir información, hechos o situaciones. La policía intenta "find out" quién cometió un crimen [7](#page=7). * **Point something out**: Consiste en llamar la atención sobre algo, fijarse en ello o señalar cierta información. Si alguien comete un error, puede que no se dé cuenta hasta que alguien "pointed it out to me" (se lo señaló) [8](#page=8). * **Run out (of something)**: Indica que se ha acabado algo o que algo se ha vaciado, especialmente si es importante. Quedarse sin gasolina es un ejemplo: "We ran out of petrol on the motorway" (Nos quedamos sin gasolina en la autovía) [8](#page=8). * **End up**: Se utiliza para describir el resultado final de una situación, ya sea terminar en un lugar determinado o que algo que se estaba haciendo culmine de una manera específica. En caso de una pelea, los hombres "ended up in the hospital" (terminaron en el hospital) [17](#page=17). * **Give up**: Puede significar rendirse o tirar la toalla. El consejo es "Don't give up. Keep trying!" (¡No tires la toalla! ¡Sigue intentándolo!) [17](#page=17). * **Give something up**: Significa dejar de hacer algo. Si alguien se aburre de su trabajo, puede "decide to give it up" (decidir dejarlo) [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). * **Use something up**: Implica usar la totalidad de algo hasta que no quede nada. Se puede querer "use up the rest of the film" (acabar con el resto del carrete) de una cámara [18](#page=18). * **Write something down**: Se refiere a anotar algo en un papel para poder recordarlo más tarde. Si no puedes recordar una dirección, es probable que la hayas "wrote it down" (escrito) [16](#page=16). * **Catch up (with somebody)**: Significa alcanzar a alguien en velocidad o nivel. Se anima a alguien diciéndole "Keep it up!" (¡Sigue así!) si está progresando bien y no se puede alcanzarle [16](#page=16). * **Grow up**: Significa crecer o hacerse mayor. Sarah nació en Irlanda pero "grew up in England" (creció en Inglaterra) [17](#page=17). * **Bring up (a child)**: Se refiere a criar, cuidar a un niño o hacerse cargo de él. Si los padres mueren, los abuelos pueden "bring up" al niño [17](#page=17). * **Tidy up / Clean up / Clear up**: Estos verbos se refieren a dejar algo limpio y recogido. Ante un desorden, hay que preguntar "¿Who's going to tidy up?" (¿Quién va a recogerlo?) [17](#page=17). * **Wash up**: Se utiliza específicamente para limpiar los platos y cubiertos después de comer. A muchas personas "hate washing up" (odian lavar los platos) [17](#page=17). * **Blow up**: Puede significar que algo explota. Por ejemplo, "The engine caught fire and blew up" (El motor se incendió y explotó). En forma pasiva, "blow something up" se refiere a destruir algo con una bomba [20](#page=20). * **Tear something up**: Significa despedazar o romper algo en pedazos [20](#page=20). * **Do up**: Tiene dos usos principales: abrochar, atar o amarrar algo como un abrigo o un cordón de zapato y reparar o mejorar una habitación o un edificio, es decir, renovarlo [20](#page=20). ### 4.5 Verbos frasales relacionados con la progresión y el aprendizaje Algunos verbos frasales, aunque no siempre directamente asociados con el desarrollo, sí implican un avance o un proceso de comprensión. * **Get on**: Como se mencionó anteriormente, puede significar hacer progresos. También se utiliza en la pregunta "¿How did you get on?" (¿Cómo te fue?) en referencia a un examen o una tarea [11](#page=11) [2](#page=2). * **Keep up (with)**: Significa llevar el ritmo. Si alguien camina demasiado rápido, es difícil "keep up with you" (llevar tu ritmo). Este concepto también se relaciona con "catch up" (alcanzar) [16](#page=16) [2](#page=2). * **Get by**: Se usa para indicar que uno se las arregla con lo que tiene, aunque no sea mucho. Por ejemplo, si el francés no es muy bueno pero es "enough to get by" (suficiente para apañarse) [2](#page=2). * **Learn**: Aunque no es un verbo frasal, aprender es intrínseco al desarrollo personal. Verbos frasales como "find out" (descubrir) y "work out" (calcular) son herramientas para la adquisición de conocimiento [7](#page=7). ### 4.6 Ejemplos integrales > **Example:** Imagina que estás planeando un proyecto importante. Primero, necesitarás **set up** (establecer) una estructura. Luego, deberás **work out** (calcular) el presupuesto y posiblemente **sort out** (solucionar) cualquier problema logístico. A medida que avanzas, esperas que todo **turns out** (resulte) bien y que la tarea se **carry out** (lleve a cabo) con éxito. Si encuentras obstáculos, no debes **give up** (rendirte) sino **keep on** (continuar) intentándolo. Al final, habrás progresado y **grown up** (crecido) en la experiencia [11](#page=11) [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17) [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). > **Example:** Un estudiante nuevo en un país puede tener dificultades al principio. Necesitará **get by** (apañárselas) con su nivel del idioma. Tendrá que **find out** (descubrir) información importante sobre la ciudad y **catch up with** (alcanzar) a sus compañeros en clase. Si la transición es difícil, es importante que no **give up** (se rinda) y que siga esforzándose hasta que todo **works out** (progrese) positivamente [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17) [2](#page=2) [7](#page=7). --- ## Errores comunes a evitar - Revise todos los temas a fondo antes de los exámenes - Preste atención a las fórmulas y definiciones clave - Practique con los ejemplos proporcionados en cada sección - No memorice sin entender los conceptos subyacentes

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Get on | Indica el acto de subir o montarse en un vehículo, o cómo progresa una persona en una tarea o relación. También puede referirse a llevarse bien con alguien. | | Drive off | Significa marcharse de un lugar utilizando un vehículo. | | Come back | Se refiere al acto de regresar a un lugar previamente visitado. | | Turn round | Implica cambiar de dirección, girarse para mirar en sentido contrario. | | Break down | Describe el cese de funcionamiento de una máquina o vehículo, o un colapso emocional. | | Look out | Advierte sobre un peligro inminente, indicando la necesidad de ser cuidadoso o estar atento. | | Take off | Puede referirse al despegue de un avión, al acto de quitarse ropa, o a la partida repentina. | | Get by | Significa arreglárselas o sobrevivir con recursos limitados, a menudo refiriéndose a la suficiencia de un idioma o dinero. | | Run away (from) | Implica escapar o huir de un lugar o situación, a menudo por miedo o para evitar algo. | | Keep up (with) | Se refiere a mantener el mismo ritmo o velocidad que otra persona o algo, o a estar al día con información. | | Look up (at) | Significa fijarse o mirar hacia arriba, usualmente a algo en el cielo o en un nivel superior. | | Look forward (to) | Expresa la expectativa y emoción por un evento futuro deseado. | | Get in | Indica el acto de entrar en un lugar cerrado, como un vehículo, una casa o una reunión. | | Let yourself in | Significa permitir la propia entrada en un lugar, a menudo usando una llave. | | Dive in | Describe la acción de zambullirse o sumergirse en agua, o comenzar una actividad con entusiasmo. | | Move in | Se refiere al acto de mudarse a una nueva residencia o de avanzar en una situación. | | Check in (hotel, airport) | Implica registrarse o presentar documentos necesarios al llegar a un hotel o aeropuerto. | | Walk out | Significa abandonar un lugar de forma repentina, a menudo en señal de protesta o desacuerdo. | | Lock out | Describe la situación de no poder entrar en un lugar por falta de llaves o acceso. | | Climb out | Indica el acto de salir de un lugar con dificultad, a menudo trepando. | | Check out (hotel) | Se refiere a pagar la cuenta y abandonar una habitación de hotel. | | Drop/call in | Sugiere una visita informal y no planificada a alguien. | | Join in | Implica participar en una actividad o juego que se está llevando a cabo. | | Plug in | Describe la acción de conectar un dispositivo eléctrico a una fuente de energía. | | Fill in (U.K) – Fill out (U.S.A) | Significa escribir o rellenar información en un formulario o documento. | | Take somebody in | Puede significar engañar a alguien o, en un contexto más amplio, darle refugio. | | Eat out | Se refiere a comer en un restaurante o lugar fuera de casa. | | Drop out | Implica abandonar una actividad, curso o programa antes de completarlo. | | Get out of | Significa evitar hacer algo o librarse de una obligación o compromiso. | | Cut something out | Se refiere a recortar una parte de un documento, especialmente imágenes de revistas o periódicos. | | Leave something out | Indica omitir o no incluir algo intencionadamente. | | Cross/rub something out | Significa borrar algo con una línea, ya sea para incluir o excluirlo de una lista o texto. | | Go out | Puede referirse a que una luz o aparato se apague, a salir a socializar, o a que algo pase de moda. | | Put out (a fire, a cigarette, a light) | Implica extinguir o apagar fuego, cigarrillos o luces. | | Turn out (a light) | Significa apagar una luz. | | Blow out | Se refiere a apagar fuego, especialmente velas, o a que algo explote. | | Work out | Puede significar hacer ejercicio físico, desarrollarse y progresar, o calcular y resolver un problema. | | Carry out (order, experiment, survey) | Implica ejecutar y completar una orden, un experimento, una encuesta u otra tarea. | | Fall out (with somebody) | Describe el cese de una amistad o una disputa con alguien. | | Find out | Significa descubrir o recopilar información sobre una situación, hecho o persona. | | Give/hand (things) out | Implica distribuir algo a cada persona de un grupo. | | Point something out (to somebody) | Se refiere a llamar la atención de alguien sobre algo o señalar información importante. | | Run out (of something) | Indica que algo se ha agotado o que se ha acabado una reserva. | | Sort something out | Significa encontrar una solución a un problema o poner orden en una situación. | | Turn out to be | Indica que algo resultó ser verdad o de una manera particular, a menudo inesperada. | | Turn out+good/nice | Se refiere a la mejora del tiempo atmosférico. | | Turn out+that | Implica que algo resultó ser de una manera específica, a menudo revelando una verdad. | | Try out (a machine, a system) | Significa probar algo nuevo para ver si funciona o si es adecuado. | | Go on | Puede indicar que algo está sucediendo o continuando, o que se está progresando. | | Call something off | Implica cancelar un evento o plan previamente organizado. | | Put something off | Significa retrasar o posponer una acción o evento. | | Put off (doing sthg) | Se refiere a posponer o demorar la realización de una tarea. | | Put on | Implica vestirse, ponerse ropa, o ganar peso. | | Try on (clothes etc) | Significa probarse ropa para ver cómo queda o si sienta bien. | | Take off (clothes etc) | Indica el acto de quitarse la ropa. | | Be off (to a place) | Expresa la partida hacia un lugar determinado. | | Walk, Run, Drive, Ride + off | Describe la acción de alejarse de un lugar caminando, corriendo, conduciendo o montando. | | Set off | Significa comenzar un viaje o un recorrido. | | See somebody off | Implica acompañar a alguien al punto de partida para despedirse. | | Drive/Walk/Play + on | Indica continuar con la acción de conducir, caminar o jugar. | | Go on/carry on + doing something | Significa continuar realizando una actividad. | | Go on with/carry on with something | Implica continuar con la acción que se estaba realizando. | | Keep on (doing something) | Sugiere hacer algo de manera continua o repetidamente. | | Get on (with somebody) | Se refiere a tener una buena relación o llevarse bien con alguien. | | Get on (with something) | Indica continuar haciendo algo que se tiene que hacer, especialmente después de una interrupción. | | Doze/drop/nod + OFF | Significa caer dormido, a menudo de forma involuntaria. | | Finish something off | Implica completar la parte final de una tarea o proyecto. | | Go off | Puede significar que algo explote, suene (como una alarma), o que un alimento se estropee. | | Put somebody off (doing something) | Significa disuadir a alguien de hacer algo, o hacer que pierda el interés. | | Rip somebody off | Es una expresión informal que significa engañar o estafar a alguien cobrándole de más. | | Show off | Implica intentar impresionar a los demás exhibiendo habilidades o posesiones. | | Tell somebody off | Significa regañar o reprender a alguien por una mala acción. | | Put something up (on a wall) | Se refiere a colgar o fijar algo en una pared. | | Pick something up | Indica el acto de recoger algo que está en el suelo o en una superficie. | | Stand up | Significa levantarse de una posición sentada o tumbada. | | Turn something up | Implica aumentar el volumen, la intensidad o la temperatura. | | Take down (from a wall etc.) | Se refiere a quitar algo que estaba colgado o fijado, como un cuadro. | | Put something down | Significa soltar o depositar algo que se estaba sosteniendo. | | Sit/Bend/Lie + Down | Indica la acción de sentarse, agacharse o tumbarse. | | Turn something down | Implica reducir el volumen, la intensidad o la temperatura, o rechazar una oferta. | | Knock/Blow/Cut + down | Significa demoler, derribar o destruir algo, como edificios. | | Be knocked down | Describe el acto de ser golpeado o derribado, a menudo por un vehículo o un puñetazo. | | Slow down | Se refiere a reducir la velocidad o ir más despacio. | | Calm down | Indica el acto de tranquilizarse o de calmar a otra persona. | | Cut down (on something) | Implica reducir la cantidad de algo que se consume o se hace habitualmente. | | Close/Shut + DOWN | Significa cerrar un negocio de forma permanente o apagar una máquina o vehículo. | | Let somebody down | Describe la acción de defraudar a alguien al no cumplir sus expectativas. | | Turn somebody/something down | Significa rechazar a una persona o una oferta. | | Write something Down | Indica anotar algo en un papel para recordarlo. | | Go up/come up/walk up (to..) | Se refiere a acercarse a alguien o algo, o a aumentar la velocidad. | | Catch up (with somebody) | Significa alcanzar a alguien que va delante, o ponerse al día con información. | | Set up (organisation, company, business, system, website etc) | Implica establecer, crear o fundar una organización, empresa o sistema. | | Take up (a hobby, a sport, an activity) | Se refiere a comenzar a practicar un nuevo pasatiempo, deporte o actividad. | | Fix up (a meeting) | Significa organizar o concertar una reunión o cita. | | Grow up | Indica el proceso de madurar y convertirse en adulto. | | Bring up (a child) | Describe el acto de criar y cuidar a un niño hasta la edad adulta. | | Clean/Clear/Tidy UP | Implica dejar un lugar limpio y ordenado. | | Wash up | Se refiere a limpiar los platos, cubiertos y utensilios después de comer. | | End up (somewhere/doing something) | Indica el resultado final de una secuencia de acciones o eventos, a menudo inesperado. | | Give up | Puede significar rendirse o renunciar a un esfuerzo. | | Give something up | Implica dejar de hacer algo, a menudo un hábito o actividad. | | Make up something (active form) | Significa formar parte de un todo o constituir una porción de algo. | | Be made up of something (passive form) | Describe la composición de algo, es decir, de qué partes está formado. | | Take up (space or time) | Se refiere a ocupar o consumir espacio o tiempo. | | Turn/Show UP | Indica el acto de llegar o aparecer en un lugar o evento. | | Use something up | Significa consumir la totalidad de algo hasta que no quede nada. | | Bring up (a topic etc.) (Active form) | Implica introducir un tema en una conversación o mencionarlo. | | Come up (Passive form) | Se refiere a que un tema o asunto surja o sea mencionado en una discusión. | | Make something up | Significa inventar una historia o información falsa. | | Cheer up | Indica el acto de sentirse más feliz o animado. | | Cheer somebody up | Significa hacer que otra persona se sienta más feliz. | | Save up (for something, to do something) | Implica acumular dinero u otros recursos para un propósito específico. | | Clear up | Puede referirse a que el tiempo mejore, o a resolver un misterio o problema. | | Blow up (Active Form) | Describe el acto de algo que explota. | | Blow something up (Passive Form) | Significa destruir algo con una explosión, a menudo con una bomba. | | Tear something up | Implica romper algo en pedazos. | | Beat somebody up | Describe el acto de golpear a alguien violentamente. | | Break/Split up (with somebody) | Indica el fin de una relación romántica o de amistad. | | Do up (a coat/a shoelace/buttons) | Se refiere a abrochar, atar o cerrar algo. | | Do up (a room, a building) | Implica reparar, renovar o mejorar una habitación o edificio. | | Look something up (in a dictionary/encyclopedia) | Significa buscar información en una fuente de consulta como un diccionario o enciclopedia. | | Put up with something | Indica tolerar o soportar una situación o comportamiento desagradable. | | Hold up (a person, a plan) | Puede significar retrasar a alguien o algo, o cometer un robo a mano armada. | | Mix up/get people mixed up (people, things) | Describe la acción de confundir personas o cosas. | | Away | Indica distancia de un lugar o de casa. | | Back | Se refiere a regresar a un lugar, especialmente a casa. | | Get away | Significa escapar de un lugar, a menudo con dificultad. | | Get away with something | Implica hacer algo incorrecto sin ser descubierto o castigado. | | Keep away (from) | Indica la necesidad de mantenerse alejado de algo o alguien. | | Give something away | Se refiere a donar o regalar algo que ya no se desea. | | Put something away | Significa guardar algo en su lugar habitual, a menudo fuera de la vista. | | Throw something away | Indica desechar algo, tirándolo a la basura. | | Wave/Smile/Shout/Write/Hit smbd + BACK | Describe la acción de devolver un saludo, una sonrisa, un grito, una escritura o un golpe. | | Call/Phone/Ring somebody + BACK | Significa devolver una llamada telefónica. | | Get back (to somebody) | Indica responder a alguien, a menudo después de un retraso o falta de contacto. | | Look back (on something) | Se refiere a reflexionar sobre eventos o experiencias pasadas. | | Pay back (money) | Significa devolver dinero que se ha pedido prestado. | | Pay somebody back | Indica la acción de devolver dinero a la persona que te lo prestó. |

# Overview of language system courses This section introduces the fundamental components and objectives of the Language System A and B courses, designed to equip future English teachers with advanced language knowledge and pedagogical skills. ### 1.1 The building blocks of the TEFL course Future English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers require a higher level of English proficiency than that taught for general purposes (E.G.P.) in secondary education. This specialized knowledge, termed English for Specific Purposes (E.S.P.), extends to both cultural understanding and language education. Cultural knowledge, encompassing the customs and societies of native English speakers from various countries (e.g., American, Australian, Canadian, Indian English), is crucial for successful communication and teaching [4](#page=4). Language education requires trainees to possess an extensive vocabulary, near-perfect pronunciation, a strong sense of sentence rhythm, lively intonation, and correct grammar. The teacher serves as a role model, and their English should be practically flawless when addressing a class. The Language System (grammar, vocabulary, phonetics) and Proficiency (skills) courses aim to enhance trainees' meta-knowledge and skills. A third pillar is 'Didactics' or 'Krachtig Leren,' which focuses on effectively transferring knowledge and competencies to pupils at lower proficiency levels [4](#page=4). ### 1.2 Two language system courses The first-year Language System course focuses on the three core components of any language: grammar, language acquisition (vocabulary), and phonetics (the English sound system). The primary goal is to gain insight into the rules of the English language system through extensive knowledge of its grammar and sound system, alongside vocabulary expansion [5](#page=5). The Language System course is divided into two parts: Language System A and Language System B [5](#page=5). #### 1.2.1 Language System A: In-depth grammatical training This course builds upon the grammar knowledge acquired from Flemish secondary education. It revisits the main parts of a simple sentence – verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs – and examines their interaction in formal and informal, written and spoken English. The main emphasis is on developing the student's ability to use specific grammatical structures at an advanced level [5](#page=5). #### 1.2.2 Language System B: Transferring elementary grammar to the classroom This course moves beyond being mere language users to delve into the teacher's meta-knowledge. For grammar, it involves a deeper examination of topics taught in the initial years of English instruction and the ability to explain the rationale behind grammatical choices. The course progresses in three stages: first, refreshing the student's own elementary grammar knowledge; second, mastering the rules and using the correct metalanguage; and finally, integrating this knowledge into modern and varied lesson ideas [5](#page=5). --- # Grammatical components of language system B1 This section of the Language System B1 course focuses on building a strong foundation in English grammar, essential for EFL teachers, and extends to idiomatic language use and spelling. ### 2.1 Elementary grammar A core component of the Language System B1 is the mastery of elementary grammar topics taught in the first four years of English education. As an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher, it is crucial to possess accurate knowledge of these grammatical structures to avoid errors that could undermine both teaching expertise and classroom authority. Consequently, exercises related to this area will be assessed with greater strictness, including a more demanding passing grade. Learning in this area is primarily through self-tuition, with assessments on a written exam in June. The evaluation will emphasize accuracy, completeness, and the ability to clearly explain grammatical rules at a secondary school level, a skill that has historically been challenging for teacher trainees. Effectively simplifying complex grammatical knowledge for pupils, selecting only relevant information, and presenting it in a structured, clear manner is a significant aspect of teacher training [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** Focus on not just understanding grammar rules, but also on how to effectively communicate them to younger learners. ### 2.2 The English tense system active/passive This section delves into the comprehensive English tense system, covering affirmative, negative, and question forms across present, past, and future tenses, in both active and passive voice. Additionally, it includes essential grammatical categories such as personal and possessive pronouns, articles, singular versus plural nouns, determiners and quantifiers, and adjectives. Familiarization with these grammatical items is achieved through a blend of self-tuition, lecture sessions, and blended learning, utilizing the Grammar Guide. A thorough understanding of these elements is vital preparation for teaching practice, as some may be assigned as lesson subjects [7](#page=7). ### 2.3 Tense analysis Beyond grammatical accuracy, teachers must be able to articulate the rationale behind correct and incorrect grammar usage. Tense analysis involves examining authentic texts to understand an author's specific choices regarding tense selection. This includes identifying the tense used, exploring its potential meanings, and determining the most contextually appropriate explanation [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** When analyzing texts, consider the author's intent and the overall message they are trying to convey through their tense choices. At the end of the course, students will be required to create a 'Tense Overview Grid' to consolidate their learning [8](#page=8). ### 2.4 Vocabulary In the realm of language acquisition, the focus shifts from purely literal word meanings to the richer domain of idiomatic phrases, expressions, and proverbs in English [8](#page=8). ### 2.5 Spelling Developing a strong command of spelling is paramount for an English teacher. This section addresses common spelling pitfalls, with a particular emphasis on British spelling conventions. Trainee teachers are expected to be capable of identifying and correcting spelling errors in authentic textual materials [8](#page=8). --- # Detailed exploration of English tenses The English tense system is comprised of time and aspect, with three recognized times (past, present, future) and three aspects (simple, continuous, perfect), which combine to express a wide range of meanings and speaker perceptions [10](#page=10). ### 7.1 Aspects of verbs An aspect adds extra information to a verb's meaning, reflecting the speaker's perspective on an action or state [10](#page=10). #### 7.1.1 Simple aspect The simple aspect primarily affects the verb's form without altering its core meaning. It is used for [10](#page=10): * **Long-term general truths:** e.g., "I like studying English" [10](#page=10). * **Instantaneous actions:** e.g., "I walked through the town" [10](#page=10). * **Habitual actions:** e.g., "It barks all night when the moon is up" [10](#page=10). #### 7.1.2 Continuous (progressive) aspect The continuous aspect is formed with a form of "be" + verb-ING. It portrays events as in progress, temporary, or unfinished, giving them duration. Uses include [10](#page=10): * **At the moment of speaking:** e.g., "I am dancing" [10](#page=10). * **Around a certain time:** e.g., "This week I'm staying with my parents" [11](#page=11). * **Simultaneous with another action:** e.g., "He was eating chips and watching TV when the phone rang" [11](#page=11). > **Tip:** The continuous aspect stretches events by giving them duration, contrasting with the simple aspect's focus on completion or fact [10](#page=10). #### 7.1.3 Perfect aspect The perfect aspect is formed with a version of "have" + past participle. It focuses on connecting events or actions from two different time periods. Types include [11](#page=11): * **Present Perfect:** Links past to present [11](#page=11). * **Past Perfect:** Links one past time to another past time [11](#page=11). * **Future Perfect:** Links present to future [11](#page=11). Perfect aspects can describe: * **States:** e.g., "I’ve loved you since I first met you" [11](#page=11). * **Actions:** e.g., "I have eaten" [11](#page=11). * **Habits:** e.g., "My father had started work at 9 o’clock every day for the last 20 years" [11](#page=11). #### 7.1.4 Perfect continuous aspect This aspect combines the forms of the perfect and continuous aspects (have + been + verb-ING). It emphasizes actions or events with duration that are relevant to more than one time period. Examples include [11](#page=11): * "I have been working here for 6 years" [11](#page=11). * "I had been studying hard all that week" [11](#page=11). * "I will have been studying English for 10 years by my next birthday" [11](#page=11). ### 7.2 English tense system overview (active voice) The following table summarizes the active voice tenses, combining time and aspect [12](#page=12): | | **NON-PERFECT SIMPLE** | **NON-PERFECT PROGRESSIVE** | **PERFECT SIMPLE** | **PERFECT PROGRESSIVE** | | :---------- | :----------------------------------- | :----------------------------------- | :------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------- | | **PRESENT** | I work 6 days a week. | I am working as a waiter at the moment. | I have worked hard my entire life. | I have been working as a teacher for 31 years. | | **PAST** | I worked 6 days a week when I was younger. | I was working as a waiter then. | I had worked for that company for 50 years and they still fired me. | I had been working as a waiter when I finally got my teaching degree. | | **FUTURE** | I will work 6 days a week when I get this new job. | I will be working as a waiter then. | I will have worked 50 years next summer. | I will have been working for this company for 50 years next summer. | ### 7.3 English tense system overview (passive voice) The following table summarizes the passive voice tenses, combining time and aspect [13](#page=13): | | **NON-PERFECT SIMPLE** | **NON-PERFECT PROGRESSIVE** | **PERFECT SIMPLE** | **PERFECT PROGRESSIVE** | | :---------- | :---------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------- | :---------------------- | | **PRESENT** | She is brought to school every day. | She is being brought to school as we speak. | She has been brought to school and now she’s sat in class. | N/A | | **PAST** | She was brought to school every weekday. | She was being brought to school when the accident happened. | She’d been brought to school before the thunderstorm broke loose. | N/A | | **FUTURE** | She will be brought to school as soon as she’s old enough. | N/A | She will have been brought to school by the time I’m expected at the doctor’s. | N/A | ### 8 Present tenses Present tenses are used to discuss actions, states, or events occurring in the present. Understanding specific metalanguage related to verb forms and sentence structures is crucial for mastering these tenses [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). #### 8.1 Metalanguage Key terms for understanding present tenses include: * **Bevestigende zin / Affirmative statement:** A positive statement [14](#page=14). * **Ontkennende zin / Negative statement:** A statement expressing negation [14](#page=14). * **Vragen / Questions:** Inquiries about information [14](#page=14). * **Antwoorden / Answers:** Responses to questions [14](#page=14). * **Kort antwoord / Short answer:** A brief response [14](#page=14). * **De infinitiefvorm / Infinitive form:** The base form of a verb [14](#page=14). * **Een klinker / A vowel:** A speech sound made with the mouth open [15](#page=15). * **Een medeklinker / A consonant:** A speech sound made by partially or completely blocking the flow of air [15](#page=15). * **Een lettergreep / A syllable:** A unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants [15](#page=15). * **Benadrukken / To stress:** To emphasize [15](#page=15). * **Een sisklank / A sibilant:** A hissing sound [15](#page=15). * **Een werkwoord / A verb:** A word describing an action, state, or occurrence [15](#page=15). * **Regelmatig werkwoord / Regular verb:** A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding -ed [15](#page=15). * **Onregelmatig werkwoord / Irregular verb:** A verb whose past tense and past participle are formed irregularly [15](#page=15). * **Verdubbelen / To double:** To make something twice as much or as many [15](#page=15). * **Een staat van zijn / A state of being:** A condition of existence [15](#page=15). * **Een karaktereigenschap / A character trait:** A quality that makes someone or something distinctive [15](#page=15). * **Routine, hobby, gewoonte / Routine, hobby, habit:** Recurring activities [15](#page=15). * **Een algemene waarheid / A general truth:** A fact that is universally or widely accepted as true [16](#page=16). * **Een beroep / A profession:** A paid occupation, especially one that involves prolonged training and a formal qualification [16](#page=16). * **Een opinie / An opinion:** A view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily based on fact or knowledge [16](#page=16). * **Historisch heden / Historical present:** The use of the present tense when narrating past events [16](#page=16). * **Een dienstregeling / A timetable:** A schedule of events or journeys [16](#page=16). #### 8.2 Rules on form and use Detailed rules for the formation and usage of present tenses can be found in grammar guides [16](#page=16). #### 8.3 Exercises Practice exercises for present tenses are available in online portfolios and student-levelled materials [16](#page=16). ### 9 Past tenses Past tenses are used to describe events, actions, or states that occurred and were completed in the past [18](#page=18) [20](#page=20). #### 9.1 Recap exercise present tenses Exercises are provided to correct sentences that may misuse present tenses, requiring identification of the tense used, the correct tense, and explanations for their application [18](#page=18). #### 9.2 Past simple tense The past simple tense is used to talk about completed actions or states in the past. It is formed using regular or irregular verb forms [20](#page=20) [22](#page=22). ##### 9.2.1 Regular verbs FORM Regular verbs form their past simple and past participle by adding "-ed". Spelling rules for adding "-ed" need to be completed [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). ##### 9.2.2 Irregular verbs Irregular verbs have unique forms for the past simple and past participle that must be memorized [20](#page=20) [22](#page=22). ##### 9.2.3 USE The past simple tense is situated on a timeline to indicate completed past actions. It is used for [22](#page=22): * Talking about completed events or states in the past [22](#page=22). * Expressing habitual actions in the past [22](#page=22). #### 9.3 Past continuous/progressive tense The past continuous tense describes an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past [24](#page=24). ##### 9.3.1 FORM The past continuous is formed with a form of "was/were" + verb-ING. Spelling rules for this formation need to be completed [23](#page=23) [24](#page=24). ##### 9.3.2 USE The past continuous is used for: * Describing an ongoing action that was interrupted by another past action [25](#page=25). * Describing two or more actions happening simultaneously in the past [25](#page=25). * Describing the background setting for a story or event [25](#page=25). > **Tip:** The past continuous often sets the scene or provides context for a past simple event [25](#page=25). #### 9.4 Exercises Practice exercises are available for the past simple and past continuous tenses, including student-levelled and pupil-levelled design tasks [26](#page=26). ### 10 Perfect tenses Perfect tenses connect past events with another point in time, either the present or another point in the past [11](#page=11) [27](#page=27). #### 10.1 Blended learning route – Present Perfect Tense Learning modules are available for the present perfect tense [27](#page=27). #### 10.2 Recap exercise present perfect tenses Exercises involve correcting sentences and identifying the correct usage of the present perfect tense, with explanations provided for why a particular tense should be used or was used incorrectly [27](#page=27) [28](#page=28) [29](#page=29). #### 10.3 Past perfect tense - exercise Videos and transcripts are available for practicing the past perfect tense, which involves highlighting different tenses within a text [30](#page=30). > **Tip:** The past perfect is crucial for indicating the sequence of events when discussing multiple past occurrences [30](#page=30). Phrases often followed by the past perfect include: "thought," "told (reported speech)," "said (reported speech)," "I didn’t know," "I realised," "I was under the impression," and "I noticed" [31](#page=31) [32](#page=32). The past perfect is also used to discuss things that were wanted but not done, representing unrealized dreams or past regrets, often with verbs like "hope," "want," "expect," "mean," and "think about" [32](#page=32). ### 11 Future tenses Future tenses are used to express predictions, intentions, and planned events in the future [34](#page=34). #### 11.1 Exercise – Future Simple, to be going to, present simple, present continuous This exercise focuses on distinguishing between various future-expressing forms, including the future simple ("will"), "to be going to," present simple, and present continuous, analyzing their usage in different contexts [34](#page=34) [35](#page=35). #### 11.2 Exercise on Future Perfect Simple tense This exercise requires completing sentences using the future perfect tense, which describes an action that will be completed before a specific point in the future [35](#page=35). #### 11.3 Exercise on Future Perfect Continuous tense This exercise focuses on the future perfect continuous tense, which describes an action that will have been ongoing for a period of time up to a specific point in the future [36](#page=36). #### 11.4 Exercise on Future Perfect Continuous & Future Perfect Simple This exercise combines practice for both the future perfect continuous and future perfect simple tenses, highlighting their distinct uses in expressing future accomplishments and durations [36](#page=36). #### 11.5 Mixed exercise – Use all tenses expressing ideas about the future This comprehensive exercise requires applying various tenses to express different future ideas, including planned actions, predictions, and ongoing future events [37](#page=37) [38](#page=38). --- # The passive voice in English grammar The passive voice is a grammatical construction where the subject of a sentence receives the action of the verb, rather than performing it [39](#page=39). ### 4.1 Formation and usage of the passive voice The passive voice is formed using a form of the auxiliary verb "to be" followed by the past participle (PP) of the main verb. The active voice structure (Subject + Verb + Object) is transformed into the passive voice structure (Object + "to be" + Past Participle + by + Subject) [39](#page=39). #### 4.1.1 Passive voice in different tenses The passive voice can be used in various tenses, with the auxiliary verb "to be" changing to match the tense of the original active sentence [39](#page=39). * **Present Simple:** Active: "They sell ice cream here." Passive: "Ice cream is sold here." [39](#page=39). * **Present Continuous:** Active: "Someone is washing my car at the moment." Passive: "My car is being washed at the moment." [39](#page=39). * **Present Perfect Simple:** Active: "They have repaired my bike." Passive: "My bike has been repaired." [39](#page=39). * **Past Simple:** Active: "They sold a car yesterday." Passive: "A car was sold yesterday." [39](#page=39). * **Past Continuous:** Active: "He was painting my bedroom then." Passive: "My bedroom was being painted then." [39](#page=39). * **Past Perfect Simple:** Active: "Somebody had left an envelope on the table." Passive: "An envelope had been left on the table." [40](#page=40). * **Future Simple:** Active: "They will send an e-mail." Passive: "An e-mail will be sent." [40](#page=40). * **Future (going to):** Active: "Somebody is going to call Peter." Passive: "Peter is going to be called." [40](#page=40). > **Tip:** When converting from active to passive, the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. The subject of the active sentence can be omitted in the passive sentence or introduced with the preposition "by" [39](#page=39). #### 4.1.2 Matching formations to tenses The following chart matches passive voice formations with their corresponding tenses: * **Present Continuous:** was + PP / were + PP (Incorrectly matched in document, should be: is being + PP / are being + PP) [40](#page=40). * **Future going to:** is going to be + PP / are going to be + PP [40](#page=40). * **Present Simple:** is + PP / are + PP [40](#page=40). * **Past Simple:** was + PP / were + PP [40](#page=40). * **Present Perfect Simple:** has been + PP / have been + PP [40](#page=40). * **Past Continuous:** was being + PP / were being + PP [40](#page=40). * **Past Perfect Simple:** had been + PP [40](#page=40). * **Future Simple:** will be + PP [40](#page=40). > **Note:** The document presents a matching exercise where one tense's formation appears to be misaligned in the initial list. The correct formations are listed above based on standard English grammar. ### 4.2 Exercises on the passive voice This section provides various exercises to practice the formation and use of the passive voice [41-45](#page=41-45). #### 4.2.1 Make passive sentences These exercises require converting active sentences or phrases into passive ones, specifying the tense to be used [41](#page=41). * A Roman pavement **was found** under Oxford Street. (just find: pres.perf.) [41](#page=41). * Chinese **is spoken** in Singapore. (speak: present simple) [41](#page=41). * The Taj Mahal **was built** around 1640. (build – past simple) [41](#page=41). * The new hospital **will be opened** next year. (open – future simple) [41](#page=41). * She **is being interviewed** now. (interview – present progressive) [41](#page=41). * I realised I **was being watched**. (watch – past progressive) [41](#page=41). * Who **has been invited** to Andy’s party?. (invite – present perfect) [41](#page=41). * He found that all his money **had been stolen**. (steal – past perfect) [41](#page=41). * Passengers **are asked** not to speak to the driver. (ask – present simple) [41](#page=41). * The village church **was destroyed** in a fire last year. (destroy – past simple) [41](#page=41). * You **will be examined** by Dr. Capel. (examine – future simple) [41](#page=41). #### 4.2.2 Put in present progressive or past progressive verbs These exercises focus on using the passive progressive forms (present and past) [41](#page=41). * ‘Is my car ready’?‘ It **is being repaired** now.’. (repair) [41](#page=41). * I kept looking round, because I thought I **was being followed**. (follow) [41](#page=41). * We had to keep very quiet while the students **were being examined**. (examine) [41](#page=41). * I can’t use my office this weekend because it **is being painted**. (painted) [41](#page=41). * ‘Where’s Polly?’ ‘She **is being interviewed** for a new job.’. (interview) [41](#page=41). * They say they’ll put things right, but nothing **is being done**. (do) [41](#page=41). * I had to wait for a few minutes while the papers **were being translated**. (translate) [41](#page=41). * Why do I always feel nervous while my passport **is being checked**?. (check) [41](#page=41). #### 4.2.3 Circle the best way to continue This exercise involves choosing between active and passive constructions to logically continue a sentence [42](#page=42). * This ice cream has a very unusual taste. * b) I think it’s made with coconut milk. (passive) [42](#page=42). * Rice is important in Cajun cooking. * b. It’s served with every meal. (passive) [42](#page=42). #### 4.2.4 Make passive sentences using specified subjects and verbs These exercises require transforming active sentences into passive ones, using provided italicized words as the new subjects and verbs [42](#page=42). * All the passengers received meal tickets. (give) * Meal tickets **were given** to all the passengers [42](#page=42). * Someone sent a bill for the repairs to Laura. (send) * A bill for the repairs **was sent** to Laura [43](#page=43). * Laura **was sent** a bill for the repairs [43](#page=43). * They did not explain all the facts to the police. (not tell) * All the facts **were not told** to the police [43](#page=43). * The police **were not told** all the facts [43](#page=43). #### 4.2.5 Complete sentences with passive verbs This exercise involves selecting appropriate passive verb phrases to complete sentences, often using prepositional phrases [43](#page=43). * The children like to be **talked to** when they’re going to sleep [43](#page=43). * I don’t like being **talked about** behind my back [43](#page=43). * The new secretary’s working very badly. He’ll have to be **spoken to** [43](#page=43). * I don’t think he came home last night. His bed hasn’t been **slept in** [43](#page=43). * That antique chair’s not really meant to be **sat on** [43](#page=43). * It’s not really our house yet. It hasn’t been **paid for** [43](#page=43). * He left for America in 1980, and he hasn’t been **heard of** since [43](#page=43). * The cat loves being **looked after** [43](#page=43). * He’s so shy: it even upsets him to be **looked at** [43](#page=43). * Please talk calmly. I don’t like being **shouted at** [43](#page=43). #### 4.2.6 Write sentences using 'want' with passive infinitives This exercise practices the construction "want + to be + past participle" [44](#page=44). * ‘Remember me’ / He **wants to be remembered** [44](#page=44). * ‘Respect me!’ / He **wants to be respected** [44](#page=44). * ‘I hope you’ll listen to me!’ / She **wants to be listened to** [44](#page=44). * ‘Don’t pay me!’ / She **wants to be paid** [44](#page=44). * ‘Please look at me!’ / He **wants to be looked at** [44](#page=44). #### 4.2.7 Write sentences using modal verbs with passive infinitives This exercise focuses on using modal verbs followed by passive infinitives (without "to") [44](#page=44). * You can’t criticise her. She **cannot be criticised** [44](#page=44). * You mustn’t fold this. **This mustn’t be folded** [44](#page=44). * You should keep this cool. **This should be kept cool** [44](#page=44). * We ought to tell Ann. **Ann ought to be told** [44](#page=44). * They may invite him. **He may be invited** [44](#page=44). * You can’t send this through the post. **This cannot be sent** through the post [44](#page=44). * You should open this immediately. **This should be opened** immediately [44](#page=44). * You mustn’t open this before Christmas. **This mustn’t be opened** before Christmas [44](#page=44). #### 4.2.8 Fill out active or passive structures This exercise requires choosing between active and passive forms in a dialogue based on context [44-45](#page=44-45). Interviewer: Your new Smartphone Z ............................................ now. (sell) * **is being sold** [44](#page=44). Steve Hobs: Yes, it does. Smartphone Z .......................................... last week (launch) * **was launched** [44](#page=44). with all the revolutionary features which ............................................... (develop) for the previous Smarthone Y. * **were developed** [44](#page=44). And two new functionalities .................................. ....................... now to generation Z. (add) * **are being added** [44](#page=44). Interviewer: Could you give us more details? Steve Hobs: There is no home button in Smartphone Z. The home screen ................................ (access) by tapping on the screen. * **is accessed** [45](#page=45). Interviewer: And the second functionality? Steve Hobs: Unlocking the device ................................. (done) with a new voice recognition system. It means that your phone can recognize your voice and it unlocks if you ask it to do so. * **is done** [45](#page=45). Interviewer: It is something like the facial recognition system in other phones. Steve Hobs: Exactly. But the voice recognition system .............................................................. (design) for Smartphone Z because your voice, unlike your face, never changes. * **was designed** [45](#page=45). Interviewer: Are you planning any other revolutionary features for the next generation of your smartphones? Steve Hobs: Next year we want to release a phone which, apart from other functions, ............................................ (use) as a microwave oven. * **will be used** [45](#page=45). Interviewer: Pardon? --- # Tense analysis and application This section focuses on analyzing the use of tenses in authentic texts from a teacher's perspective, emphasizing the reasoning behind tense choices and their explanation to pupils [46](#page=46). ### 5.1 The teacher's perspective on tense analysis As a language teacher, understanding the rationale behind an author's tense selection is crucial for effectively explaining these choices to students. This course examines authentic texts to analyze tense usage and the underlying reasons for those choices. This knowledge helps teachers become more familiar with the diverse applications of different tenses and equips them to explain why a particular tense is preferable in specific circumstances [46](#page=46). ### 5.2 Step-by-step approach to tense analysis The course provides a structured, step-by-step method for analyzing tense use in authentic texts [46](#page=46). #### 5.2.1 Step 1: Identify the tense The initial step involves identifying the tense of underlined verbs within a given text [47](#page=47) [48](#page=48). > **Tip:** As a teacher, you must know the names of the tenses and avoid making mistakes in their identification [48](#page=48). > **Tip:** Remember the basic structures for common forms: > * To be + present participle (ing-form) = Progressive form [48](#page=48). > * To have + past participle (ed-form) = Perfect form [48](#page=48). > * To be + past participle (ed-form) = Passive form (which is not a tense) [48](#page=48). #### 5.2.2 Step 2: Match explanations to tense choices Following tense identification, the next step is to match the verbs with the most appropriate explanations for the author's choice of tense in that specific context. This involves referring to resources like the OEGC (presumably an "Oxford English Grammar Course" or similar) [47](#page=47) [48](#page=48). #### 5.2.3 Step 3: Critically evaluate provided explanations This step requires identifying what is inaccurate or incomplete in pre-existing explanations for tense usage. It also involves determining which tenses these vague explanations might refer to. The goal is to be accurate and complete, addressing each aspect of the tense's function [47](#page=47) [49](#page=49). #### 5.2.4 Step 4: Provide independent explanations In this step, students read a text, name the underlined tenses, and provide their own explanations for why each particular tense was used. This reinforces the understanding of tense function and application in authentic communication [47](#page=47) [50](#page=50). #### 5.2.5 Step 5 (Optional): Explore alternative tense choices An optional, but valuable, step involves considering other tenses that might have been possible in a given sentence and how such alternatives would alter the sentence's meaning [47](#page=47). ### 5.3 Analyzing tense usage in an interview extract An example extract from a phone interview with Dame Judi Dench is used to illustrate tense analysis. The focus is on identifying changes in the interviewee's life and understanding the grammatical reasoning behind the author's tense selections [46](#page=46). **Example Analysis Points from the Judi Dench Extract:** * **"I have been working (a) harder since Michael died."** * **Tense:** Present Perfect Continuous [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** Activity started in the past, with duration up to the present, emphasizing the extended period of time, often indicated by the keyword 'since'. This highlights an ongoing situation that began after a specific past event (Michael's death) [48](#page=48). * **"You see we always made (b) sure that we made time for each other."** * **Tense:** Simple Past [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This refers to a past habit or a finished event in a finished period of time, especially when accompanied by adverbs like 'always'. It signifies a routine or a pattern of behaviour in the past [48](#page=48). * **"She and Williams had been married (c) for 30 years when he died of cancer in 2001."** * **Tense:** Past Perfect Continuous [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This tense describes a state or activity that started in the past and continued up to another event in the past. It's used here to establish the duration of their marriage *before* his death [48](#page=48). * **"He bought (d) her a single rose once a week throughout their marriage."** * **Tense:** Simple Past [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This describes a past habit or a recurring event within a finished period of time. The phrase "once a week" clearly indicates a repeated action in the past [48](#page=48). * **"No, my daughter Finty lives (e) with me, and her son ..."** * **Tense:** Present Simple [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This indicates a fact or a permanent/ongoing situation in the present. It describes her current living arrangement [48](#page=48). * **"Family, she says, has always been (f) vitally important to her..."** * **Tense:** Present Perfect [46](#page=46) [48](#page=48). * **Explanation:** This describes a state that started in the past and continues up to the present, potentially into the future, or it describes a state in an unfinished time frame. The emphasis is on the enduring importance of family throughout her life up to the current moment [48](#page=48). ### 5.4 Example application with different text Another short text is provided to practice identifying tenses and their explanations, involving sentences like: * "I don’t think my stepfather much minded dying." - Present Simple, indicating a current belief about a past event [1](#page=1). * "That he almost took me with him wasn’t really his fault." - Simple Past, describing a past event and its context. * "Perhaps I’d better tell you your stepfather has had a heart attack" - Present Perfect, indicating an event that happened in the past with relevance to the present [2](#page=2). * "where I went every two weeks to collect my letters." - Simple Past, describing a habitual action in the past [3](#page=3). * "The postcard had lain there unread for approximately ten days." - Past Perfect, indicating an action or state that occurred before another past event (being read) [4](#page=4) [50](#page=50). --- # Spelling pitfalls and common confusions This section addresses frequent spelling errors in English and clarifies the distinctions between commonly confused words. ### 6.1 Understanding 'too', 'to', and 'two' #### 6.1.1 'Too' 'Too' functions as an adverb or a submodifier. It can be used to indicate that a previous statement also applies to someone or something else. It is also used before an adverb or adjective to signify an excessive amount or degree that is more than desirable or acceptable. When using 'too' with an adverb or adjective, 'very' is not used; instead, 'much' or 'far' are employed (e.g., "much too big" or "far too big"). 'Slightly' and 'a bit' can also precede 'too' (e.g., "slightly too big," "a bit too tight"). In formal or literary English, 'too' can precede an adjective before a noun, with 'a' placed after the adjective (e.g., "too easy a solution") [51](#page=51). #### 6.1.2 'To' 'To' is primarily used as a preposition or as part of the infinitive form of a verb [51](#page=51). #### 6.1.3 'Two' 'Two' is the numeral representing the quantity of two [70](#page=70). ### 6.2 Distinguishing 'than' and 'then' #### 6.2.1 'Than' 'Than' is predominantly used after comparative adjectives and adverbs. It is followed by a noun group, clause, or adverbial to make a comparison [53](#page=53). > **Example:** Writing is more difficult than speaking [53](#page=53). #### 6.2.2 'Then' 'Then' indicates time, meaning 'at that time', 'at that moment', 'afterwards', or 'subsequently' [53](#page=53). > **Example:** And then he went home [53](#page=53). ### 6.3 Clarifying 'there', 'their', and 'they're' #### 6.3.1 'There' 'There' has two main uses: 1. In front of a verb like 'to be' to indicate existence or location [53](#page=53). > **Example:** There was an accident and people got killed [53](#page=53). 2. As an adverb referring to a specific place [53](#page=53). > **Example:** I spend most of my time in there, the bedroom [53](#page=53). #### 6.3.2 'Their' 'Their' is a possessive determiner indicating that something belongs to or relates to particular people [54](#page=54). > **Example:** Look at their faces! [54](#page=54). #### 6.3.3 'They're' 'They're' is a contraction of 'they' and 'are' [54](#page=54). > **Example:** They’re late! [54](#page=54). ### 6.4 Differentiating 'quiet' and 'quite' #### 6.4.1 'Quiet' 'Quiet' is an adjective describing something or someone that makes little noise, or a place with little or no noise [54](#page=54). > **Example:** He said in a quiet voice [54](#page=54). #### 6.4.2 'Quite' 'Quite' is used to indicate something is true to a fair or great extent, used to show degree, and is placed before an adjective or adverb. When 'quite' precedes a noun, an article must be inserted between them. 'Quite' cannot be used before comparative adjectives or adverbs [54](#page=54). > **Example:** He was quite young [54](#page=54). > **Example:** It was quite cold [54](#page=54). > **Example:** He caught quite a bit of fish [54](#page=54). ### 6.5 Understanding 'piece' and 'peace' #### 6.5.1 'Piece' A 'piece' is a part or fragment of something [55](#page=55). > **Example:** I have a piece of broken glass in my foot [55](#page=55). #### 6.5.2 'Peace' 'Peace' refers to a state of no fighting; it is the antonym of war [55](#page=55). > **Example:** Everything was at peace [55](#page=55). ### 6.6 Distinguishing 'desert' and 'dessert' #### 6.6.1 'Desert' 'Desert' can be used as a noun or a verb, with different pronunciations. As a noun, a desert is a dry area with little water, rain, trees, or plants. As a verb, 'to desert' means to leave a place, person, or group, often without the intention of returning, such as a soldier deserting from the army [56](#page=56). #### 6.6.2 'Dessert' 'Dessert' is a food served at the end of a meal [56](#page=56). > **Example:** For dessert, there was ice cream [56](#page=56). ### 6.7 Clarifying 'of' and 'off' #### 6.7.1 'Of' 'Of' is used to indicate possession or relationships between people and things. It can be used before possessive pronouns like 'mine' (e.g., "a friend of mine") and in constructions with 'this', 'these', 'that', and 'those' followed by a possessive. 'Of' is not used before short noun groups; instead, the possessive 's' is used (e.g., "my friend's car," not "the car of my friend"). 'Of' is also not used to denote authorship; 'by' is used instead (e.g., "a painting by Rubens"). 'Of' can indicate location for countries or states but 'in' is used for villages or towns [56](#page=56) [57](#page=57). #### 6.7.2 'Off' 'Off' is a preposition or adverb indicating removal from an object or surface. It can also indicate leaving a place [57](#page=57). > **Example:** Take your hand off my arm [57](#page=57). > **Example:** The train was taking off [57](#page=57). ### 6.8 Rules for forming possessives #### 6.8.1 Singular nouns Add 's' to a singular noun (person or animal) to form the possessive. If the noun already ends in 's', typically another 's' is added, though sometimes only an apostrophe is accepted in modern usage. For classical and biblical names ending in 's', only an apostrophe is added [58](#page=58). #### 6.8.2 Plural nouns If a plural noun ends in 's', add an apostrophe to form the possessive. If a plural noun does not end in 's', add apostrophe + 's' [58](#page=58). #### 6.8.3 Nouns referring to things Generally, 's' is not added to nouns referring to things; the 'of' construction is used instead (e.g., "the front of the building") [58](#page=58). #### 6.8.4 Special use in British English In British English, apostrophe + 's' is added to a person's name to refer to their place of residence or to shops (e.g., "at Lucy's," "the chemist's") [59](#page=59). ### 6.9 Distinguishing 'dead', 'death', and 'died' #### 6.9.1 'Died' 'Died' is the past tense and past participle of the verb 'to die' and is never used as an adjective [60](#page=60). > **Example:** He died yesterday [60](#page=60). #### 6.9.2 'Dead' 'Dead' is typically used as an adjective to describe someone no longer alive. It can also refer to a group of people when used as a noun [60](#page=60). > **Example:** He still remembers his dead sister [60](#page=60). > **Example:** Among the dead was a seven-year-old girl [60](#page=60). #### 6.9.3 'Death' 'Death' is a noun indicating the process of dying, the end of life, or the state of being dead [60](#page=60). > **Example:** His death was a terrible blow to her [60](#page=60). ### 6.10 Understanding 'to live', 'a life', 'lively', and 'alive' When someone is not dead, they 'live' [60](#page=60). * **To live:** verb [60](#page=60). * **The life:** noun (plural: lives) [60](#page=60). * **Lively:** adjective [60](#page=60). * **Alive:** adverb [60](#page=60). > **Tip:** 'Alive' is never used in front of nouns. Instead, 'living' is used for people and 'live' for animals [60](#page=60). > **Example:** I have no living relatives [60](#page=60). > **Example:** Problems with the transport of live animals [60](#page=60). ### 6.11 Differentiating 'to wish', 'a wish', 'which', and 'witch' * **To wish:** to desire something [61](#page=61). * **A wish:** what you want or desire (noun) [61](#page=61). * **A witch:** an evil creature or sorceress (noun) [61](#page=61). * **Which:** used as a determiner or a pronoun [61](#page=61). > **Example:** Which station do I take? [61](#page=61). ### 6.12 Distinguishing 'no', 'to know', and 'now' * **To know:** verb meaning to have knowledge [61](#page=61). * **No:** used as a negative reply, a negative determiner before nouns, before comparative adjectives instead of 'not', and to forbid things [61](#page=61). > **Example:** Will you come? No [61](#page=61). > **Example:** She has no money and no friends [61](#page=61). * **Now:** an adverb of time meaning 'at this moment' or 'presently'; it can also contrast present with earlier situations. 'Right now' and 'just now' indicate a present situation that may change. 'Nowadays' means 'at the present time' [62](#page=62). ### 6.13 Understanding 'fate' and 'faith' * **Fate:** the power that supposedly predetermines events. 'Fateful' and 'fated' are related adjectives [62](#page=62). > **Example:** Fate stepped in and prevented the meeting [62](#page=62). * **Faith:** trust, confidence, or religion. 'Faithful' and 'faithless' are related adjectives [62](#page=62). > **Example:** I have great faith in my doctor [62](#page=62). ### 6.14 Differentiating 'son' and 'sun' * **Son:** a male human being in relation to his parents [63](#page=63). > **Example:** She has seven sons [63](#page=63). * **Sun:** the heavenly body that gives warmth and light [63](#page=63). > **Example:** The sun was shining [63](#page=63). ### 6.15 Distinguishing 'weather' and 'whether' * **Weather:** the general atmospheric conditions [63](#page=63). > **Example:** The weather is nice today [63](#page=63). * **Whether:** used to introduce a clause expressing doubt or choice; meaning 'if it be the case that' [63](#page=63). > **Example:** Whether or not it is true, I’ll look into the matter [63](#page=63). ### 6.16 Clarifying 'suit' and 'suite' * **Suit:** can be a noun (a set of clothes from the same material) or a verb (to be convenient or appropriate). Both are pronounced the same [63](#page=63). > **Example:** He arrived at the office in a suit and tie [63](#page=63). > **Example:** Would Monday suit you? [63](#page=63). * **Suite:** refers to a set of rooms in a hotel or a set of matching furniture. It is pronounced differently from 'suit' [64](#page=64). > **Example:** They are always staying at a suite in the Ritz [64](#page=64). ### 6.17 Rules for days, dates, and times #### 6.17.1 Days of the week and months Days of the week and months are always written with a capital letter. Days are usually used without a determiner, unless referring to any specific day (e.g., "on a Friday"). For months, 'early', 'mid', and 'late' can be added for specificity [64](#page=64). #### 6.17.2 Years Years are typically pronounced and written in two parts (e.g., "nineteen seventy"). The year 2000 is often referred to as "the year two thousand" [65](#page=65). #### 6.17.3 AD and BC 'AD' (Anno Domini, 'in the year of our Lord') is added before or after a year to indicate years after Christ's birth. 'BC' (Before Christ) is added after a year to indicate years before Christ's birth [65](#page=65). #### 6.17.4 Writing dates Dates can be written in various formats (e.g., "20 April," "20th April," "April 20," "April 20th"). When including the year, a comma is used (e.g., "December 15, 1993"). Dates can be written entirely in figures (e.g., "20/4/92") [65](#page=65). > **Tip:** Americans place the month before the day when writing dates in figures (e.g., "4/20/92"), which can cause confusion with European formats [65](#page=65). #### 6.17.5 Saying dates Dates are said using ordinal numbers, with British English speakers often including 'the' before the number, while Americans may omit it [66](#page=66). #### 6.17.6 Seasons Seasons are written in lower-case letters (e.g., "spring," "autumn"). 'Fall' is the American English term for 'autumn' [66](#page=66). #### 6.17.7 Decades and centuries A decade is a 10-year period (e.g., "the sixties" or "the 1960s"). A century is a 100-year period, often written with figures (e.g., "the 18th century"). Centuries can also be referred to using plural forms of the first year (e.g., "the 1800s," "the early eighteen hundreds") [66](#page=66). #### 6.17.8 Prepositions for time * **AT:** used for religious festivals and short periods [67](#page=67). > **Example:** at Christmas, at the weekend [67](#page=67). * **IN:** used for months, seasons, years, decades, and centuries [67](#page=67). > **Example:** in July, in autumn, in 1992 [67](#page=67). * **ON:** used for days and dates [67](#page=67). > **Example:** on Mondays, on 12 July [67](#page=67). ### 6.18 Common spelling patterns and confusions #### 6.18.1 Single and double consonants Words like 'also', 'almost', 'although', 'already', and 'always' have only one 'l'. Many words feature double consonants, including: 'necessary', 'accommodation', 'address', 'success', 'different', 'possessive', 'immediately', 'Mediterranean', 'exaggerate', 'marvellous', 'recommend', 'abbreviate', 'excellent', 'professor', 'tobacco', 'coffee', 'immigrate', 'connect', 'commit', 'committee', 'parallel', 'embarrass', 'occasion', and 'opportunity' [67](#page=67). #### 6.18.2 Frequently confused word pairs * **whose** (possessive pronoun) vs. **who's** (contraction of who is) [67](#page=67). * **it's** (contraction of it is) vs. **its** (possessive pronoun) [67](#page=67). * **to lose** (verb) vs. **loose** (adjective, not tight) [67](#page=67). * **stationary** (not moving) vs. **stationery** (paper for writing) [67](#page=67). * **to affect** (to influence) vs. **the effect** (the result) [67](#page=67). * **past** (referring to time before now) vs. **passed** (simple past of to pass) [67](#page=67). * **taught** (past tense of teach) vs. **thought** (past tense of think) [67](#page=67). * **principal** (headmaster, main) vs. **principle** (basic rule or idea) [67](#page=67). #### 6.18.3 Verb pairs: rise/raise and lie/lay * **rise – rose – risen** (intransitive: to go up) vs. **raise – raised – raised** (transitive: to lift something) [67](#page=67). > **Example:** Taxes will rise. Prices will be raised by the shopkeepers [68](#page=68). * **lie – lay – lain** (intransitive: to be in a horizontal position) vs. **lay – laid – laid** (transitive: to put something down) [68](#page=68). > **Example:** Italy lies in Europe. Lay the book on the table [68](#page=68). #### 6.18.4 Pronunciation and spelling variations * The number 'four' and 'fourteen' are distinct from 'forty' [68](#page=68). * The pronunciation of 'to' does not always match its spelling [68](#page=68). * Words like 'pyramid', 'system', 'mystery', 'myth', 'physical', 'hymn', 'symphony', and 'gymnasium' use 'y' instead of 'i' [68](#page=68). #### 6.18.5 Silent letters Many words contain silent letters that are written but not pronounced. Examples include: 'miscellaneous', 'exhausted', 'exhibition', 'psychological', 'acquaintance', 'knee', 'knife', 'scholar', 'guard', 'debt', 'scissors', 'spaghetti', 'honest', 'rhythm', 'receipt', 'character', 'scene', 'comb', 'hour', 'autumn', 'solemn', 'acquire', 'wrong', and 'column' [68](#page=68). #### 6.18.6 's' in verbs and 'c' in nouns Some words use 's' in their verb form and 'c' in their noun form: 'to advise'/'the advice', 'to license'/'the licence', 'to practise'/'the practice', 'to prophesy'/'the prophecy', 'to devise'/'the device' [68](#page=68). #### 6.18.7 Adverb formation Adjectives ending in '-ic' typically form their adverbs by adding '-ally' (e.g., 'basic' -> 'basically', 'tragic' -> 'tragically', 'rustic' -> 'rustically', 'heroic' -> 'heroically'). The exception is 'public', which becomes 'publicly' [69](#page=69). #### 6.18.8 One word or two Confusion can arise with word pairs that are sometimes written as one word and sometimes as two: 'maybe'/'may be', 'all right'/'alright', 'everyday'/'every day', 'altogether'/'all together', 'nobody'/'no body', 'sometimes'/'some times' [69](#page=69). > **Tip:** When in doubt, consult a dictionary to confirm the correct spelling and usage of commonly confused words [72](#page=72). --- # Vocabulary: Idiomatic language use This topic explores idiomatic expressions, common phrases, proverbs, similes, and metaphors, detailing their definitions, usage, and inherent translation challenges [73](#page=73). ### 15.1 Definitions Idioms, or idiomatic expressions, are defined as a group of words in a fixed order that possess a specific meaning, which cannot be deduced from the individual meanings of the words themselves. They are characteristic of a particular language and must be learned by heart, similar to new vocabulary. The ability to use idioms effectively is a key indicator of language proficiency [73](#page=73). **Examples of idioms:** * To have bitten off more than you can chew: to have attempted something too difficult [73](#page=73). * To kick the bucket: to die [73](#page=73). Literal translations of idioms are often nonsensical or humorous because corresponding fixed expressions frequently do not exist across languages. For instance, the Dutch expression "een plakje cake" (a slice of cake) translates to "a piece of cake" in English, meaning something easy. However, "het is niet hun kopje thee" (it's not their cup of tea) in Dutch has the equivalent English meaning, while a literal translation of the Dutch phrase for not understanding something ("Ze hebben er geen kaas van gegeten" - they haven't eaten cheese from it) would not convey the intended meaning [73](#page=73). A proverb or saying is a concise, widely known sentence that states a general truth, a common experience, or offers advice. In Dutch, these are referred to as 'een gezegde', 'een spreekwoord', or 'een spreuk' [74](#page=74). **Examples of proverbs:** * Waste not, want not [74](#page=74). * A watched kettle never boils [74](#page=74). Proverbs do not always contain idioms but may incorporate them. Similar proverbs can exist in different languages, but direct translation should be approached with caution to avoid sounding ridiculous [74](#page=74). **Cross-linguistic proverb examples:** * (DUTCH) Eind goed, al goed. = (ENG) All is well that ends well [74](#page=74). * (DUTCH) Door schade en schande wordt men wijs. (Through damage and shame one becomes wise.) = (ENG) A burnt child fears the fire [74](#page=74). ### 15.2 Common expressions Many common expressions are already familiar, and proficiency can be assessed through exercises that involve completing or understanding their meanings [74](#page=74). **Examples from exercises:** * When in Rome, do as the Romans do [74](#page=74). * Two heads are better than one [74](#page=74). * Every cloud has a silver lining [74](#page=74). * The early bird catches the worm [74](#page=74). * To let the cat out of the bag: to reveal a secret [75](#page=75). * To spread like wildfire: to disseminate information very quickly [75](#page=75). * To buy a pig in a poke: to purchase something without inspecting it properly beforehand [75](#page=75). * To give the game away: to reveal a secret, often unintentionally [75](#page=75). * There is something rotten in the state of Denmark!: a situation is corrupt or not as it seems [75](#page=75). * To take one for the road: an alcoholic drink taken just before leaving [75](#page=75). * A nest-egg: savings put aside for future use [75](#page=75). The following table lists expressions and their meanings, as presented in the exercises: | Expression | Meaning | | :----------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | To kill two birds with one stone | To achieve two goals with a single action | | To beat about the bush | To avoid coming to the point in conversation | | To fly a kite | A hopeful plan with little chance of success | | To carry coals to Newcastle | To take goods to a place where they are already plentiful | | It’s like water off a duck’s back | Something that has no effect on a person | | To buy a pig in a poke | To purchase something unseen, potentially worthless | | To be in Queer Street | To be in trouble, especially financial difficulties | | To die | To die | | To put your foot in it | To say or do something embarrassing or tactless | | To bury the hatchet | To make peace after a disagreement | | To pay through the nose | To pay an excessive amount of money | | It’s only a drop in the bucket | A quantity too small to have a significant effect | | Pie in the sky | An unrealistic or unattainable plan or prospect | | To make your hair stand on end | To cause extreme fear or fright | | To shoot (for) the moon | To aim for very ambitious goals | **Further expressions and their meanings:** * Something you have is better than a lot of things you don't have (bird) [78](#page=78). * This is often said when the weather is bad in England or Belgium (cats) [78](#page=78). * To concern yourself with something in an unwelcome way (pie) [78](#page=78). * To waste your energies or repeat something already understood (horse) [78](#page=78). * To make fun of someone playfully (leg) [78](#page=78). * To have enough money or remain rich after spending [78](#page=78). * This expression comments on the rapid flow of time [78](#page=78). * To take risks or be in a dangerous position (ice) [78](#page=78). * To live a good life due to having a lot of money (street) [78](#page=78). * A person in trouble will try anything, however useless (straw) [78](#page=78). * To be fired or become redundant (sack) [79](#page=79). * To keep yourself out of debt (water) [79](#page=79). * Don't complain about a gift (mouth) [79](#page=79). * Keep calm and don't lose your temper (hair) [79](#page=79). * People of the same kind (especially bad) tend to associate with each other (feather) [79](#page=79). ### 15.3 Less familiar expressions These expressions may be less common, and their meanings are best deduced from contextual examples. **Examples from exercises:** * **ALL BURNED OUT**: Refers to lacking energy after intense activity [84](#page=84). * Translation: Uitgeput, opgebrand [84](#page=84). * **FRISKY AS A PUP**: Describes having lots of energy [84](#page=84). * Translation: Vol energie, monter [84](#page=84). * **A BIRD IN THE HAND IS WORTH TWO IN THE BUSH**: Better to have something certain than the possibility of more [85](#page=85). * Translation: Beter iets in de hand dan tien in de lucht [85](#page=85). * **BUSY AS A BEE**: To be fully occupied [85](#page=85). * Translation: Druk als een bij [85](#page=85). * **HELP CARRY THE BALL**: To take on the most difficult part of an action or undertaking [85](#page=85). * Translation: De zwaarste last dragen, helpen om de klus te klaren [85](#page=85). * **EAGER BEAVER**: A person who is always ready to do something extra [86](#page=86). * Translation: Een ijverig persoon, een harde werker [86](#page=86). * **TO COME OUT SMELLING LIKE A ROSE**: To emerge from a difficult or questionable situation without blame or damage [86](#page=86). * Translation: Er zonder kleerscheuren vanaf komen [86](#page=86). * **WHAT'S COOKING?**: What is happening? [86](#page=86). * Translation: Wat is er aan de hand? [86](#page=86). * **TO CRY OVER SPILLED MILK**: To complain about something that has already happened and cannot be changed [87](#page=87). * Translation: Zonde van de tijd, jammeren over iets wat niet meer te veranderen is [87](#page=87). * **TO FACE THE MUSIC**: To accept criticism or punishment for something you have done [87](#page=87). * Translation: De consequenties onder ogen zien [87](#page=87). * **TO GO TO PIECES**: To become emotionally unstable or break down [87](#page=87). * Translation: De moed verliezen, instorten [87](#page=87). * **TO BE IN A STEW**: A state of fretting or worry [88](#page=88). * Translation: In de penarie zitten, in de nesten zitten [88](#page=88). * **TO GET MORE THAN YOU BARGAINED FOR**: To experience something more difficult or problematic than anticipated [88](#page=88). * Translation: Meer krijgen dan je aankunt [88](#page=88). * **IT'S NEVER TOO LATE TO TEACH AN OLD DOG NEW TRICKS**: It is possible to learn new things or change one's habits at any age [88](#page=88). * Translation: Je bent nooit te oud om te leren [88](#page=88). ### 15.4 Expressions and pictures Visual aids, such as pictures and drawings, can be effective tools for learning and remembering expressions [89](#page=89). **Examples using visual cues:** * Someone who is a coward or easily scared is described using terms related to fear, such as "chicken-livered," "lily-livered," "yellow-livered," "scaredy-cat," or "fraidy-cat" [89](#page=89). * A person who praises themselves excessively and draws attention to their own skills is said to "blow/toot their own horn" [89](#page=89). * Confidential information or gossip being exchanged is described as going "by word of mouth" or being heard "through the grapevine" [91](#page=91). * A clumsy or unskillful person is described as being "all thumbs" [91](#page=91). * A person who drives excessively fast is a "speeder," "speed merchant," or "road hog" [91](#page=91). ### 15.5 Proverbs in class Proverbs can be a starting point for oral discussions, allowing students to share their favorites, explain their meanings, and explore potential equivalents in their native languages [92](#page=92). **Proverbs for discussion:** * Do as you would be done by [93](#page=93). * If at first you don't succeed, try, try, and try again [93](#page=93). * Don't look a gift horse in the mouth [93](#page=93). * It takes two to tango [93](#page=93). ### 15.6 Proverbs in grammar lessons The simple present tense is frequently used in proverbs because they express general truths or make generalizations. This makes them suitable for grammar lessons focusing on the formation or use of the present simple [94](#page=94). **Examples of proverbs used in grammar exercises:** * A rolling stone gathers no moss [94](#page=94). * Still waters run deep [94](#page=94). * Money makes the world go round [94](#page=94). * Actions speak louder than words [94](#page=94). * Too many cooks spoil the broth [94](#page=94). * A bad workman blames his tools [94](#page=94). * Absence makes the heart grow fonder [94](#page=94). * A new broom sweeps clean [94](#page=94). * It's an ill wind that blows nobody good [94](#page=94). * Pride breeds contempt [94](#page=94). * Gossip travels fast [94](#page=94). * The more you have, the more you want [94](#page=94). * Nothing succeeds like success [94](#page=94). * God helps those that help themselves [94](#page=94). * Practice makes perfect [94](#page=94). * Two wrongs don't make a right [94](#page=94). * To kill two birds with one stone [94](#page=94). * Barking dogs seldom bite [94](#page=94). * First come, first served [94](#page=94). * Better safe than sorry [94](#page=94). ### 15.7 Proverbs and their meanings Understanding the meaning of proverbs is crucial for their effective use. **Examples of proverbs and their meanings:** * **All his geese are swans**: To consider everything belonging to oneself as excellent [96](#page=96). * **All that glitters is not gold**: Appearances can be deceptive; not everything that looks valuable is truly so [96](#page=96). * **An army marches on its stomach**: Effective military operations depend on adequate supplies and provisions for soldiers [96](#page=96). * **Better lose the saddle than the horse**: It is better to lose a less valuable part of something than the whole [96](#page=96). * **Blood is thicker than water**: Family ties are stronger than other relationships [96](#page=96). * **Comfort is better than pride**: It is wiser to be comfortable than to maintain dignity at the expense of comfort [96](#page=96). * **Cut your coat according to your cloth**: Live within your means; do not spend more than you earn [96](#page=96). * **Do not keep a dog and bark yourself**: If you delegate a task, allow the person responsible to perform it without your interference [96](#page=96). * **Fools run in where angels fear to tread**: Inexperienced or reckless people often venture into dangerous situations where wise people would hesitate [96](#page=96). * **It was the last straw that broke the camel's back**: The final problem or burden, however small, that causes a complete collapse or breakdown [96](#page=96). * **Hasty climbers have sudden falls**: Those who try to achieve success too quickly often fail spectacularly [96](#page=96). * **He who rides a tiger can never dismount**: If one gets involved in a dangerous or difficult situation, it is hard to escape from it [96](#page=96). * **Know on which side your bread is buttered**: Understand where your own best interests lie and act accordingly [96](#page=96). * **Every ass likes to hear himself bray**: People often enjoy hearing their own opinions or voices, even if they are not particularly valuable [96](#page=96). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | TEFL | Teaching English as a Foreign Language. This term refers to the pedagogical approach and training for educators who teach English to non-native speakers in countries where English is not the primary language. | | EGP (English for General Purposes) | A standard English curriculum designed for learners to achieve communicative competence for everyday interactions, reading, and writing, typically encountered in secondary education. | | ESP (English for Specific Purposes) | A specialized approach to English language teaching that focuses on meeting the particular needs of a learner within a specific professional or academic context, going beyond general communicative skills. | | Metalanguage | The specialized vocabulary and terminology used to discuss and describe language itself, particularly grammar. Mastering metalanguage is crucial for teachers to effectively explain grammatical concepts to students. | | Tense | A grammatical category that indicates the time of the action or state of being of a verb, typically relating to past, present, or future. English tenses are often formed by combinations of auxiliary verbs and main verbs. | | Aspect | A grammatical category that describes the duration or completion of an action or state, such as simple, continuous (or progressive), and perfect. Aspects add nuance to the meaning of a verb in relation to time. | | Simple Aspect | An aspect of a verb that typically describes long-term general truths, instantaneous actions, or habitual occurrences without emphasizing duration or completion. | | Continuous/Progressive Aspect | An aspect formed with a form of "be" plus the "-ing" form of a verb. It describes events as ongoing, temporary, or unfinished, emphasizing their duration. | | Perfect Aspect | An aspect formed with a form of "have" plus the past participle of a verb. It connects events or actions from one time period to another, indicating a relationship between different points in time. | | Perfect Continuous Aspect | A verb phrase that combines the forms of the perfect and continuous aspects (e.g., have been + verb-ING). It emphasizes actions or events with duration that have relevance across multiple time periods. | | Active Voice | A grammatical construction where the subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb. For example, in "The dog chased the ball," the dog is the subject performing the action of chasing. | | Passive Voice | A grammatical construction where the subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb. The focus shifts from the doer of the action to the action itself or the recipient of the action. For example, "The ball was chased by the dog." | | Past Participle | The third principal part of a verb, used to form perfect tenses (e.g., "eaten" from "eat") and the passive voice (e.g., "broken" in "the vase was broken"). | | Idiom | A phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal meanings of its individual words. Idioms are fixed expressions that are part of a language's figurative lexicon. | | Proverb | A short, well-known saying that states a general truth, offers advice, or expresses a common sentiment, often using metaphorical or allegorical language. | | Simile | A figure of speech that directly compares two different things, typically using the words "as" or "like," to highlight a shared quality. For example, "as brave as a lion." | | Metaphor | A figure of speech that compares two unlike things by stating that one thing is another, without using "as" or "like." It implies a direct resemblance or shared characteristic. For example, "The world is a stage." | | Homophones | Words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings, such as "there," "their," and "they're," or "piece" and "peace." | | Homonyms | Words that are spelled the same and/or sound the same but have different meanings. This category can sometimes include homophones and homographs. | | Homographs | Words that are spelled the same but have different pronunciations and meanings, such as "lead" (the metal) and "lead" (to guide). | | Preposition | A word that typically precedes a noun or pronoun and expresses a relation to another word or element in the clause, indicating time, place, direction, or manner (e.g., "in," "on," "at," "off," "of"). | | Determiner | A word that precedes a noun to specify its quantity or to clarify which noun is being referred to (e.g., "a," "an," "the," "this," "that," "my," "your," "some," "many"). | | Quantifier | A type of determiner that indicates the amount or quantity of a noun, such as "much," "many," "few," "little," "some," and "all." | | Possessive Pronoun | A pronoun that indicates ownership or possession, such as "mine," "yours," "his," "hers," "its," "ours," and "theirs." | | Contraction | The shortened form of a word or group of words, made by omitting letters and replacing them with an apostrophe (e.g., "it's" for "it is," "they're" for "they are"). | | Adverb | A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, providing information about manner, time, place, degree, or frequency (e.g., "quickly," "yesterday," "here," "very," "always"). | | Adjective | A word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun, providing more information about its qualities or characteristics (e.g., "big," "happy," "red," "interesting"). | | Article | A type of determiner that precedes a noun, indicating whether the noun is specific or general. The English articles are "a," "an," and "the." | | Noun | A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., "teacher," "school," "book," "freedom"). | | Verb | A word that describes an action, occurrence, or state of being (e.g., "run," "is," "think," "happen"). | | Affirmative Sentence | A sentence that makes a positive statement or asserts something to be true. | | Negative Sentence | A sentence that makes a negative statement, usually by including words like "not," "never," or "no." | | Interrogative Sentence | A sentence that asks a question, typically characterized by inversion of the subject and auxiliary verb or the use of question words. | | Ordinal Number | A number that indicates position or order in a sequence (e.g., "first," "second," "third," "twentieth"). | | Cardinal Number | A number that denotes quantity or count (e.g., "one," "two," "three," "twenty"). | | Phrasing | The way words are arranged in a sentence or clause to convey meaning. | | Sentence Structure | The grammatical arrangement of words and clauses in a sentence, dictating its meaning and complexity. | | Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) | An international standard for describing language ability, defining proficiency levels from A1 (beginner) to C2 (mastery) across reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills. | | Blended Learning | An educational approach that combines online digital media with traditional classroom methods, integrating face-to-face and computer-mediated instruction. |

# Introduction to morphology and basic terminology Morphology is the study of the smallest meaningful units of language and how they combine to form larger, more complex units [4](#page=4). ### 1.1 What are the smallest meaningful units of language? While phonemes and syllables are units of sound and pronunciation, they do not always carry a distinct meaning on their own. Words, on the other hand, are often perceived as single units of meaning, such as "boy" or "kill". However, many words can be broken down into smaller meaning-bearing components. For example, "boys" contains the meaning of "young male human being" plus the meaning of "more than one". Similarly, "killed" includes the meaning of "terminate the life" and "past tense". This demonstrates that words are not always the smallest meaningful units [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). ### 1.2 Morphemes: the core concept A morpheme is defined as the smallest possible sequence of phonemes that possesses an identifiable, distinct, and relatively stable meaning. Crucially, a morpheme meets two criteria [8](#page=8): 1. It cannot be further subdivided into smaller meaning-bearing units without losing its original meaning. For instance, the morpheme {kill} is not divisible into smaller meaningful parts, nor is {ing} [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). 2. A morpheme can be combined with other morphemes, retaining its original meaning in these new combinations. For example, {kill} can combine with {ing} to form "killing," or with {ed} to form "killed" [10](#page=10) [8](#page=8). Morphemes are represented using curly braces, for example, {kill} + {ing} [11](#page=11). > **Tip:** It's important to remember that morphemes are units of meaning tied to sounds, not to letters. For instance, the morpheme {ə(r)} represents the "AGENT" meaning in words like "writer," "actor," and "liar" [12](#page=12). There are additional points to consider about morphemes: * Morphemes are associated with groups of phonemes, not letters [12](#page=12). * Morphemes with the same sound but different meanings are considered distinct morphemes. For example, the {s} in "cats" (plural) is different from the {s} in "cat's" (possessive) or "it acts" (third-person singular present). Similarly, {er} in "writer" (agent) differs from {er} in "bigger" (comparative) [12](#page=12). * A morpheme is a semantic (meaning) unit, while a syllable is a phonological (form) unit. Their boundaries may or may not align. For instance, "slowly" has two syllables and two morphemes ({slow} + {ly}), whereas "crayon" has two syllables but only one morpheme, and "dogs" has one syllable but two morphemes ({dog} + {s}) [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14). #### 1.2.1 Types of morphemes based on meaning Morphemes can be broadly categorized by their meaning: * **Lexical morphemes**: These have identifiable, specific, and "concrete" lexico-semantic meanings. Examples include {boy} (young male human being), {kill} (terminate life), and {kind} (benevolent nature). Compound lexical morphemes also exist, like {pseudo} + {nym} (false name) or {bi} + {lingual} (two languages) [15](#page=15). * **Grammatical morphemes**: These have less specific, more "abstract" functional meanings and are also known as function morphemes. Examples include words like {the}, {which}, {or}, {they}, and affixes like {-ly}, {-ing}, {-s} [16](#page=16). #### 1.2.2 Free versus bound morphemes Morphemes can also be classified by their ability to stand alone: * **Free morphemes**: These can exist independently as words. Examples include free lexical morphemes like {boy}, {kill}, and {kind}, and free grammatical morphemes like {the}, {they}, and {but} [17](#page=17). * **Bound morphemes**: These must be attached to other morphemes to form words. Examples include {dis} in "disdain" or {al} in "dental" [17](#page=17). #### 1.2.3 Affixes, bases, and roots * **Affix**: A grammatical bound morpheme [18](#page=18). * **Base**: A morpheme or a combination of morphemes to which affixes are attached [18](#page=18). * **Root (stem)**: The single morpheme that remains after all affixes have been removed; it carries the principal meaning of a word. For example, in "reorganiser's," the root is {organ} [18](#page=18). > **Example:** In the word "reorganizers," > > * {organ} is the root. > > * {organize} is the base for the prefix {re-}. > > * {reorganize} is the base for the suffix {-er}. > > * {reorganizer} is the base for the suffix {-s}. > > * {re-}, {-er}, and {-s} are affixes. > #### 1.2.4 Types of affixes Affixes can be classified by their position relative to the base: * **Prefix**: Appears before the base, e.g., {un-} in "unfair," {re-} in "reorder" [20](#page=20). * **Suffix**: Appears after the base, e.g., {-s} in "cats," {-able} in "loveable," {-ly} in "lovely" [21](#page=21). * **Infix**: Appears within the base. These are less common in English but exist in other languages, e.g., in Italian "alberino" [22](#page=22). #### 1.2.5 Productive, unproductive, and historical morphemes The concept of "productivity" refers to the scope and frequency with which an affix attaches to base forms [23](#page=23). * **Productive affixes**: These readily combine with many base forms. Examples include {-s} for pluralization (cats, dogs) and {-ly} for forming adverbs (quickly, slowly) [23](#page=23). * **Unproductive or less productive affixes**: These have limited applicability or occur in a restricted set of words. For instance, {-y} is less productive (doggy, panty) and cannot be added to arbitrary nouns like \*chairy. Similarly, {-ess} is less productive (hostess, actress) and cannot be added to all professions (e.g., \*teacheress) [24](#page=24). * **Historical morphemes**: These are unproductive morphemes whose original distinct meaning is now obscure or difficult to identify. Examples include {-ceive-} in "perceive," "deceive," and "receive," {-sist-} in "insist," "persist," and "resist," and {yester-} in "yesterday" [25](#page=25). #### 1.2.6 Regular and irregular morphemes This distinction primarily applies to grammatical morphemes, especially those indicating tense and number. * **Regular bound morphemes**: These are productive, systematic, and predictable, often following general rules [29](#page=29). * Regular Past: {-ed} (worked, jumped) [29](#page=29). * Regular Plural: {-s} (cats, boys) [29](#page=29). * Regular Comparative: {-er} (smaller, faster) [29](#page=29). * **Irregular bound morphemes**: These are less productive, phonologically less predictable, and often represent exceptions to general rules. They can be additive (an irregular suffix) or replacive (involving sound changes like ablaut or suppletion) [30](#page=30). * Irregular Past: (sang, went) [30](#page=30). * Irregular Plural: (geese, feet) [30](#page=30). * Irregular Comparative: (worse, more) [30](#page=30). > **Example:** The past tense of "work" is "worked" ({WORK} + {PAST}), while the past tense of "sing" is "sang" ({SING} + {PAST}). Similarly, the plural of "cat" is "cats" ({CAT} + {PLURAL}), but the plural of "goose" is "geese" ({GOOSE} + {PLURAL}) [26](#page=26) [27](#page=27) [28](#page=28). #### 1.2.7 Zero morphemes (Ø) A zero morpheme, symbolized as Ø, is an inaudible or invisible morpheme that is phonologically empty but still carries meaning [31](#page=31). * **Zero Plural**: In cases where the plural form is identical to the singular form, a zero morpheme indicates plurality. For example, "sheep" is {SHEEP} + {Ø PLURAL}, while "cow" is {COW} + {REGULAR PLURAL} [31](#page=31). * **Zero Past**: Similarly, some verbs do not change form for the past tense, implying a zero morpheme for the past tense. For example, "hit" is {HIT} + {Ø PAST}, whereas "walk" is {WALK} + {REGULAR PAST} for "walked" [32](#page=32). ### 1.3 Morphs and allomorphs While a morpheme is an abstract unit of meaning, a **morph** is its concrete form. Different morphs can represent the same morpheme. These variations of a single morpheme are called **allomorphs** [36](#page=36) [38](#page=38). > **Example:** The morpheme {REGULAR PAST} (indicated by {-ed} in spelling) has different phonetic realizations (allomorphs) depending on the preceding sound [38](#page=38). > > * /ɪd/: "spotted," "defended" (after alveolar plosives) [39](#page=39). > > * /d/: "rolled," "fried" (after voiced consonants or vowels) [39](#page=39). > > * /t/: "kicked," "laughed" (after unvoiced consonants) [39](#page=39). > > > These three phonetic forms, /ɪd/, /d/, and /t/, are allomorphs of the {REGULAR PAST} morpheme, which is typically spelled as {-ed} [39](#page=39). Other examples of morphemes, their morphs, allomorphs, and spellings include: * {PAST}: represented by {ed} (allomorphs: /ɪd/, /d/, /t/), or Ø, or irregular morphs [40](#page=40). * {Irreg}: Past tense and plural forms often use irregular morphs, e.g., {sang} [40](#page=40). * {NEG}: Negation can be expressed by {un-}, {in-}, {im-}, {il-}, {ir-}, {dis-}, {non-}, {a-} [41](#page=41). * {3SG PRES}: The third-person singular present tense marker has allomorphs /ɪz/ (spelled {-es}, e.g., "kisses"), /s/ (spelled {-s}, e.g., "eats"), and /z/ (spelled {-s}, e.g., "buys," "runs") [42](#page=42). ### 1.4 Overview of key terms Key concepts in morphology include: * Morpheme, morph, and allomorph [43](#page=43). * Root, base, and affix [43](#page=43). * Free versus bound morphemes [43](#page=43). * Lexical versus grammatical morphemes [43](#page=43). * Prefix, suffix, and infix [43](#page=43). * Productive versus unproductive morphemes and historical morphs [43](#page=43). * Regular versus irregular morphs [43](#page=43). * * * # Distinguishing between morphemes, morphs, and allomorphs This section clarifies the fundamental concepts of morphemes, morphs, and allomorphs, explaining their distinct roles in representing meaning and form within language. ### 2.1 Defining core concepts * **Morpheme:** An abstract unit of meaning in language. It is the smallest meaningful unit that cannot be further analyzed. Morphemes represent distinct semantic or grammatical meanings [36](#page=36) [37](#page=37). * **Morph:** An abstract unit of form in language. It is the physical realization or the concrete form that a morpheme takes [36](#page=36). * **Allomorph:** A positional variant of a morpheme; different morphs that represent the same morpheme. These are the concrete forms that a morpheme can take depending on the linguistic context [39](#page=39). > **Tip:** Think of a morpheme as the concept or idea (e.g., "plural"), the morph as the specific way that concept is expressed in writing or speech (e.g., "-s", "-es", or no overt marker), and the allomorph as one of the possible concrete forms a particular morph can take (e.g., the different pronunciations of the plural morpheme). ### 2.2 Understanding the relationship: Morphemes, Morphs, and Allomorphs The relationship between these three terms is hierarchical and contextual. A morpheme, representing a core meaning, can manifest as one or more morphs. These morphs, in turn, might have different phonetic or orthographic realizations, which are known as allomorphs. #### 2.2.1 Examples of morpheme-morph-allomorph relationships **The past tense morpheme ({PAST}):** * **Morpheme:** {PAST} [40](#page=40). * **Morphs (Spellings):** {-ed}, {Ø} (zero morph), {Irreg} (irregular) [40](#page=40). * **Allomorphs (Phonetic realizations of {-ed}):** 1. /ɪd/: Occurs when the base ends in an alveolar plosive (e.g., spotted, defended) [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39). 2. /d/: Occurs when the base ends in a voiced consonant or a vowel (e.g., rolled, fried) [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39). 3. /t/: Occurs when the base ends in an unvoiced consonant (e.g., kicked, laughed) [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39). > **Example:** The morpheme {PAST} has different morphs. The regular past tense morph is typically spelled {-ed}. This {-ed} morph has three allomorphs based on the phonetic environment: /ɪd/, /d/, and /t/. For example, "spotted" uses the /ɪd/ allomorph, "rolled" uses the /d/ allomorph, and "kicked" uses the /t/ allomorph. **The plural morpheme ({PLURAL}):** * **Morpheme:** {PLURAL} [37](#page=37). * **Morphs (Spellings):** {-s}, {Ø} (zero morph) [37](#page=37). * **Allomorphs (Phonetic realizations of {s}):** * /ɪz/ (e.g., kisses) [42](#page=42). * /s/ (e.g., eats, buys, runs) [42](#page=42). * /z/ (e.g., buys, runs) [42](#page=42). * **Allomorphs (Examples for irregular plurals):** * {sheep}: The plural form is the same as the singular, represented by a zero morph {Ø} [37](#page=37) [40](#page=40). > **Example:** The morpheme {PLURAL} has a regular morph {-s} which appears as allomorphs like /ɪz/ in "kisses", /s/ in "cats", and /z/ in "dogs". The word "sheep" exemplifies a zero morph {Ø} for the plural morpheme, where the form does not change. **The negative morpheme ({NEG}):** * **Morpheme:** {NEG} [41](#page=41). * **Morphs (Spellings):** {un}, {il}, {in}, {im}, {ir}, {dis}, {non}, {a} [41](#page=41). * **Allomorphs:** The various spellings listed are direct realizations of the negative morpheme, showing how it can take different forms (morphs) depending on the root word [41](#page=41). > **Example:** The abstract concept of negation ({NEG}) can be realized through different morphs such as "un-" in "unlawful," "il-" in "illogical," "in-" in "infertile," "im-" in "improper," "ir-" in "irregular," "dis-" in "disobey," "non-" in "non-sense," and "a-" in "amoral." ### 2.3 Summary table The following table summarizes the distinction and relationship between these terms: Morpheme (Meaning)Morph (Form)Allomorph (Variant Form)Spelling Examples{PAST}{-ed}/ɪd/, /d/, /t/spotted, rolled, kicked{Ø}Øput, hit{Irreg}e...æ...e...sang, led{PLURAL}{-s}/ɪz/, /s/, /z/kisses, eats, runs{Ø}Øsheep{NEG}{un}, {il}, {in}, {im}, {ir}, {dis}, {non}, {a}(various spellings)unlawful, illogical, infertile, improper, irregular, disobey, non-sense, amoral{3SG PRES}{-es}/ɪz/kisses{-s}/s/, /z/eats, buys, runs * * * # Inflectional and derivational morphology This section distinguishes between derivational and inflectional affixes, detailing their differing impacts on meaning, grammatical class, distribution, quantity, productivity, and membership [46](#page=46). ### 3.1 Differentiating affixes The primary distinction between derivational and inflectional morphology lies in the function and effect of the affixes they employ. Derivational affixes create new words, altering the meaning and/or grammatical category of the base, whereas inflectional affixes modify existing words to express grammatical variations without changing their core meaning or lexical class [46](#page=46) [47](#page=47). ### 3.2 Key differences Several key differences help to distinguish between these two types of affixes [46](#page=46): #### 3.2.1 Effect on meaning and lexical class * **Derivational affixes:** These affixes change either the meaning of the base word or its lexical class, or both. For instance, adding the derivational suffix '-ness' to the adjective 'happy' creates the noun 'happiness', altering class. Similarly, 'un-' in 'unhappy' changes the meaning of 'happy' without changing its adjectival class [47](#page=47). * **Inflectional affixes:** These affixes form different grammatical variants of the same word. They do not change the core meaning or the lexical class of the base word. For example, 'cat' and 'cats' are both nouns, and 'big', 'bigger', and 'biggest' are all adjectives [47](#page=47). #### 3.2.2 Distribution * **Derivational affixes:** These can appear as either prefixes or suffixes. Examples include 'un-' in 'unlawful' (prefix) and '-ion' in 'division' (suffix) [48](#page=48). * **Inflectional affixes:** These occur exclusively as suffixes. Examples are '-s' in 'cats', '-ed' in 'walked', and '-ing' in 'sleeping'. Furthermore, derivational suffixes typically precede inflectional suffixes. For instance, in 'friendliest', the derivational suffix '-est' (used here as a derivational superlative, not inflectional) precedes the base word, while a potential inflectional suffix would come after, as in 'actors' where '-s' is inflectional. The ungrammaticality of "\*friendestly" and "\*actsor" illustrates this ordering [48](#page=48). #### 3.2.3 Permissible number per root * **Derivational affixes:** In principle, an unlimited number of derivational affixes can be added to a root word. This is demonstrated in words like 'un-law-ful-ly' or the complex 'anti-dis-establish-ment-arian-ism' [49](#page=49). * **Inflectional affixes:** Only one inflectional affix can be attached to a root word. Structures like "\*walked-ing" or "\*big-ger-est" are ungrammatical because they attempt to apply multiple inflectional suffixes [49](#page=49). #### 3.2.4 Productivity * **Derivational affixes:** These exhibit limited productivity, meaning they are typically applied to a restricted set of base words. For example, the derivational suffix '-hood' can be added to 'knight', 'brother', and 'sister', but not to 'friend', 'daughter', or 'king' [50](#page=50). * **Inflectional affixes:** These are highly productive, applying to a large and open class of words. The plural marker '-s' can be added to numerous verbs like 'drink', 'eat', and 'sleep', although it cannot be added to modal verbs such as 'can', 'will', or 'may' [50](#page=50). #### 3.2.5 Membership * **Inflectional affixes:** These belong to a restricted and closed class of affixes, comprising only eight members in English. These are [51](#page=51): 1. `{-s}` (present tense verb, third person singular) [51](#page=51). 2. `{-ed}` (past tense verb) [51](#page=51). 3. `{-ing}` (present participle/gerund) [51](#page=51). 4. `{-en}` (past participle verb) [51](#page=51). 5. `{-s}` (plural noun) [51](#page=51). 6. `{-'s}` (possessive noun) [51](#page=51). 7. `{-er}` (comparative adjective/adverb) [51](#page=51). 8. `{-est}` (superlative adjective/adverb) [51](#page=51). * **Derivational affixes:** These belong to an unrestricted and open-ended class. English has a large number of derivational affixes, with estimates of 386 prefixes and 322 suffixes. A comprehensive overview is available in the printed course book [52](#page=52). > **Tip:** Remember that the classification of an affix can sometimes depend on its function within a specific word. However, the general principles outlined above are robust for distinguishing between the two categories. > **Example:** Consider the word "worker". The suffix "-er" here can be seen as derivational because it changes the meaning from the action "work" to the agent "one who works" and creates a new noun. However, if we considered "bigger", the suffix "-er" is inflectional as it simply modifies the adjective "big" to its comparative form without changing its category or core meaning. The distinction hinges on whether a new lexical item is formed. > **Tip:** When encountering unfamiliar affixes, ask yourself: Does this change the fundamental meaning or word type? Can I add more affixes of the same type? Is this affix common across many words, or specific to a few? These questions can help guide your identification. ### 3.3 Overview of derivational affixes The printed course book provides a detailed listing of English derivational affixes. These are categorized by their meaning (for prefixes) or their effect on the base word (for suffixes). For each morpheme, the most common morphs are listed, excluding allomorphs. An exercise is recommended to find additional examples for each listed derivational affix [53](#page=53). * * * ## Common mistakes to avoid * Review all topics thoroughly before exams * Pay attention to formulas and key definitions * Practice with examples provided in each section * Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Morphology | The study of the smallest meaningful units of language, known as morphemes, and how they combine to form words and more complex linguistic structures. | | Morpheme | The smallest possible sequence of phonemes that carries an identifiable, distinct, and relatively stable meaning; it cannot be broken down further without losing its meaning. | | Phoneme | The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another. For example, /p/ and /b/ are phonemes in English. | | Syllable | A unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants, forming the whole or a part of a word. | | Lexical morpheme | A morpheme that has a specifiable, concrete lexico-semantic meaning and can function as the core meaning-bearing unit of a word. | | Grammatical morpheme | A morpheme that has an abstract, functional meaning and serves a grammatical purpose, often modifying the syntax or semantics of a sentence without adding significant lexical content. | | Free morpheme | A morpheme that can stand alone as a word and has a complete meaning, such as {boy} or {the}. | | Bound morpheme | A morpheme that cannot stand alone and must be attached to another morpheme to form a word, such as the plural marker {-s} or the past tense marker {-ed}. | | Affix | A bound morpheme that is attached to a base or root to form a new word or word form. Affixes include prefixes and suffixes. | | Base | A morpheme or a combination of morphemes to which affixes are attached to form a word. The base carries the primary meaning of the word. | | Root | A single morpheme that is the core of a word, stripped of all affixes, and carries the principal meaning. It cannot be further analyzed into smaller meaningful units. | | Prefix | An affix that is attached to the beginning of a base or root, such as {un-} in "unhappy" or {re-} in "reorder." | | Suffix | An affix that is attached to the end of a base or root, such as {-s} in "cats" or {-ly} in "quickly." | | Infix | An affix that is inserted within the root or base of a word. This is less common in English than prefixes and suffixes. | | Productivity (of morphemes) | The scope and frequency with which an affix can attach to various base forms to create new words or word forms. A productive affix is widely used. | | Historical morpheme | An unproductive morpheme whose original distinct meaning is now obscure or no longer readily apparent, often seen in words with ancient origins. | | Zero morpheme (Ø) | An inaudible or invisible morpheme that has no phonetic realization but signals a grammatical function, such as the plural in "sheep" or the past tense in "hit." | | Morph | The concrete, physical realization of a morpheme in actual speech or writing. It represents the form of a morpheme. | | Allomorph | One of the variant forms of a morpheme. Allomorphs are different morphs that represent the same abstract morpheme and are often determined by phonological or morphological context. | | Derivational affix | An affix that changes the meaning or the lexical class of the base word, creating a new word. Examples include {-ness} and {un-}. | | Inflectional affix | An affix that modifies a word to express a grammatical category such as tense, number, or case, without changing the word's core meaning or lexical class. Examples include {-s} (plural) and {-ed} (past tense). |

## Studiehandleiding Vastgoedcommunicatie Deze studiehandleiding is bedoeld om u te voorzien van de nodige kennis en vaardigheden om effectief te communiceren in de vastgoedsector, met een focus op zowel schriftelijke als mondelinge communicatie in het Frans en Engels. ### Frans Het studiemateriaal voor Frans omvat twee belangrijke aspecten: grammatica en het schrijven van effectieve e-mails. #### Grammatica * **Rechtzetting van Grammatica:** Dit hoofdstuk dient als een referentie om te waarborgen dat uw Franse schrijfvaardigheid grammaticaal correct is. Het is geen materie die actief ingestudeerd moet worden, maar biedt ondersteuning bij het correct formuleren van zinnen en teksten [3](#page=3). #### E-mailen in het Frans * **Effectief E-mails Verzenden:** Dit is een kernthema dat zowel de theorie als de praktijk van het schrijven van professionele e-mails omvat. * **Praktische Toepassingen:** U kunt gevraagd worden om een e-mail op te stellen in reactie op specifieke scenario's, zoals een informatieaanvraag, het doorgeven van een bestelling of het indienen van een klacht over een foute levering [3](#page=3). * **"Out of Office" E-mails:** Het opstellen van automatische antwoorden voor wanneer u niet aanwezig bent, is eveneens een verwachte vaardigheid [3](#page=3). * **Zinsvolgorde:** Een mogelijke examenoefening kan het correct ordenen van zinsdelen zijn om een coherente e-mail te vormen, waarbij de gegeven zinsdelen door elkaar staan [3](#page=3). #### Lexicon Onroerend Goed * **Woordenschat Leren:** U dient de woordenschat met betrekking tot onroerend goed te kennen in beide richtingen: van Nederlands naar Frans en omgekeerd [3](#page=3). * **Vertaalzinnen:** Eenvoudige vertaalzinnen die deze woordenschat toetsen, kunnen deel uitmaken van het examen [3](#page=3). * **Vastgoedadvertenties Vertaalvaardigheid:** U kunt gevraagd worden om een Nederlandse vastgoedadvertentie (huis te koop of te huur) naar het Frans te vertalen. De beoordeling richt zich hierbij specifiek op de kennis van de Franse onroerend goed-woordenschat. Het niet kunnen vertalen van alle woorden is geen probleem, zolang de aangeleerde stof beheerst wordt [3](#page=3). #### Professionele Lexicon (Zelfstudie) * **Woordenschat en Uitleg:** Vanuit de professionele woordenlijst moet u de vertaling van Frans naar Nederlands kunnen geven en de betekenis in uw eigen Franse woorden kunnen uitleggen [4](#page=4). ### Engels Het studiemateriaal voor Engels is uitgebreid en behandelt diverse communicatieve vaardigheden binnen de vastgoedsector. #### 2. E-mailen in het Engels * **Basis:** De basis voor dit onderdeel bestaat uit de tekst "Emailing in English", de bijbehorende PowerPoint-presentaties en de woordelijsten [4](#page=4). * **E-mail Scenario's:** U kunt gevraagd worden om een e-mail op te stellen voor specifieke situaties, zoals een informatieaanvraag, het doorgeven van een bestelling of het indienen van een klacht [4](#page=4). * **Herschrijven van E-mails:** Het is mogelijk dat u gevraagd wordt om een slecht geformuleerde e-mail te herschrijven naar een goed gestructureerde, formele en klantgerichte e-mail [4](#page=4). * **Zinsvolgorde:** Een oefening kan bestaan uit het corrigeren van de volgorde van zinsdelen om een coherente e-mail te vormen [4](#page=4). #### 3. Tekstberichten in het Engels * **Basis:** Dit onderdeel is gebaseerd op de tekst "Texting in English" en de bijbehorende PowerPoint-presentaties [4](#page=4). #### 4. Vastgoedbeschrijvingen schrijven in het Engels * **Basis:** De basis hiervoor zijn de teksten "Writing property descriptions in English", de PowerPoint-presentaties en de woordelijsten [4](#page=4). * **Vertaaloefening:** U kunt gevraagd worden om een Nederlandse vastgoedadvertentie te vertalen naar het Engels, waarbij de focus ligt op de kennis van de Engelse vastgoed-woordenschat [4](#page=4). #### 5. Taxaties samenstellen in het Engels * **Basis:** Net als bij vastgoedbeschrijvingen, zijn de teksten "Composing Appraisals in English", de bijbehorende PowerPoint-presentaties en woordelijsten de basis [4](#page=4). * **Verwijzing:** Zie punt 4 voor de aard van de oefeningen [5](#page=5). #### 6. Prospectie in het Engels * **Basis:** Dit onderdeel wordt ondersteund door de teksten "Prospecting in English", de PowerPoint-presentaties en de bijbehorende woordelijsten [5](#page=5). #### 10. Investeringsmogelijkheden presenteren * **Basis:** De basis hiervoor zijn de teksten "Presenting investment opportunities in English", de PowerPoint-presentaties en de woordelijsten [5](#page=5). ### Woordenschatlijsten en Advies Het document bevat uitgebreide woordenschatlijsten voor diverse vastgoedgerelateerde onderwerpen, waaronder beschrijvingen van woningen, locaties, architectuur en interieur. #### Schrijftips voor Vastgoedbeschrijvingen * **Wees Accuraat:** Vermijd het geven van onrealistische verwachtingen. Erken beperkingen en bied oplossingen. Benadruk unieke kenmerken zoals een gewelfde wijnkelder of authentieke Franse deuren [109](#page=109). * **Let op Interpunctie:** Gebruik interpunctie correct om de leesbaarheid te verbeteren en lange, kronkelige zinnen te vermijden [110](#page=110). * **Gebruik Beschrijvend Taalgebruik:** Kies verstandig uw bijvoeglijke naamwoorden en bijwoorden. Vermijd overdrijving [110](#page=110). * **Trek Voldoende Aandacht:** Gebruik wervende woorden die de waarde van de woning verhogen, zoals "perfect onderhouden", "instapklaar" of "exclusief" [111](#page=111). #### Voorbeelden van Vastgoedbeschrijvingen * **"Built-to-last" Vrijstaand Huis:** Een gedetailleerde beschrijving die elementen zoals locatie, indeling, voorzieningen (zoals een zwembad en airconditioning) en duurzaamheid benadrukt [112](#page=112). * **"Distinguished, Charming, and Rural Cottage":** Beschrijft een charmante cottage met nadruk op landelijke locatie, architectonische details (balkenplafonds, Franse ramen), moderne voorzieningen (vloerverwarming, zonnepanelen) en een uniek element zoals een wijnkelder [114](#page=114). #### Locatiebeschrijvingen * **Steden, Dorpen en Platteland:** Onderscheid tussen een stad (meer voorzieningen, grotere omvang), een dorp (kleiner, landelijker) en voorsteden/exurbs [116](#page=116). * **Beschrijvende Adjectieven:** Gebruik zowel positieve (historisch, charmant, pittoresk, bruisend) als negatieve (vies, verlaten, overvol, vervallen) adjectieven om de locatie te karakteriseren [117](#page=117). * **Voorzieningen:** Een breed scala aan voorzieningen wordt genoemd, onderverdeeld in categorieën zoals onderwijs, transport, winkelen, horeca, cultuur en sport. [120-121 * **Architectuur:** Kennis van verschillende bouwstijlen (traditioneel, klassiek, modern, Art Deco, Gotisch, etc.) is belangrijk voor het benadrukken van unieke verkooppunten. [122-124 #### Types Vastgoed * **Algemene Categorieën:** Residentieel, commercieel, industrieel, land (onbebouwd of verbeterd) en speciaal gebruik [125](#page=125). * **Residentieel Vastgoed:** Een uitgebreide lijst van woningtypen, waaronder appartementenblokken, villa's, penthouses, bungalows, cottages, vrijstaande en halfvrijstaande woningen, maisonnettes, villa's, landhuizen, etc. [125-128 #### Interieur en Exterieur * **Beschrijvend Taalgebruik:** Woorden om de binnen- en buitenkant van een woning te beschrijven, onderverdeeld in positief en negatief [129](#page=129). * **Verdiepingen en Kamers:** Kennis van de terminologie voor verdiepingen (begane grond, eerste verdieping, kelder, zolder) en kamers (woonkamer, keuken, slaapkamer, badkamer, studeerkamer, etc.) is essentieel. [130-132 * **Onderdelen van een Huis:** Gedetailleerde beschrijvingen van specifieke onderdelen zoals keukens, badkamers, trappen, en hun componenten (kranen, wastafels, douches, etc.). [133-135 * **Buiten en Tuin:** Woordenschat voor elementen zoals balkons, daken, tuinen, terrassen, zwembaden, opritten en schuttingen. [136-139 #### Nul-emissie Gebouwen (ZEB) * **Duurzaamheid:** Kennis van energiezuinige technieken en materialen die gebruikt worden in nul-emissie gebouwen (ZEB) is van toenemend belang. Dit omvat isolatie, hoogwaardige ramen, zonnepanelen en efficiënte apparaten. [140-141 ### E-mailen Effectieve e-mailcommunicatie is cruciaal in de vastgoedsector. #### E-mail Structuur Een zakelijke e-mail kent een specifieke structuur [146](#page=146): 1. **Onderwerpregel:** Duidelijk, informatief en aantrekkelijk [146](#page=146). 2. **Aanhef:** Formeel (bv. "Dear Mr./Ms. [Achternaam]") bij eerste contact [147](#page=147). 3. **Opening:** Leg het doel van de e-mail uit [148](#page=148). 4. **Body:** De kern van de boodschap met verdere informatie [150](#page=150). 5. **Afsluitende Zin (Goodwill):** Een positieve slotzin voordat de formele groet komt [151](#page=151). 6. **Formele Groet (Sign-off):** Correspondeert met de aanhef (bv. "Kind regards", "Yours sincerely") [152](#page=152). 7. **Handtekening:** Naam, functie, bedrijfsnaam, contactgegevens [153](#page=153). #### Belangrijke Aspecten * **Formaliteit:** Zakelijke e-mails zijn formeler dan persoonlijke e-mails en hebben juridische waarde [145](#page=145). * **Professioneel E-mailadres:** Gebruik een professioneel e-mailadres [146](#page=146). * **Afkortingen en Titels:** Wees bewust van correcte titels (Mr., Ms., Mrs., Miss) en hun gebruik. [147-148 * **Aanhef en Afsluiting:** Consistentie in het gebruik van leestekens na de aanhef en afsluiting is belangrijk [152](#page=152). * **Wervende Taal:** Gebruik "marketing woorden" die invloed hebben, zoals "I'm not sure if it's for you, but...", "Would you be open-minded to...", "What's your experience...", "Who do you know who...", "Just out of curiosity,...", "If...", "How important is it...", "Don't worry,...", "As promised". [168-171 * **Routine E-mails:** Vaardigheden in het opstellen van e-mails voor aanvragen, het geven van informatie, het overbrengen van goed en slecht nieuws, en het toevoegen van bijlagen. [157-158 * **Afspraken Maken:** Technieken voor het maken, bevestigen, uitstellen en annuleren van afspraken, inclusief correcte woordvolgorde (SVO + MPT: Subject-Verb-Object + Manner-Place-Time). [160-162 * **Datums Schrijven en Zeggen:** Verschillen tussen het schrijven en uitspreken van datums, en het correct gebruik van voorzetsels voor tijdsaanduidingen. [163-164 ### Tekstberichten Het verzenden van tekstberichten is een efficiënte communicatiemethode in de vastgoedsector [101](#page=101). #### Richtlijnen voor Tekstberichten * **Identificatie:** Stel uzelf altijd eerst voor [102](#page=102). * **Duidelijkheid en Beknoptheid:** Gebruik korte, duidelijke zinnen. Vermijd lange berichten die op spam lijken. Houd u aan een limiet van 160 tekens [102](#page=102). * **Toon:** Gebruik een semi-informele maar professionele toon. Vermijd te casual taalgebruik [104](#page=104). * **Interpunctie en Grammatica:** Zorg voor correcte interpunctie en grammatica [102](#page=102). * **Vermijd Afkortingen:** Gebruik geen overmatige afkortingen of slang die potentieel afschrikwekkend kan werken [102](#page=102). * **Dubbel Teksten:** Het sturen van een tweede bericht voordat er een antwoord is ontvangen, kan de respons aanzienlijk verhogen [103](#page=103). * **Communicatiestijl:** Groet de ontvanger, gebruik een conversatiegerichte stem, toon empathie, geef een goede wens mee en sluit af met een warme groet [104](#page=104). ### Prospectie en Netwerken Het identificeren en benaderen van potentiële klanten (prospects) is een fundamenteel onderdeel van het verkoopproces in de vastgoedsector [174](#page=174). #### Kernprincipes van Netwerken * **Netwerk is Vermogen:** "Your network is your net worth." Sterke zakelijke relaties zijn cruciaal voor succes [175](#page=175). * **Vóór het Evenement:** Bereid u voor door het evenement, de locatie en de lokale media te onderzoeken. Draag iets opvallends en wees klaar om de vraag "How is the market?" te beantwoorden [175](#page=175). * **Tijdens het Evenement:** Sluit u aan bij groepen van drie of meer. Toon zelfvertrouwen, lach en gebruik een ijsbreker zoals een handdruk en een introductie. Zoek naar overeenkomsten, deel verhalen en stel open vragen (FORD: Family, Occupation, Recreation, Dreams). Vraag om een gunst. Praat met de organisatoren. Sluit het gesprek af met een positieve opmerking [176](#page=176). * **Na het Evenement:** Neem binnen 24 uur contact op om dank te betuigen voor het gesprek [176](#page=176). #### Gesprekken Starten en Gaande Houden * **Positiviteit:** Wees positief en open, want dit wordt vaak weerspiegeld. "Mirrored reciprocation" [177](#page=177). * **Introductie:** Begin met een enthousiaste begroeting, uw naam en een opmerking over de omgeving [177](#page=177). * **Ontmoeten van Mensen:** Gebruik gepaste begroetingen ("Nice to see you", "It's a pleasure to meet you") en introducties [177](#page=177). * **Omgang met Onbekenden:** Ga dichterbij staan, maak oogcontact en trek aandacht met een vraag, opmerking of compliment [179](#page=179). * **Gesprek Gaande Houden:** Vermijd ja/nee-vragen. Stel open vragen (Hoe, Wat, Wie, Welk, Waar, Wanneer, Waarom). Gebruik "Tell me about..." en hypothetische vragen. Draai vragen om, stel vervolgvragen, gebruik vraag tags, breng nieuwe onderwerpen aan die verband houden met eerdere opmerkingen, deel iets over uzelf en houd het gesprek licht. [182-183 * **Kleine Praatjes:** Zoek gemeenschappelijke grond via onderwerpen als weer, entertainment, reizen, sport, werk, eten, familie en dromen (FORD). [187-189 * **Gevoelige Onderwerpen:** Wees voorzichtig met vragen over familie en afkomst om ongemak te vermijden [190](#page=190). * **Gesprekken Beëindigen:** Gebruik een duidelijk signaal en een beleefde afsluiting zoals "It was great talking to you." [200](#page=200). #### Afspraken Hanteren * **Uitnodigingen:** Wees in staat om uitnodigingen te maken, te accepteren of af te wijzen met een geldige reden en eventueel een alternatief. [196-197 * **Verduidelijking Vragen:** Durf te vragen om herhaling of verduidelijking ("What do you mean?", "Could you rephrase that?") [199](#page=199). ### Vastgoed Taxaties Samenstellen Het correct samenstellen van een taxatierapport is essentieel voor het bepalen van de waarde van onroerend goed [58](#page=58). #### Kernconcepten Waarde * **Locatie:** Cruciale factor in vastgoedwaarde [59](#page=59). * **Taxatie Methoden:** * **Value in use:** Waarde voor een specifiek doel (bv. medische praktijk) [59](#page=59). * **Market value:** Bedrag dat kopers bereid zijn te betalen [59](#page=59). * **Investment value:** Waarde gebaseerd op toekomstig gebruik (bv. potentie voor appartementenbouw) [59](#page=59). * **Waardestijging en Waardedaling:** * **Appreciation:** Toename in waarde [59](#page=59). * **Equity:** Waarde van de woning na aftrek van schulden [59](#page=59). * **Depreciation:** Afname in waarde [59](#page=59). * **Curable/Incurable Depreciation:** Waardedaling die verholpen kan worden versus waardeverlies dat niet verholpen kan worden [59](#page=59). #### Taxatierapport Componenten Een taxatierapport bevat doorgaans de volgende secties: * **Klantgegevens:** Informatie over de opdrachtgever [62](#page=62). * **Onderwerpinformatie:** Details over het getaxeerde object [62](#page=62). * **Werkomschrijving (Scope of Work):** Beschrijft de uitgevoerde werkzaamheden en de reikwijdte van de taxatie [62](#page=62). * **Beschrijving Perceel (Site):** Afmetingen, breedte aan straat, totale perceeloppervlakte, vorm, hoekligging, nutsvoorzieningen (elektriciteit, gas, water, riolering) [63](#page=63) [65](#page=65). * **Bestemmingsplannificatie (Town Planning):** Specifieke bestemmingsclassificatie, bouwvergunningen, voorrangsrechten, bouwvoorschriften, erfdienstbaarheden, risicogebieden (bv. overstromingsgevaar) [64](#page=64) [65](#page=65). * **Verbeteringen (Improvements):** Type vastgoed, bouwjaar, renovatiejaar, bouwstructuur, bruto vloeroppervlakte (GFA), type verwarming, brandstof, open haard, koelsysteem, isolatie [65](#page=65). * **Energie:** Energielabel, zonnepanelen, batterijopslagsystemen (BESS), laadpunten [66](#page=66). * **Interieur:** Bruto levende oppervlakte (GLA), woonoppervlakte, aantal kamers, type keuken, slaapkamers, badkamers en halfbaden [66](#page=66). * **Exterieur:** Oprit, carport, garage, voorzieningen (terras, zwembad), tuin, landschapsarchitectuur, uitzicht [66](#page=66). * **Waardebeïnvloedende Factoren:** * **Positieve factoren:** Locatie nabij voorzieningen, perceelafmetingen, constructiekwaliteit, renovaties, gunstige marktsituatie [67](#page=67). * **Negatieve factoren:** Geluidsoverlast, hinder door verkeer [67](#page=67). * **Conclusie:** Marktbaarheid en beschikbaarheid van het pand [67](#page=67). * **Waardeberekening:** * **Waarde perceel:** Gebaseerd op perceeloppervlakte en grondprijs per vierkante meter [67](#page=67). * **Waarde constructies:** Gebaseerd op GFA/GLA en bouwkosten per vierkante meter, gecorrigeerd voor afschrijving (obsolescence). [67-68 * **Waardebeoordeling:** Totale waarde inclusief economische waardestijging [68](#page=68). * **Vrijwaringsclausule (Disclaimer):** Beperking van aansprakelijkheid van de taxateur [68](#page=68). #### Uitoefenen van Vaardigheden * **Vertaalopdrachten:** Invullen van de ontbrekende termen in de taxatierapporten. [69-72 * **Uitleg in 'Plain English':** Het mondeling toelichten van een taxatierapport aan een klant [73](#page=73). ### Investeringsmogelijkheden Presenteren Het effectief presenteren van investeringsmogelijkheden, met name in vastgoed, vereist specifieke vaardigheden op het gebied van structuur, inhoud en levering [74](#page=74). #### Presentatie Structuur en Inhoud * **Introductie:** * **Welkom:** Begroet het publiek [77](#page=77). * **Introductie:** Stel uzelf en uw team voor [77](#page=77). * **Onderwerp:** Geef het onderwerp van de presentatie aan [77](#page=77). * **Relevantie:** Leg uit waarom het onderwerp belangrijk is voor het publiek [77](#page=77). * **Doel:** Formuleer het doel van de presentatie [77](#page=77). * **Structuur Uitleggen:** Geef een overzicht van de presentatie met behulp van verbindingswoorden [78](#page=78). * **Organisatie:** Geef aan hoe lang de presentatie duurt en of er handouts zijn [78](#page=78). * **Aandacht Trekken:** Gebruik een retorische vraag, een interessant feit, een anekdote of een probleemstelling om het publiek te boeien [79](#page=79). * **Body van de Presentatie:** * **Signposting:** Gebruik taal om secties aan te kondigen, samen te vatten en af te sluiten [80](#page=80). * **Nadruk Leggen:** Benadruk belangrijke punten met werkwoorden, "what" constructies, retorische vragen of bijwoorden/adjectieven [81](#page=81). * **Uitbreiden en Elaboreren:** Geef aanvullende informatie en details [81](#page=81). * **Verwijzen naar Andere Punten:** Maak verwijzingen naar eerder besproken of nog te bespreken onderwerpen [81](#page=81). * **Beschrijven van Trends:** * **Visuele Introductie:** Introduceer grafieken en tabellen met specifieke werkwoorden en locaties [89](#page=89). * **Visuele Benadrukking:** Gebruik zinnen als "You can see (here) that..." om aandacht te vestigen op specifieke delen van visuals [89](#page=89). * **Trends Beschrijven:** Gebruik werkwoorden (in verschillende tijden), bijwoorden, adjectieven en voorzetsels om trends te beschrijven (stijgen, dalen, stabiliseren, fluctueren). [91-93 * **Nummers en Metingen:** * **Rekenkundige Bewerkingen:** Gebruik de juiste termen voor optellen, aftrekken, vermenigvuldigen en delen [95](#page=95). * **Getallen Notatie:** Houd rekening met het gebruik van komma's en punten in Engelse getallen [95](#page=95). * **Meeteenheden:** Begrijp zowel het metrieke als het imperiale systeem en hoe conversies werken [96](#page=96). * **Investeringen Bespreken:** * **Kenmerken Vastgoed Investeringen:** Vastgoed is illiquide, vereist een grote aanbetaling en reservekapitaal voor uitgaven (capex) [97](#page=97). * **Rendement en Winstgevendheid:** Begrijp concepten als waardestijging, eigen vermogen (equity), slotkosten, kapitalisatiegraad (cap rate), kasstroom (cash flow), netto operationele inkomsten (NOI), interne rentabiliteit (IRR) en huurrendement (rental yield). [97-98 * **Analyseren en Adviseren:** Gebruik investeringsterminologie om klanten te helpen weloverwogen beslissingen te nemen [98](#page=98). * **Conclusie:** Vat de belangrijkste punten samen, herhaal de relevantie, geef een krachtige boodschap of een oproep tot actie, bedank het publiek en nodig vragen uit. [82-83 #### Omgaan met Vragen en Problemen * **Vragen Behandelen:** Beantwoord vragen duidelijk, vraag om verduidelijking, verwijs naar latere delen van de presentatie, of geef aan dat u het later zult opzoeken. [85-86 * **Onderbrekingen:** Handel beleefd op onderbrekingen en stuur het gesprek terug naar het script [86](#page=86). * **Omgaan met Tegenslagen:** Bereid u voor op problemen zoals spel-, computer- of geheugenproblemen. Wees voorbereid en gebruik humor waar gepast. [87-88 ### Schrijven van Vastgoedbeschrijvingen Het creëren van aantrekkelijke vastgoedbeschrijvingen is cruciaal voor het aantrekken van potentiële kopers [108](#page=108). #### Schrijfadvies * **Accuraatheid:** Wees eerlijk en gedetailleerd over de staat van de woning [109](#page=109). * **Beschrijvend Taalgebruik:** Gebruik levendige bijvoeglijke naamwoorden en bijwoorden om de woning aantrekkelijk te maken [110](#page=110). * **Unieke Kenmerken:** Benadruk bijzondere eigenschappen die de woning onderscheiden [111](#page=111). #### Locatiebeschrijving * **Terminologie:** Gebruik specifieke termen om steden, dorpen en buitenwijken te beschrijven (bv. stadscentrum, buitenwijken, achterstandswijken). [116-117 * **Adjectieven:** Gebruik positieve en negatieve adjectieven om de locatie te karakteriseren [117](#page=117). * **Voorzieningen:** Benoem relevante voorzieningen zoals scholen, winkels, parken en openbaar vervoer. [120-121 * **Architectuur:** Beschrijf de architectonische stijl van de woning om de unieke aantrekkingskracht te benadrukken. [122-124 #### Typen Vastgoed * **Categorieën:** Begrijp de verschillen tussen residentieel, commercieel, industrieel, land en speciaal gebruik vastgoed [125](#page=125). * **Residentiële Typen:** Weet de specifieke kenmerken van diverse woningtypen zoals appartementen, villa's, penthouses, cottages, bungalows, maisonnettes, etc. [125-128 #### Interieur en Exterieur * **Interieur:** Beschrijf de verschillende ruimtes (kamers, verdiepingen) en onderdelen van een woning (keuken, badkamer, trap) met gedetailleerde vocabulaire. [129-135 * **Exterieur:** Beschrijf elementen van de buitenkant van de woning en de tuin, inclusief specifieke architecturale kenmerken en tuinonderdelen. [136-139 #### Nul-emissie Gebouwen (ZEB) * **Duurzaamheid:** Kennis van energiezuinige bouwtechnieken en materialen die bijdragen aan ZEB's is belangrijk voor de toekomst van vastgoed. [140-141 ### Veelvoorkomende Fouten om te Vermijden * **Grammatica en Interpunctie:** Onjuist gebruik van interpunctie en grammaticale fouten kunnen de leesbaarheid van teksten negatief beïnvloeden. * **Ongepaste Toon:** Het gebruik van een te informele toon in zakelijke communicatie, of een te stijve toon waar een meer persoonlijke aanpak gepast is. * **Gebrek aan Duidelijkheid:** Onduidelijke of dubbelzinnige formuleringen in e-mails of advertenties kunnen leiden tot misverstanden. * **Onduidelijke Onderwerpregels:** Een onduidelijke onderwerpregel in e-mails kan ervoor zorgen dat deze genegeerd worden. * **Negeren van Advies:** Het niet opvolgen van schrijf- of communicatieadviezen kan leiden tot ineffectieve communicatie. * **Verkeerd Gebruik van Marketing Woorden:** Het misbruiken of verkeerd toepassen van wervende woorden kan averechts werken. * **Onderschatten van Kleine Praatjes:** Het negeren van het belang van kleine praatjes voor het opbouwen van relaties kan professionele interacties beperken. * **Onvolledige Taxatierapporten:** Het overslaan van essentiële secties of het niet accuraat invullen van een taxatierapport kan leiden tot juridische of financiële problemen. * **Technische Vaardigheden:** Het onvoldoende beheersen van digitale communicatiemiddelen (e-mail, tekstberichten) kan de efficiëntie verminderen. * **Onjuiste Vertalingen:** Bij het vertalen van vastgoedbeschrijvingen of andere documenten kan een gebrek aan woordenschat of begrip leiden tot fouten die de betekenis veranderen.

## Glossary | Term | Definitie | | :----------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | **Vastgoedbeschrijvingen** | Een essentieel onderdeel van het verkopen van vastgoed, waarbij gedetailleerde en aantrekkelijke beschrijvingen van panden worden opgesteld om potentiële kopers te informeren en te overtuigen van de waarde en aantrekkelijkheid van het aangeboden object. | | **Taxatierapport** | Een formeel document dat de geschatte waarde van een onroerend goed vastlegt, gebaseerd op specifieke methoden en criteria, en dat gebruikt wordt voor diverse financiële en juridische doeleinden, zoals bij de aan- of verkoop van een woning. | | **Onderhandelen** | Het proces waarbij partijen die verschillende belangen hebben, proberen tot een overeenkomst te komen door middel van discussie en compromissen, met als doel een wederzijds aanvaardbare prijs of voorwaarde te bereiken. | | **Locatie** | De geografische positie van een vastgoedobject, een cruciale factor die de waarde en aantrekkelijkheid van het pand sterk kan beïnvloeden vanwege factoren als bereikbaarheid, voorzieningen en de directe omgeving. | | **Voorzieningen** | Faciliteiten of diensten die het comfort en de leefbaarheid van een locatie of woning verhogen, zoals parken, winkels, scholen, openbaar vervoer en recreatiemogelijkheden. | | **Bouwstijlen** | Kenmerkende ontwerpprincipes en esthetische kenmerken die de architectuur van een gebouw bepalen, variërend van klassieke en historische stijlen tot moderne en hedendaagse ontwerpen, elk met hun eigen specifieke kenmerken en historische context. | | **Investeringsmogelijkheden** | De kansen die zich voordoen om kapitaal te alloceren in vastgoed of andere activa met het oog op het genereren van een rendement of winst, waarbij een grondige analyse van markt trends en potentiële opbrengsten essentieel is voor succes. | | **Kleine praatjes** | Informele conversaties die worden gebruikt om een ontspannen sfeer te creëren en relaties op te bouwen, vaak over neutrale onderwerpen zoals het weer, hobby's of dagelijkse gebeurtenissen, om een band op te bouwen met potentiële klanten of zakenpartners. |

# Basiswoordenschat voor dagelijkse interacties Dit onderwerp behandelt essentiële woorden en zinnen voor alledaagse gesprekken, inclusief begroetingen, beleefdheidsuitingen en eenvoudige vragen en antwoorden [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). ### 1.1 Algemene begroetingen en afscheid Hieronder staan veelvoorkomende begroetingen en afscheidswoorden: * **Hello**: hallo [1](#page=1). * **Hi**: hoi [1](#page=1). * **Good morning**: goedemorgen [2](#page=2). * **Welcome**: welkom [2](#page=2). * **Bye**: dag (of doei) [1](#page=1). * **Goodbye**: tot ziens [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Beleefdheidsuitingen Beleefdheid is essentieel in dagelijkse interacties. De volgende uitdrukkingen zijn hierbij van belang: * **Please**: alsjeblieft [1](#page=1). * **Thank you**: bedankt [1](#page=1). * **No thank you**: nee dankje [1](#page=1). * **You're welcome**: graag gedaan [1](#page=1). * **Excuse me** (om aandacht te trekken of te verontschuldigen): pardon [2](#page=2). > **Tip:** Gebruik "please" en "thank you" consequent om beleefd te communiceren [1](#page=1). ### 1.3 Eenvoudige vragen en antwoorden Dit gedeelte behandelt basisvragen en hoe hierop te antwoorden. #### 1.3.1 Kennismaking * **My name is...**: mijn naam is... / ik heet.. [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). * **What's your name?**: hoe heet je [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2)? * **I am...**: ik ben.. [2](#page=2). * **And you?**: en jij [2](#page=2)? * **Nice to meet you**: leuk je te ontmoeten [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.2 Vragen naar herkomst * **Where are you from?**: waar kom jij vandaan [2](#page=2)? * **I am from...**: ik kom uit.. [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.3 Vragen naar welzijn * **How are you?**: hoe gaat het [2](#page=2)? * **Good, thanks, and you?**: goed, dankje, en met jou [2](#page=2)? * **Good, thanks**: goed, bedankt [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.4 Ja/Nee en bevestigingen * **Yes**: ja [1](#page=1). * **No**: nee [1](#page=1). * **Yes or no**: ja en nee [1](#page=1). * **Right?** (als in "toch?"): toch [4](#page=4)? ### 1.4 Woordenschat voor dagelijkse benodigdheden Deze sectie omvat woorden voor veelvoorkomende items en situaties. #### 1.4.1 Eten en drinken * **Milk**: melk [1](#page=1). * **Water**: water [1](#page=1). * **Coffee**: koffie [1](#page=1). * **Tea**: thee [1](#page=1). * **Sugar**: suiker [1](#page=1). * **With milk**: met melk [1](#page=1). * **With sugar**: met suiker [1](#page=1). * **Coffee and tea**: koffie en thee [1](#page=1). * **Water or milk**: water of melk [1](#page=1). * **Tea or milk**: thee of melk [1](#page=1). * **Coffee with milk**: koffie met melk [2](#page=2). > **Voorbeeld:** Om thee met melk en suiker te bestellen, zeg je: "Tea with milk and sugar, please." [1](#page=1). #### 1.4.2 Bezittingen * **Passport**: paspoort [3](#page=3). * **Ticket**: ticket [3](#page=3). * **Phone**: telefoon [3](#page=3). * **Bag**: tas [3](#page=3). * **Jacket**: jas [3](#page=3). * **Your phone**: uw telefoon [3](#page=3). * **Your jacket**: uw jas [3](#page=3). * **This is my phone**: dit is mijn telefoon [3](#page=3). * **This is my bag**: dit is mijn tas [3](#page=3). * **This is my jacket**: dat is mijn jas [3](#page=3). #### 1.4.3 Plaatsen en beschrijvingen * **House**: huis [4](#page=4). * **University**: universiteit [4](#page=4). * **City**: stad [3](#page=3). * **Street**: straat [3](#page=3). * **Park**: park [4](#page=4). * **Restaurant**: restaurant [4](#page=4). * **Library**: bibliotheek [4](#page=4). * **Museum**: museum [3](#page=3). * **Big**: groot [3](#page=3). * **Nice**: leuk / mooi [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * **Busy**: druk [3](#page=3). * **Famous**: beroemd [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * **Quiet**: rustig [4](#page=4). * **Old**: oud [4](#page=4). * **My city is big**: mijn stad is groot [3](#page=3). * **This city is nice**: deze stad is leuk [3](#page=3). * **This museum is big**: dit museum is groot [3](#page=3). * **This street is busy**: deze straat is druk [3](#page=3). * **This park is nice**: dit park is leuk [4](#page=4). * **This restaurant is very nice**: dit restaurant is heel leuk [4](#page=4). * **This library is very old**: deze bibliotheek is heel oud [4](#page=4). * **This house is very old**: dit huis is heel oud [4](#page=4). * **Where is your house?**: waar is jouw huis [4](#page=4)? * **Where is your university?**: waar is jouw universiteit [4](#page=4)? * **Your house is big, right?**: jouw huis is groot, toch [4](#page=4)? #### 1.4.4 Familie * **Dad**: papa [3](#page=3). * **Mom**: mama [3](#page=3). * **Sister**: zus [3](#page=3). * **Brother**: broer [3](#page=3). * **My mom and my dad**: mijn mama en mijn papa [3](#page=3). ### 1.5 Tijdsaanduidingen en locaties * **Now**: nu [4](#page=4). * **City**: stad [3](#page=3). * **Street**: straat [3](#page=3). * **Gate**: gate [3](#page=3). * **Customs**: douane [3](#page=3). * **To/In**: in [3](#page=3). ### 1.6 Overige nuttige woorden * **And**: en [1](#page=1). * **With**: met [1](#page=1). * **Or**: of [1](#page=1). * **Too**: ook [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). * **But**: maar [3](#page=3). * **This/These**: dit / deze [4](#page=4). * **Your**: uw / jouw [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * **My**: mijn [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * **Live**: woon [4](#page=4). * **Talks**: praat [4](#page=4). * **Are**: bent [4](#page=4). --- # Persoonlijke introducties en herkomst Dit deel richt zich op het leren uitdrukken van iemands naam, afkomst en het vragen naar die van anderen, essentieel voor sociale interacties. ## 2. Persoonlijke introducties en herkomst Het leren van basisuitdrukkingen voor persoonlijke introducties en het navragen van iemands afkomst is cruciaal voor effectieve sociale interactie. Dit omvat het kennen van de juiste woorden en zinsneden om jezelf voor te stellen en interesse te tonen in anderen [2](#page=2). ### 2.1 Jezelf voorstellen Om jezelf voor te stellen in het Engels, kun je verschillende zinnen gebruiken, afhankelijk van de formaliteit van de situatie [2](#page=2). * **Algemene begroetingen:** * "Hello" [2](#page=2). * "Hi" [2](#page=2). * **Je naam geven:** * "What's your name?" (Hoe heet je?) [2](#page=2). * "I am" (Ik ben) [2](#page=2). * "Hello, I am" (Hallo, ik ben) [2](#page=2). * "Hi, I am" (Hoi, ik heet) [2](#page=2). * "My name is" (Ik heet) [2](#page=2). > **Voorbeeld:** "Hello, I am Anna" [2](#page=2). ### 2.2 Vragen naar iemands afkomst Naast het geven van je eigen naam, is het ook gebruikelijk om naar de afkomst van de ander te vragen [2](#page=2). * **Vragen naar afkomst:** * "Where are you from?" (Waar kom jij vandaan?) [2](#page=2). * "Excuse me, where are you from?" (Pardon, waar kom jij vandaan?) [2](#page=2). * **Je afkomst vertellen:** * "I am from" (Ik kom uit) [2](#page=2). * "I am from [land/stad]" (Ik kom uit [land/stad]) [2](#page=2). > **Voorbeeld:** "I am from Belgium" (Ik kom uit België) [2](#page=2). ### 2.3 Beleefdheidsfrases en aanvullende zinnen Er zijn diverse beleefdheidsfrases en aanvullende zinnen die de conversatie vloeiender maken en interesse tonen [2](#page=2). * **Bij het ontmoeten:** * "Nice to meet you" (Leuk je te ontmoeten) [2](#page=2). * "Hello, nice to meet you" (Hallo, leuk je te ontmoeten) [2](#page=2). * **Verdere vragen en antwoorden:** * "And you?" (En jij?) [2](#page=2). * "Yes, and you?" (Ja, en jij?) [2](#page=2). * "How are you?" (Hoe gaat het?) [2](#page=2). * "Good, thanks, and you?" (Goed, dankje, en met jou?) [2](#page=2). * "Good, thanks" (Goed bedankt) [2](#page=2). * **Andere nuttige uitdrukkingen:** * "Welcome" (Welkom) [2](#page=2). * "Good morning" (Goedemorgen) [2](#page=2). * "Excuse" / "Excuse me" (Pardon) [2](#page=2). * "Thanks" (Dank je) [2](#page=2). * "Yes, thanks" (Ja, dankje) [2](#page=2). * "I am from [land too" (Ik kom ook uit [land]) [2](#page=2). > **Voorbeeld:** "Good morning, how are you?" (Goedemorgen, hoe gaat het?) [2](#page=2). Deze basisuitdrukkingen vormen de kern voor het starten van gesprekken en het tonen van sociale vaardigheden in een nieuwe taal [2](#page=2). --- # Beschrijvingen van objecten en plaatsen Dit onderwerp richt zich op de Engelse woordenschat die nodig is om eigendommen, gebouwen en stedelijke locaties te beschrijven, met nadruk op kenmerken zoals grootte, rust, drukte en leeftijd [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). ### 3.1 Woordenschat voor objecten Deze sectie behandelt basiswoordenschat voor het beschrijven van persoonlijke bezittingen en algemene objecten. * **Persoonlijke bezittingen en familie:** * `my dad` - mijn papa [3](#page=3). * `my mom` - mijn mama [3](#page=3). * `my sister` - mijn zus [3](#page=3). * `my brother` - mijn broer [3](#page=3). * `your phone` - uw telefoon [3](#page=3). * `your jacket` - uw jas [3](#page=3). * `my bag` - mijn tas [3](#page=3). * `my phone` - mijn telefoon [3](#page=3). * `my jacket` - mijn jas [3](#page=3). * **Reisgerelateerde objecten:** * `passport` - paspoort [3](#page=3). * `ticket` - ticket [3](#page=3). * `gate` - gate (luchthaven) [3](#page=3). * `customs` - douane [3](#page=3). * **Algemene objecten:** * `house` - huis [4](#page=4). * `bag` - tas [3](#page=3). * `jacket` - jas [3](#page=3). * `phone` - telefoon [3](#page=3). > **Tip:** Let op het verschil tussen `this` (dit/deze dichtbij) en `that` (dat/die ver weg), hoewel de tekst zich voornamelijk richt op `this` [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). ### 3.2 Woordenschat voor plaatsen en locaties Hieronder valt de woordenschat voor het beschrijven van verschillende soorten plaatsen, van steden tot specifieke gebouwen. * **Stedelijke locaties:** * `city` - stad [3](#page=3). * `street` - straat [3](#page=3). * `park` - park [4](#page=4). * **Gebouwen en instellingen:** * `museum` - museum [3](#page=3). * `house` - huis [4](#page=4). * `university` - universiteit [4](#page=4). * `restaurant` - restaurant [4](#page=4). * `library` - bibliotheek [4](#page=4). * **Landen en steden (als voorbeeldlocaties):** * `brazil` - Brazilië [3](#page=3). * `paris` - Parijs [3](#page=3). ### 3.3 Beschrijvende eigenschappen Deze sectie behandelt bijvoeglijke naamwoorden en bijwoorden die gebruikt worden om objecten en plaatsen te karakteriseren. * **Grootte:** * `big` - groot [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `my city is big` - mijn stad is groot [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `this museum is big` - dit museum is groot [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `my house is big` - mijn huis is groot [4](#page=4). * **Drukte/Rust:** * `busy` - druk [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `this street is busy` - deze straat is druk [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `this museum is busy` - dit museum is druk [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `this street is busy too` - deze straat is ook druk [3](#page=3). * `quiet` - rustig [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `my street is quiet` - mijn straat is rustig [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `your street is quiet` - jouw straat is rustig [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this library is very quiet` - deze bibliotheek is heel rustig [4](#page=4). * **Leeftijd:** * `old` - oud [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this library is very old` - deze bibliotheek is heel oud [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this house is very old` - dit huis is heel oud [4](#page=4). * **Esthetische en algemene kwaliteit:** * `nice` - leuk / mooi [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this city is nice` - deze stad is leuk [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `this park is nice` - dit park is leuk [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this restaurant is very nice` - dit restaurant is heel leuk [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this library is very nice` - deze bibliotheek is heel leuk [4](#page=4). * `famous` - beroemd [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `my street is famous` - mijn straat is beroemd [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `this museum is famous` - dit museum is beroemd [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this restaurant is famous` - dit restaurant is beroemd [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this park is very famous` - dit park is heel beroemd [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this library is very famous` - deze bibliotheek is heel beroemd [4](#page=4). * `very` - heel (versterking) [4](#page=4). ### 3.4 Vraag- en uitspraakstructuren Deze sectie behandelt hoe vragen gesteld kunnen worden en bevestigingen geuit in de context van objecten en plaatsen. * **Bevestigende uitspraken:** * `yes, this is my [object]` - ja, dit is mijn [object [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `yes, this is my phone` [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `yes, this is my bag` [3](#page=3). * `this [object/place is [adjective]` - dit [object/plaats is [bijvoeglijk naamwoord [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `this city is nice` [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `this museum is big` [3](#page=3). * Voorbeeld: `this park is very famous` [4](#page=4). * `your [object/place is [adjective right?` - jouw [object/plaats is [bijvoeglijk naamwoord toch [4](#page=4)? * Voorbeeld: `your house is big right` [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `your street is quiet right` [4](#page=4). * **Vragende structuren:** * `is this my [object/gate?` - is dit mijn [object/gate [3](#page=3)? * `where is your [object/place?` - waar is jouw [object/plaats [4](#page=4)? * Voorbeeld: `where is your house` [4](#page=4). * Voorbeeld: `where is your university` [4](#page=4). * **Werkwoorden en tijden:** * `run` - loop [3](#page=3). * `live` - woon [4](#page=4). * `talks` - praat [4](#page=4). * `are` - bent (als in "you are") [4](#page=4). > **Tip:** Het woord `this` kan zowel verwijzen naar 'dit' als 'deze', afhankelijk van het geslacht of de grammaticale vorm van het zelfstandig naamwoord in het Nederlands [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). --- ## Veelgemaakte fouten om te vermijden - Bestudeer alle onderwerpen grondig voor examens - Let op formules en belangrijke definities - Oefen met de voorbeelden in elke sectie - Memoriseer niet zonder de onderliggende concepten te begrijpen

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Hallo | Een informele begroeting die gebruikt wordt om contact te leggen bij het begin van een gesprek. | | Alsjeblieft | Een beleefd woord dat gebruikt wordt bij het geven van iets of het maken van een verzoek. | | Melk | Een witte vloeistof die geproduceerd wordt door zoogdieren, vaak geconsumeerd als drank of gebruikt in gerechten. | | Water | Een kleurloze, smaakloze vloeistof die essentieel is voor al het leven op aarde. | | Koffie | Een populaire drank gemaakt van geroosterde koffiebonen, die cafeïne bevat en stimulerende effecten heeft. | | Thee | Een aromatische drank bereid door het trekken van gedroogde bladeren van de theeplant in heet water. | | Suiker | Een zoete kristallijne substantie, afkomstig van suikerriet of suikerbieten, gebruikt als zoetstof. | | Hoi | Een informele, vriendelijke begroeting, vergelijkbaar met hallo. | | Dag (Doei) | Een afscheidsgroet die gebruikt wordt aan het einde van een ontmoeting. | | Bedankt | Een uiting van dankbaarheid voor iets dat ontvangen is of gedaan is. | | Graag gedaan | Een beleefd antwoord op een bedankje, wat aangeeft dat de hulp gewaardeerd werd. | | Hoe heet je? | Een vraag die gesteld wordt om de naam van een persoon te achterhalen. | | Ik ben | Een constructie die gebruikt wordt om iemands identiteit of toestand aan te geven. | | Goedemorgen | Een begroeting die gebruikt wordt in de ochtenduren. | | Leuk je te ontmoeten | Een beleefdheidsuiting die getoond wordt wanneer men voor het eerst kennismaakt met iemand. | | Waar kom je vandaan? | Een vraag die gesteld wordt om te informeren naar de oorsprong of geboorteplaats van een persoon. | | Hoe gaat het? | Een algemene vraag naar iemands welzijn of huidige toestand. | | Paspoort | Een officieel document dat de identiteit en nationaliteit van de houder bevestigt, essentieel voor internationaal reizen. | | Ticket | Een bewijs van betaling dat recht geeft op toegang tot een dienst of evenement, zoals een vlucht of concert. | | Tas | Een houder, meestal gemaakt van flexibel materiaal, gebruikt voor het dragen van spullen. | | Gate | Een toegangspunt op een luchthaven of station, van waaruit men een transportmiddel betreedt. | | Douane | Een overheidsinstantie die verantwoordelijk is voor het controleren van goederen en personen die internationale grenzen overschrijden. | | Stad | Een grote, bevolkte menselijke nederzetting met een complexe infrastructuur en stedelijke kenmerken. | | Museum | Een instelling die culturele, artistieke, historische of wetenschappelijke objecten verzamelt, conserveert, onderzoekt en tentoonstelt. | | Beroemd | Bekend zijn bij veel mensen; wijdverbreid bekend. | | Rustig | Vrij van drukte, lawaai of activiteit; kalm en vredig. | | Bibliotheek | Een instelling die een collectie boeken, publicaties en digitale bronnen aanbiedt voor lenen of raadplegen. | | Oud | Bestaan voor een lange periode; niet nieuw. |

# Verb tenses and their usage Verb tenses and their usage cover the structure and application of different verb forms in English to convey meaning related to time and aspect. ## 1. Verb tenses and their usage Verb tenses are crucial for communicating when an action takes place. English has several tenses, broadly categorized into present, past, and future, each with simple, continuous, and perfect forms. ### 1.1 Present tenses #### 1.1.1 Present simple The present simple tense is formed using the base form of the verb (or the base form + -s/-es for third-person singular subjects). * **Usage:** * For things in general or things that happen repeatedly. * For permanent situations. * For habits and routines. * **Example:** > My parents live in London. They have lived there all their lives. > I do this. #### 1.1.2 Present continuous The present continuous tense is formed with `am/is/are + verb-ing`. * **Usage:** * For things happening around the time of speaking; the action is not complete. * For temporary situations. * **Example:** > I am doing. > I’m living with some friends at the moment. * **Present continuous vs. Present simple:** * Present continuous (`I am doing`) is used for temporary situations, while present simple (`I do`) is used for permanent situations or things that happen repeatedly. * The phrase "always doing" is used to express irritation about something done too often, whereas "always do" means it happens every time. #### 1.1.3 Specific verbs not normally used in the continuous Certain verbs are typically not used in continuous forms when they express states rather than actions. These include verbs related to thoughts, senses, possession, and feelings: * **Verbs of thinking:** * `think` (meaning "believe" or "have an opinion") is used in the simple form: *I think Mary is Canadian.* * `think` (meaning "consider") can be used in the continuous form: *I’m thinking about what happened.* * **Verbs of senses:** * `see`, `hear`, `smell`, `taste` are normally used in the simple form. * `look` and `feel` can be continuous to describe how someone looks or feels *now*: *He is looking at the painting.* * **`be` vs. `be-ing`:** * `He is being` is used to describe behavior: *He’s being so selfish right now.* (This is not his usual character). * `He is` is used to describe a character trait: *He’s selfish.* ### 1.2 Past tenses #### 1.2.1 Past simple The past simple tense is formed with the past tense of the verb (regular verbs add -ed; irregular verbs have unique past forms). * **Usage:** * For completed actions in the past. * For actions that happened at a specific time in the past. * **Example:** > We walked home after the party last night. > When Karen arrived, we had dinner. #### 1.2.2 Past continuous The past continuous tense is formed with `was/were + verb-ing`. * **Usage:** * For an action that was in progress at a specific moment in the past. * When something happened in the middle of another action. * **Example:** > We were walking home when I met Dan. > When Karen arrived, we were having dinner. * **Past continuous vs. Past simple:** * Past continuous (`I was doing`) describes an action that was in progress (unfinished) at a certain point in the past. * Past simple (`I did`) describes a completed action in the past. #### 1.2.3 Past perfect simple The past perfect simple tense is formed with `had + past participle`. * **Usage:** * To talk about an action that happened before another action in the past. * **Example:** > When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul had already gone home. * **Past perfect vs. Present perfect:** * Present perfect (`have seen`) connects the past to the present. * Past perfect (`had seen`) describes an action completed before another past action. #### 1.2.4 Past perfect continuous The past perfect continuous tense is formed with `had been + verb-ing`. * **Usage:** * To describe an activity that had been happening for a period of time before another event in the past. * **Example:** > At last the bus came. I’d been waiting for twenty minutes. ### 1.3 Present perfect The present perfect tense is formed with `have/has + past participle`. * **Usage:** * To give new information where the action happened in the past but is relevant now. * When the action in the past has a result now. * To talk about a period of time from the past until now (an unfinished period). * To talk about experiences, especially when it's the first time something happens. * **Examples:** > I’ve cut my finger. > Tom has lost his keys (he doesn’t have them now). > I have never been to Italy. > It’s the first time he has driven a car. * **`Just`, `Already`, and `Yet`:** * `Just`: A short time ago. *I’ve just had lunch.* * `Already`: Sooner than expected. *I’ve already paid it.* * `Yet`: Until now (used in questions and negatives expecting something to happen). *Has it stopped raining yet?* * **Present perfect vs. Past simple:** * Present perfect is used for new or recent happenings that have a present result or connection. * Past simple is used for completed actions that are not recent or new, telling us only about the past. * If you continue talking about the event, you often switch to the past simple. *Ow! I’ve burnt myself. How did you do that? I picked up a hot dish.* * Present perfect is used for unfinished periods (e.g., *today, this week, since 2010*) with present results. Past simple is used for finished periods (e.g., *yesterday, last year*) or when asking "When?" or "What time?". ### 1.4 Present perfect continuous The present perfect continuous tense is formed with `have/has been + verb-ing`. * **Usage:** * For an activity that has recently stopped or just stopped. * To talk about something that began in the past and is still going on. * To stress the duration of an activity. * **Example:** > Why are you out of breath? Have you been running? > They have been married for twenty years. * **Present perfect continuous vs. Present perfect simple:** * Present perfect continuous (`have been doing`) emphasizes the activity and its duration, whether finished or not. * Present perfect simple (`have done`) focuses on the completion of the action and its result, or the quantity done. ### 1.5 For and Since * `For` + a period of time (e.g., *two hours, a long time, ten years*). * `Since` + the start of a period (e.g., *8 o’clock, Monday, 2001, lunchtime*). * In negative sentences, `for` is generally required, though `in` can sometimes be used. `For` is not used with `all` (e.g., *all my life*). ### 1.6 `Have` and `Have got` * For possession, relationships, illnesses, and appointments, `have` and `have got` are interchangeable: *They have a new car / They have got a new car.* * In the past, only `had` is used. * Continuous forms are not typically used for these meanings: *We are having a nice room* is incorrect; it should be *We have (got) a nice room.* * For actions or experiences, `have` (not `have got`) is used, and continuous forms are possible: *We’re having a great time.* * Questions can be formed with `do you have` or `have you got`. `Have you` is less common. ### 1.7 `Used to` * **Usage:** * For habits or situations that were true in the past but are no longer true. * **Formation:** * Affirmative: `used to + base verb` (*I used to smoke*). * Question: `Did you use to + base verb` (*Did you use to smoke?*). * Negative: `didn’t use to + base verb` (*I didn’t use to smoke*). * Note: The present form is not `use to`. ### 1.8 Future tenses #### 1.8.1 Present continuous with future meaning * **Usage:** * For decided and arranged plans, especially for social arrangements or meetings. * **Example:** > What is Ben doing next week? He is playing tennis on Monday afternoon. > What time are you meeting Kate tomorrow? * **Distinction from `going to`:** Present continuous implies a firmer arrangement than `going to`. #### 1.8.2 Present simple with future meaning * **Usage:** * For timetables, schedules, and programs (e.g., transport, cinema, meetings). * For people's plans if they are fixed like a timetable. * **Example:** > The train leaves at 11:30. > I start my new job on Monday. #### 1.8.3 `Going to` * **Usage:** * When you have already decided to do something. * To predict something that is going to happen based on present evidence. * **Example:** > Are you going to eat something? She is going to buy a new car. > That man isn’t looking where he’s going. He’s going to walk into the wall. * **`Going to` in the past:** * `Was/were going to` indicates an intention that was not fulfilled: *We were going to travel by train, but decided to drive instead.* * `Was/were going to` can also refer to something that was expected to happen but didn't. #### 1.8.4 `Will` and `Shall` (Future Simple) * **`Will`:** * **Usage:** * When you have just decided to do something (announcing a decision). * Offering to do something (`I'll help you`). * Agreeing to do something (`Yes, I'll give him the book`). * Promising to do something (`I'll pay you back`). * To say what you know or believe about the future (predicting without proof). * To talk about now, predicting a present situation: *Don’t phone Amy. She’ll be busy now.* * **Examples:** > Oh, the door is open. I’ll go and shut it. > Karen believes that he will pass his driving test. * **`Shall`:** * **Usage:** * Mainly in questions: `Shall I...?` / `Shall we...?` to ask for permission or suggestions. * With `I` and `we` to express the future (less common now than `will`). * **Examples:** > Shall I open the window? > I shall be late. (or I'll be late.) * **`Will` vs. `Going to`:** * Both can be used to predict the future. `Will` is often based on general knowledge or belief, while `going to` is often based on present evidence. * `Will` is used for decisions made at the moment of speaking. `Going to` is used for decisions made before speaking. #### 1.8.5 `Will be doing` (Future Continuous) * **Usage:** * To talk about an action that will be in progress at a specific time in the future. * **Example:** > This time next week I’ll be lying on the beach. #### 1.8.6 `Will have done` (Future Perfect) * **Usage:** * To talk about an action that will be completed before a specific time in the future. * **Example:** > By 9 o'clock, she’ll have gone to work. #### 1.8.7 `When`, `If`, and `As soon as` clauses * After `when`, `if`, `while`, `before`, `after`, `as soon as`, and `until`, use the present simple or present perfect, *not* `will`. * `If + present simple + will`: Used for things that might happen. * `When + present simple/perfect + will`: Used for things that are sure to happen. * **Examples:** > I’ll call you when I arrive. (NOT *when I will arrive*) > I’ll call you when I’ve arrived. > If we take the bus, it will be cheaper. > When I go out, I’ll get some bread. ### 1.9 Conditionals and `Wish` #### 1.9.1 `If` clauses (Type 1 and 2) * **Type 1 (Real/Possible conditions):** `If + present simple + will + base verb` * Example: *If we take the bus, it will be cheaper.* * **Type 2 (Unreal/Hypothetical conditions):** `If + past simple + would + base verb` * Example: *If we took the bus, it would be cheaper.* * Used for hypothetical questions: *If there was an election tomorrow, who would you vote for?* * Never say `If I would be you...`; always use `If I were/was you...`. #### 1.9.2 `Would do` vs. `Would have done` * `Would do` is used for hypothetical situations in the present or future. * Example: *If I’d gone to the party last night, I would be tired now.* * `Would have done` is used for hypothetical situations in the past (unreal past). * Example: *If I’d gone to the party last night, I would have met lots of people.* #### 1.9.3 `Could have`, `Might have` * These express possibility in the past. * `could have gone`: we were able to go. * `might have gone`: maybe we would have gone. #### 1.9.4 `Wish` * **`Wish + would + base verb`:** Used to express what you want to happen (often with a sense of impatience or complaint). * Example: *I wish Sarah would come.* * **`Wish + past simple`:** Used to express how you would like things to be (regret about the present). * Example: *I wish I had a car.* * **`Wish + past perfect`:** Used to express regret about something in the past. * Example: *I wish I’d known that Gary was ill.* * Note: Do not say `I wish something happens` or `I wish I would have`. Use `I hope` for future wishes. ### 1.10 Questions within sentences When a question becomes part of a longer sentence (e.g., after `do you know`, `could you tell me`), the word order changes, and `do/does/did` are not used in the question part. * **Example:** > Direct question: What time is it? > In a sentence: Do you know what time it is? > Direct question: Where has Tom gone? > In a sentence: Do you know where Tom has gone? ### 1.11 Auxiliary verbs Auxiliary verbs (`have`, `do`, `can`, etc.) are used to avoid repetition, to form questions, and for negatives. * **`So` and `Neither`:** Used with auxiliary verbs to agree or disagree. * `So + auxiliary verb + subject` for positive agreement (*I am tired. So am I.*). * `Neither + auxiliary verb + subject` for negative agreement (*I never read newspapers. Neither do I.*). * **`I think so`, `I hope so`, etc.:** Used to avoid repeating a statement. * Negative forms include `I don’t think so` and `I hope not`. ### 1.12 Countable and Uncountable Nouns * **Countable nouns:** Have singular and plural forms. Can be used with numbers, `a/an`, `some/any`, `many`, `few`. * Examples: *a song, a beach, songs, beaches*. * **Uncountable nouns:** Have only one form. Cannot be used with numbers or `a/an`. Can be used with `some/any`, `much`, `little`. * Examples: *music, sand, rice, luck*. * **Nouns that can be both:** Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on the context. * Example: `paper` (material) vs. `a paper` (a newspaper); `hair` (material) vs. `a hair` (one single hair). ### 1.13 Articles: `a/an` and `the` * **`a/an`:** Used with singular countable nouns for the first mention or when referring to any one of a group. * **`the`:** Used with singular or plural nouns (countable or uncountable) when the noun is specific or has already been mentioned. * `the` is used with names of oceans, seas, rivers, canals, plural country names (e.g., *the Netherlands*), plural place names (e.g., *the Alps*), compass points. * `the` is generally *not* used with most city streets, roads, squares, parks, most public buildings (airports, stations, universities), most companies, most churches starting with 'St', or names of continents and most countries. * `the` is often used with hotels, theatres, cinemas, museums, and names with `of`. * **`School`, `Hospital`, `Prison`, `Church`:** No `the` when referring to the general concept or purpose (e.g., *going to school as a student, in hospital as a patient*). `The` is used when referring to the specific building or as a visitor. ### 1.14 Noun + Noun Two nouns can be placed together, where the first noun functions like an adjective modifying the second. * **Examples:** *a bus driver, income tax, a television camera, language problems, washing machine, hotel reception desk.* * Sometimes compound nouns are written as one word (*headache, toothpaste*) or two (*car park, road sign*). * The first noun is usually singular, even if the meaning is plural (*a car park* for multiple cars). ### 1.15 Possession: `-'s` and `of` * **`-'s`:** Used mostly for people and animals, and for time-indicating words. * Singular noun: `Tom's computer`. * Plural noun ending in -s: `my sisters' room`. * Plural noun not ending in -s: `children's book`. * **`of`:** Usually used for things and ideas. * Examples: *the temperature of the water, the beginning of the book*. * Both can sometimes be used: *The government's decision* or *the decision of the government*. ### 1.16 Reflective Pronouns * Formed by adding `-self` (singular) or `-selves` (plural) to possessive adjectives or object pronouns. * Used when the subject and object of a verb are the same person or thing. * Not usually used after verbs like `feel`, `relax`, `concentrate`, `meet`, `wash`, `shave`, `dress` when they have a direct object or the meaning is clear. * Can be used for emphasis: *I repaired it myself.* ### 1.17 `Each other` and `One another` * Used to describe a reciprocal action between two or more people. * `Each other` is typically used for two people, while `one another` is used for three or more, though they are often interchangeable. * Reflective pronouns are used when individuals look at themselves (e.g., *They looked at themselves in the mirror*), whereas `each other` refers to looking at the other person(s) (*They looked at each other*). ### 1.18 Possessive Pronouns * `Mine`, `yours`, `his`, `hers`, `ours`, `yours`, `theirs` replace a possessive adjective + noun. * Example: *This book is mine.* ### 1.19 `My own`, `On my own`, `By myself` * `My own`, `your own`, etc., express possession and can be used for emphasis or to highlight independence. * Example: *I want my own room.* * `On my own` and `by myself` both mean `alone`. ### 1.20 `There` and `It` * **`There`:** Used to introduce something for the first time, or to state existence. * Example: *There is a new restaurant in town.* * **`It`:** Used to refer to a specific place, thing, or fact already mentioned or understood. * Example: *I’ve heard it’s very good.* (referring to the restaurant). ### 1.21 `Some` and `Any` * **`Some`:** Used in positive sentences, and in offers and requests. Also used with `somebody`, `someone`, `something`. * **`Any`:** Used in negative sentences and questions. Also used with `anybody`, `anyone`, `anything`. * `Any` can also mean "it doesn't matter which" or be used in conditional clauses (`if`). ### 1.22 `No`, `None`, `Nothing`, `Nobody` * **`No`:** Used before a noun (`no reason`). * **`None`:** Used without a noun (`How much money? None.`). Can be followed by `of + plural noun` (verb can be singular or plural). * **`Nothing`, `Nobody`, `Nowhere`:** Used in affirmative sentences to create a negative meaning. Cannot be used with a negative verb. Equivalent to `didn't + anybody/anything/anywhere`. ### 1.23 `Much`, `Many`, `Little`, `Few`, `A lot of`, `Plenty of` * `Much` and `little` are used with uncountable nouns. * `Many` and `few` are used with plural countable nouns. * `A lot of`, `lots of`, and `plenty of` can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. * `Plenty` means "more than enough". * `Much` is unusual in positive sentences unless with `too much`, `so much`, `as much`. ### 1.24 `All`, `Most`, `No`, `None` * These can be followed by a noun or by `of + pronoun/determiner`. * `All`, `half`, `some`, `most` can also be used without a noun or `of`. ### 1.25 `Both`, `Neither`, `Either` * Used with or without a noun. * `Both... and...`, `Neither... nor...`, `Either... or...` for conjunctions. * `Both of`, `neither of`, `either of` followed by `the/these/my/Tom's...` or `us/you/them`. * Verbs after `neither of` and `either of` can be singular or plural. ### 1.26 `Everybody`, `Everyone`, `Everything` * These are singular words and take singular verbs. * However, `they/them/their` are often used as gender-neutral pronouns after `everybody` and `everyone`. ### 1.27 `Each` and `Every` * **`Each`:** Used when thinking of things separately, one by one. Can be used with or without a noun, or with `of`. Often used for smaller numbers or two items. * **`Every`:** Used when thinking of things as a group (similar to `all`). Always used with a noun (or `one`). Often used for larger numbers or to indicate frequency. * `Each of...` and `every one of...` are common structures. ### 1.28 Relative Clauses * **Clause:** A part of a sentence containing a subject and a verb. * **Relative Clause:** Adds extra information about a noun, specifying which person or thing is meant. * **`who`:** For people (subject or object). * **`that`:** For people or things (subject or object). * **`which`:** For things (subject or object). * **`whose`:** For possession (people or things). * **`whom`:** For people (object of the verb, more formal than `who`). * **`where`:** For places. * **Defining Relative Clauses:** Provide essential information to identify the noun. Cannot be omitted. `that` can often replace `who` or `which`. * **Non-defining Relative Clauses:** Provide extra, non-essential information. Set off by commas. `that` cannot be used. `who` and `which` can be used. * When `who/which/that` is the object of the clause, it can often be omitted. * Prepositions can come before `whom` and `which`. ### 1.29 `-ing` and `-ed` Clauses * **`-ing` clauses:** Have an active meaning, describing what someone/something is doing or happens all the time. * Example: *The woman talking to Tom.* * **`-ed` clauses:** Have a passive meaning, using the past participle. * Example: *The boy injured in the accident.* ### 1.30 Adjectives ending in `-ing` and `-ed` * **`-ing` adjectives:** Describe the thing or person that causes a feeling (e.g., *boring*). * **`-ed` adjectives:** Describe the feeling someone has (e.g., *bored*). ### 1.31 Order of Adjectives Adjectives generally follow a specific order, particularly when mixing opinion and fact adjectives. A common order is: Opinion -> Size -> Age -> Shape -> Colour -> Origin -> Material -> Purpose. * **Example:** *a beautiful large round wooden table*. ### 1.32 Adverbs * **Formation:** Mostly formed by adding `-ly` to an adjective (e.g., `quick` -> `quickly`). Not all words ending in `-ly` are adverbs (e.g., `friendly`). * **Position:** Adverbs often go before the main verb, after the first auxiliary verb, or after the verb `to be`. * **Adjective vs. Adverb:** `Good` is an adjective; `well` is an adverb. `Fast`, `hard`, `late` can be both adjectives and adverbs. `Lately` means recently. `Hardly` means almost not. ### 1.33 Word Order * **Verb + Object:** These usually stay together. * **Place and Time:** Time often comes after place. * **Adverbs with Verbs:** Single-word verbs usually have the adverb before them. With multi-word verbs, the adverb often goes after the first part. `To be` is followed by the adverb. --- # Conditional sentences and wishes Conditional sentences and wishes are grammatical structures used to express hypothetical situations, possibilities, and regrets. They are essential for conveying nuances of meaning related to unreal conditions and desires. ## 2. Conditional sentences Conditional sentences typically consist of two clauses: an **if-clause** (or conditional clause) and a **main clause** (or result clause). ### 2.1 Type 1 conditional sentences Type 1 conditional sentences refer to a real or very probable situation in the future. * **Structure:** If + present simple, will + base form of the verb. * Example: If it rains, we will stay inside. * **Usage:** To talk about something that is possible to happen in the future. * Example: If I have time tomorrow, I will visit the museum. * **Note:** The order of the clauses can be reversed without changing the meaning, but a comma is not used when the 'if'-clause follows the main clause. * Example: We will stay inside if it rains. ### 2.2 Type 2 conditional sentences Type 2 conditional sentences refer to unreal or improbable situations in the present or future. * **Structure:** If + past simple, would + base form of the verb. * Example: If I won a lot of money, I would buy a house. * **Usage:** To discuss hypothetical situations that are unlikely to happen or are contrary to the present reality. * Example: If I didn't want to go, I wouldn't go. * **'If I were' vs. 'If I was':** * In Type 2 conditionals, **'if I were'** is generally considered more formal and grammatically correct when referring to a hypothetical "I" state. * However, **'if I was'** is also commonly used in informal speech and writing. * Example: If I were you, I wouldn't do that. / If I was you, I wouldn't do that. * **'Could' and 'might' instead of 'would':** * In Type 2 conditionals, 'could' or 'might' can be used instead of 'would' in the main clause to express possibility or ability. * Example: If it stopped raining, we could go out. (Expresses possibility/ability) * Example: If I won a lot of money, I might buy a house. (Expresses possibility) * **'If I were you':** This specific phrase is used to give advice. * Example: If I were you, I would apologize. ### 2.3 Type 3 conditional sentences Type 3 conditional sentences refer to unreal situations in the past. They express regret or a different outcome based on a past condition. * **Structure:** If + past perfect simple, would have + past participle. * Example: If I had known you were in the hospital, I would have gone to visit you. * **Usage:** To talk about what might have happened in the past but did not. * Example: If I'd seen you, I would have said hello. * **Note:** The main clause expresses a past result. The 'if'-clause describes a past condition that did not occur. * **'Would have', 'could have', 'might have':** * **Would have:** Indicates a certain past result if the condition had been met. * Example: If I had gone to the party last night, I would have met lots of people. (Talking about the past) * **Could have:** Indicates a past possibility or ability if the condition had been met. * Example: We could have gone out if it had stopped raining. * **Might have:** Indicates a past possibility if the condition had been met. * Example: If I had known, I might have acted differently. ## 3. Wishes Wishes are used to express regret about the present, past, or to state a desire for something to happen. ### 3.1 Wishing about the present To express a wish about the present, we use 'wish' followed by the past simple. This implies that the current situation is not as desired. * **Structure:** I wish + past simple. * Example: I wish I knew Paul’s phone number. (Implying I don't know it now and want to.) * Example: I wish there weren’t so many people. (Implying there are too many people now.) * **Usage:** To express a desire for a present situation to be different. * Example: Do you ever wish you could fly? * **Note:** Never say 'I wish she would...' for present desires; use 'I wish she was/were...' for a state or 'I wish she would...' for a future action (see below). ### 3.2 Wishing about the past To express regret or a wish about something that happened or did not happen in the past, we use 'wish' followed by the past perfect simple. * **Structure:** I wish + past perfect simple. * Example: I wish I’d known that Gary was ill. (Implying I didn't know and regret it.) * Example: I wish I hadn’t eaten so much. (Implying I ate too much and regret it.) * **Usage:** To express regret for past actions or events. * Example: I wish I had known you were sick, I would have come over. ### 3.3 Wishing for future actions or change To express a desire for a future action or for a change in someone else's behavior, we use 'wish' followed by 'would' + base form of the verb. This often carries a sense of impatience or complaint. * **Structure:** I wish + would + base form of the verb. * Example: I wish it would stop raining. (We want it to stop now.) * Example: I wish you wouldn’t keep interrupting me. (Complaining about the interruption.) * **Usage:** To express a desire for something to happen or for someone to change their behavior, often with an element of frustration. ### 3.4 Wishing someone luck When wishing someone well, we use 'hope' rather than 'wish'. * **Correct:** I hope you feel better soon. * **Incorrect:** I wish you feel better soon. ### 3.5 Using 'wish' with 'was'/'were' for a desired state When expressing a desire for a current situation to be different, particularly about a state of being, 'wish' is followed by 'was' or 'were'. * **Structure:** I wish + was/were. * Example: I wish Sarah was here. (Expressing a desire for her presence now.) * Example: I wish I had a car. (Expressing a desire for ownership now.) * **Note:** This is distinct from 'wish + would' which refers to an action or behavior. --- # Questions and reported speech This section explores the mechanics of question formation and how they transform within indirect speech, alongside the crucial concept of verb tense shifts in reported speech. ## 3. Questions and reported speech ### 3.1 Question word order and indirect questions When a question is embedded within a longer sentence, such as after verbs like "know," "tell," or "ask," the word order changes from direct question form to statement form. This means the auxiliary verb (like *do*, *does*, *did*) used for direct questions is removed, and the subject typically comes before the main verb. * **Direct Question:** Where has Tom gone? * **Indirect Question:** Do you know **where Tom has gone**? Similarly, when forming an indirect question, the subject usually precedes the verb, and the structure reverts to that of a statement. * **Direct Question:** What time do the shops close? * **Indirect Question:** Claire wanted to know **what time the shops closed**. > **Tip:** Remember that with indirect questions, you are essentially reporting a question as a statement. This is why the word order shifts. ### 3.2 Reported speech and verb tense shifts A fundamental principle of reported speech is that verbs generally shift one tense back in time. This means that the tense used in the original direct statement or question is converted to its past equivalent in the reported version. * **Present Simple** in direct speech becomes **Past Simple** in reported speech. * Direct: "I **am** tired." * Reported: She said she **was** tired. * **Present Continuous** in direct speech becomes **Past Continuous** in reported speech. * Direct: "Where **are** you going?" * Reported: The Police officer asked us where we **were** going. * **Past Simple** in direct speech becomes **Past Perfect Simple** in reported speech. * Direct: "The shops **close** at 5 PM." * Reported: Claire wanted to know what time the shops **closed**. (Note: While "close" is present simple, the shift occurs to past simple when the reporting verb is in the past, e.g., "wanted to know.") * Direct: "He **left** soon afterwards." * Reported: He said he **had left** soon afterwards. * **Present Perfect Simple** in direct speech becomes **Past Perfect Simple** in reported speech. * Direct: "I **have just had** lunch." * Reported: He said he **had just had** lunch. * **Present Perfect Continuous** in direct speech becomes **Past Perfect Continuous** in reported speech. * Direct: "I **have been waiting** for 20 minutes." * Reported: He explained that he **had been waiting** for 20 minutes. * **Past Continuous** in direct speech becomes **Past Perfect Continuous** in reported speech. * Direct: "We **were having** dinner." * Reported: They said they **had been having** dinner. * **Modal Verbs:** * *Will* becomes *would*. * Direct: "I **will** help you." * Reported: He said he **would** help me. * *Can* becomes *could*. * Direct: "I **can** swim." * Reported: She said she **could** swim. * *May* becomes *might*. * Direct: "It **may** rain." * Reported: He said it **might** rain. * *Must* often remains *must* or becomes *had to*. * Direct: "You **must** be quiet." * Reported: The teacher said we **had to** be quiet. > **Tip:** The reporting verb (e.g., *said*, *asked*, *wanted to know*) often dictates the tense shift. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense shift usually occurs. If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tense generally remains the same. ### 3.3 Auxiliary verbs in short answers and confirmations Auxiliary verbs (*do*, *does*, *did*, *have*, *has*, *had*, *can*, *could*, *will*, *would*, etc.) are crucial for forming short answers and confirmations, avoiding repetition. * **Confirmations and Short Answers:** * "I am tired." - "Yes, I **am**." (using the auxiliary verb *am*) * "I can't drive." - "No, I **can't**." (using the auxiliary verb *can't*) * "He has gone." - "Yes, he **has**." (using the auxiliary verb *has*) * **Using *Do/Does/Did* for Present Simple and Past Simple:** * "I like coffee." - "So **do** I." * "She doesn't read newspapers." - "Neither **do** I." * "Sarah can't drive." - "And neither **can** Mark." * **Using *So* and *Neither/Nor*:** These structures are used to agree with a previous statement or to indicate that a negative statement also applies to the speaker. * Affirmative agreement: "I am tired." - "So **am** I." * Negative agreement: "I never read newspapers." - "Neither **do** I." or "Nor **do** I." * "Sarah can't drive." - "And neither **can** Mark." * **Confirmations with *I think so*, *I hope so*, etc.:** These phrases are used to confirm something without repeating the entire statement. * Affirmative: * "Will it rain?" - "I **think so**." * "Will she come?" - "I **hope so**." * Negative: * "I don't think so." * "I hope not." > **Tip:** Pay close attention to the tense of the auxiliary verb used in the original statement or question, as this will determine the auxiliary verb used in the short answer or confirmation. --- # Articles and determiners This section details the usage of articles and determiners, focusing on the articles 'a', 'an', and 'the', and the determiners 'some' and 'any'. ### 4.1 Articles: 'a', 'an', and 'the' #### 4.1.1 General use of 'a' and 'an' * **'A' and 'an'** are used with singular countable nouns when the noun is not specific and the listener/reader does not know which one you are talking about. * **'A'** is used before words that start with a consonant sound (e.g., a book, a university - "university" starts with a /j/ sound). * **'An'** is used before words that start with a vowel sound (e.g., an apple, an hour - "hour" starts with a vowel sound). #### 4.1.2 Using 'the' **'The'** is used in the following situations: * **Specific places or concepts:** When referring to a specific place or a general concept that is understood by both the speaker and listener. * **Example:** "Ellie goes to school every day." (General concept of being a student). * **Example:** "Ellie's mother went to the school to speak to her daughter's teacher." (Specific school building). * **Example:** We do not use 'the' for university or college when going as a student, or for hospital as a patient, or for prison when being incarcerated. We do use 'the' for these places when visiting or for a specific building. * **Unique entities:** For things that are unique or only one of their kind, such as the sun, the moon, the earth, the internet. * **Superlatives:** Before superlative adjectives (e.g., the tallest, the most interesting). * **Repetition:** When a person or thing has already been mentioned. * **Specific groups:** To refer to a specific group of people or things. #### 4.1.3 'The' with institutions and places * **No 'the'**: * Most city streets, roads, squares, and parks (e.g., Union Street, Abbey Road, Times Square). * Most public buildings and institutions like airports, stations, and universities (e.g., Manchester Airport, Harvard University, Buckingham Palace). * Churches beginning with 'St' (e.g., St John's Church). * Names of companies (e.g., Sony). * **With 'the'**: * Hotels, theatres, cinemas, museums (e.g., the Sheraton Hotel, the Palace Theatre, the Guggenheim Museum, the White House). * Names that include 'of' (e.g., the Bank of England, the Tower of London). * Most newspapers and organizations (e.g., The Washington Post). #### 4.1.4 'The' with names * **Countries**: Generally, no 'the' is used for country names (e.g., Japan, Belgium), unless the name includes words like "Republic" or "States" (e.g., the Czech Republic, the USA). * **People's names**: No 'the' is used before titles like Mr, Mrs, Captain, Doctor, President, when referring to individuals by their name. However, 'the' can be used when referring to a professional role impersonally, e.g., "We called the doctor." * **Geographical features**: 'The' is used before names of oceans, seas, rivers, canals (e.g., the Atlantic Ocean, the Nile, the Suez Canal). * **Plural names**: 'The' is used before plural names of people (families), countries, groups of islands, and mountain ranges (e.g., the Taylors, the Netherlands, the Philippines, the Alps). * **Compass points**: 'The' is used before compass points (e.g., the north of Brasil). #### 4.1.5 Singular and plural nouns with articles * **Singular countable nouns** cannot be used alone without an article (a/an, the) or another determiner (my, your, etc.). * **Plural countable nouns** can be used with 'some' or 'any', or without an article if referring to things in general. * **Uncountable nouns** have only one form and cannot be used with 'a/an' or numbers. They are used with 'some', 'any', 'much', or 'little'. #### 4.1.6 Nouns that can be countable or uncountable Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, depending on the context: * **Example:** * "a noise" (specific sound) vs. "noise" (general sound). * "a paper" (a newspaper) vs. "paper" (material). * "a hair" (one strand) vs. "hair" (all the hair on a head). * "a coffee" (a cup of coffee) vs. "coffee" (the drink in general). #### 4.1.7 Nouns with two parts and plural forms Nouns that have "two parts" are treated as plural and take a plural verb, even if they refer to a single item. * **Examples:** trousers, jeans, shorts, pants, pyjamas, glasses, binoculars, scissors. * **Note:** "a pair of..." is singular (e.g., "a pair of jeans"). #### 4.1.8 Nouns ending in -ics Nouns ending in '-ics' (like economics, mathematics, athletics) are generally not plural and take a singular verb. * **Example:** "Mathematics is my favourite subject." #### 4.1.9 Nouns ending in -s (singular or plural) Some words ending in '-s' have the same form for singular and plural. * **Example:** "sheep," "fish." * **Groups of people/things:** Collective nouns like 'audience,' 'committee,' 'company,' 'family,' 'government,' 'staff,' 'team,' and 'the police' can take a singular or plural verb. The plural verb is often used, especially in British English, to emphasize the individuals within the group. * **Example:** "The government have decided to..." or "The staff are not happy..." * **Periods of time, sums of money, distances:** These are often treated as a single unit and take a singular verb. * **Example:** "Three years is a long time." "Fifty thousand pounds was stolen." #### 4.1.10 Noun + noun compounds Two nouns can be combined to form a compound noun, where the first noun acts as an adjective. * **Examples:** a bus driver, income tax, city centre. * The first noun is usually singular, even if the meaning is plural. * **Example:** "a car park" (for multiple cars), "an apple tree" (with many apples). * Hyphenated compounds are used for time, money, or distance measurements. * **Example:** a three-hour journey, a ten-pound note, a six-mile walk. ### 4.2 Determiners: 'some' and 'any' #### 4.2.1 General usage * **'Some'** is generally used in positive sentences, offering, and requests. * **Example:** "I bought some flowers." "Would you like some tea?" "Can I have some water?" * **'Any'** is generally used in negative sentences and questions. * **Example:** "I didn't buy any flowers." "Did you buy any apples?" * **'Some' and 'any'** can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns. #### 4.2.2 'Any' in positive sentences 'Any' can be used in positive sentences to mean "it doesn't matter which" or "no matter how much/many." * **Example:** "You can come any time." "Take any book you like." * 'Any' is also used in sentences with negative meaning, even if they are grammatically positive. * **Example:** "She went out without any money." (Negative meaning). * "Hardly anybody fails." (Hardly indicates a negative meaning). * 'Any' is used in conditional clauses (if). * **Example:** "Let me know if you need anything." #### 4.2.3 'Somebody', 'someone', 'anybody', 'anyone' * These are singular words and take singular verbs. * **Example:** "Someone is here to see you." "Has anybody called?" * 'Somebody/someone' are generally used in positive sentences, while 'anybody/anyone' are used in negative sentences and questions. #### 4.2.4 'No' and 'None' * **'No'** is used before a noun. * **Example:** "There was no bus." "No reason was given." * **'None'** is used without a noun, often as a pronoun. It can also be used with "of." * **Example:** "How much money do you have?" "None." "None of it is mine." * When using "none of" followed by a plural noun, the verb can be singular or plural. * **Example:** "None of the students were happy." or "None of the students was happy." #### 4.2.5 'Nothing', 'Nobody'/'No-one', 'Nowhere' * These words are used at the beginning of a sentence or alone. * **Example:** "Nobody knows." "What happened?" "Nothing." * These words are often placed after the verb "to be." * You cannot use a negative verb with these words; they already carry the negative meaning. * **Incorrect:** "I didn't say nothing." * **Correct:** "I said nothing." or "I didn't say anything." * After 'nobody'/'no-one', 'they/them/their' can be used. * **Example:** "Nobody did their homework." #### 4.2.6 'Much', 'Many', 'Little', 'Few', 'A lot of', 'Plenty of' * **Much and Little:** Used with uncountable nouns. * "Much" is unusual in positive sentences but common in negative ones or with 'too', 'so', 'as'. * **Example:** "We didn't spend much money." "We spent too much money." * "Little" means "not much." * **Example:** "I have little work to do." * **Many and Few:** Used with countable plural nouns. * "Many" can be used in all sentence types. * "Few" means "not many." * **Example:** "We didn't take many pictures." "I have a few things to do." * **A lot of, Lots of, Plenty of:** Used with both countable and uncountable nouns. * "Plenty of" means "more than enough." #### 4.2.7 'All', 'Most', 'Some', 'Any', 'No' with nouns and 'of' * These determiners can be used directly with a noun or with "of" followed by a noun (or pronoun like 'it', 'us', 'them'). * **Example:** "All cars have wheels." vs. "All of the cars had wheels." * **Example:** "Some of the people I work with are..." * 'All', 'half', 'some', 'most' can also be used without a noun or 'of'. * **Example:** "Some cars have four doors, and some have two." #### 4.2.8 'Both', 'Neither', 'Either' * These determiners can be used with or without a noun. * **With a noun:** "Both restaurants are good." * **Without a noun:** "I like both." * They can be used with "of" followed by "these," "those," "my," "Tom's," etc., or 'us', 'you', 'them'. * **Example:** "Both of these are good." "Neither of Tom's coworkers is nice." * The verb following "neither of" can be singular or plural. * **Example:** "Neither of them is home," or "Neither of them are home." * "Both" can be used without "of" when referring to two specific things already mentioned. * **Example:** "Both these restaurants are good." * **Comparison:** * "Both...and..." joins two elements. * "Neither...nor..." negates two elements. * "Either...or..." offers a choice between two elements. * **Distinction from 'any', 'none', 'all':** 'Both/neither/either of' refer to specific pairs, whereas 'any/none/all of' refer to a larger group. #### 4.2.9 'All', 'Every', 'Whole' * **'Everybody', 'Everyone', 'Everything'**: These are singular words and take singular verbs, but 'they/them/their' are often used as pronouns. * **Example:** "Everybody said they enjoyed themselves." * **'All'**: Used alone, it often refers to "all the things" previously mentioned. It's less common to use "all" alone compared to "everybody/everything." * **Example:** "All about it." "All my friends..." * **'Whole'**: Means "complete" or "entire" and is usually used with singular nouns. It is not typically used with uncountable nouns. * **Example:** "The whole book was interesting." * **'All'** is used with uncountable nouns: * **Example:** "Did you spend all the money?" #### 4.2.10 'Each' and 'Every' * **'Each'**: Refers to things or people separately, one by one. It can be used with or without a noun, and can be used for two or more items. It can also be used in the middle of a sentence or after a price. * **Example:** "Each sentence is different." "Each of the books was unique." "The students were each given a book." "A dollar each." * **'Every'**: Refers to things or people as a group, similar to "all." It is used with a noun and is more common for larger numbers. It can also indicate frequency. * **Example:** "Every window was open." "I use my car every day." * **'Every one'**: Used to refer to all members of a group, often following "all these books." * **Example:** "Have you read all these books? Yes, every one." ### 4.3 Articles and determiners in specific contexts #### 4.3.1 Noun + noun vs. of + noun * **Noun + noun**: Used to specify something related to the first noun. * **Example:** "a bus driver," "income tax," "a television camera." * **'Of'**: Usually used for things or ideas. * **Example:** "The temperature of the water," "the owner of the restaurant." * Sometimes both can be used, e.g., "the government's decision" or "the decision of the government." #### 4.3.2 Possessive forms: -'s and of * **'s**: Used mostly for people or animals, and for time-indicating words and places. * **Singular noun:** 's (e.g., Tom's computer). * **Plural noun ending in -s:** + ' (e.g., my sisters' room). * **Plural noun not ending in -s:** 's (e.g., children's book). * **Of**: Usually used for things or ideas. * **Example:** "the beginning of the book," "the top of the table." #### 4.3.3 Reflective pronouns: -self/-selves * **Singular:** myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself. * **Plural:** ourselves, yourselves, themselves. * Used when the subject and object of a verb are the same person or thing. * **Emphasis:** Can be used to emphasize the subject. * **Example:** "I repaired it myself." * **Not used after certain verbs:** feel, relax, concentrate, meet, wash, shave, dress (unless emphasizing). #### 4.3.4 'Each other' vs. 'Themselves' * **'Themselves'**: Refers back to the subject when the subject is plural, indicating reciprocal action upon themselves. * **Example:** "Kate and Joe looked at themselves (Kate looked at Kate, Joe looked at Joe)." * **'Each other' / 'One another'**: Used to indicate reciprocal action between two or more people. * **Example:** "Kate looked at Joe, and Joe looked at Kate. They looked at each other." #### 4.3.5 Possessive pronouns and determiners * Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. * Possessive determiners: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their. * **'A friend of mine'**: Expresses possession. * **'My own', 'Your own'**: Used for possession or emphasis, meaning "belonging to oneself." * **Example:** "I want my own room." "He cut his own hair." * **'On my own' / 'By myself'**: Both mean "alone." #### 4.3.6 'There' vs. 'It' * **'There'**: Used to introduce something for the first time, indicating existence. * **Example:** "There is a new restaurant in town." * **'It'**: Used to refer to a specific place, thing, or fact already mentioned. * **Example:** "I've heard it's very good." (referring to the restaurant). * **Example:** "There used to be a cinema here. It used to be a supermarket." #### 4.3.7 'All', 'Half', 'Some', 'Most', 'Any', 'Few', 'Little', 'Much', 'Many', 'No' These determiners quantify nouns and can be used with or without a noun, or followed by 'of'. * **With noun:** "All cars," "some money." * **With 'of' + noun/pronoun:** "All of the cars," "some of us." * **Without noun/of:** "Some cars have four doors, and some have two." #### 4.3.8 'Both', 'Neither', 'Either' with 'of' * Used with "of" followed by a determiner (the, these, my, Tom's) and a noun or pronoun (us, you, them). * **Example:** "Both of these are good." "Neither of them is home." "Either of you can come." #### 4.3.9 'Whole' vs. 'All' * **'Whole'**: Means complete or entire, typically used with singular nouns. * **Example:** "The whole book was fascinating." * **'All'**: Used with uncountable nouns and can refer to quantity or extent. * **Example:** "Did you read all the book?" (This usage is less common than with countable nouns). #### 4.3.10 'Each' vs. 'Every' * **'Each'**: Refers to individuals in a group separately. Can be used with or without a noun, and for two or more items. * **Example:** "Each student received a book." "Each of them was unique." * **'Every'**: Refers to all members of a group collectively. It is used with a noun and often implies a larger number. * **Example:** "Every student passed the exam." "Every window was open." * **'Each one' vs. 'Every one'**: 'Each one' is similar to 'each'. 'Every one' often follows a quantifier and refers to all individuals in a set. * **Example:** "Every one of those shirts is on sale." ### 4.4 Summary of Determiner Usage | Determiner | Countable (Singular) | Countable (Plural) | Uncountable | Notes | | :--------- | :------------------- | :----------------- | :---------- | :----------------------------------------- | | **a/an** | ✓ (general) | ✗ | ✗ | Consonant/vowel sound. | | **the** | ✓ (specific) | ✓ (specific) | ✓ (specific)| Unique, mentioned, superlative, general. | | **some** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | Positive sentences, offers, requests. | | **any** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | Negative sentences, questions, conditionals.| | **no** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | Used before a noun. | | **none** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | Used alone or with 'of'. | | **much** | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | Negative, questions, 'too much'. | | **many** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | All sentence types. | | **little** | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | Not much. | | **few** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Not many. | | **a little**| ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | Some, a small amount. | | **a few** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Some, a small number. | | **all** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | With or without noun/of. | | **most** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | With or without noun/of. | | **both** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Refers to two. With or without noun/of. | | **neither**| ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Refers to two (negative). With or without noun/of. | | **either** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Refers to two (choice). With or without noun/of. | | **every** | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | Used with a noun. | | **each** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | With or without a noun. Refers individually.| | **whole** | ✓ (singular) | ✗ | ✗ | Complete, entire. | --- # Noun structures and possessives This section focuses on how nouns can be combined, how possession is indicated, and the formation of plural nouns in English. ### 5.1 Noun + noun structures Two nouns can be combined to form a single concept, where the first noun acts like an adjective, modifying the second noun. This creates a compound noun or a noun phrase where the initial noun provides more specific information. * **Structure:** The first noun describes the type or purpose of the second noun. * **Singular first noun:** Even if the first noun has a plural meaning, it is typically singular when used in this structure. * **Example:** `a car park` (for multiple cars), `an apple tree` (with many apples). * **Compound words:** Some noun + noun combinations are written as a single word (e.g., `a headache`, `toothpaste`), while others are written as two separate words (e.g., `a car park`, `a road sign`). * **Phrases with numbers:** When combining numbers with units of time, money, or distance to form adjectives, a hyphen is used, and the number-unit combination is singular. * **Example:** `a three-hour journey`, `a ten-pound note`, `a four-week course`, `a six-mile walk`. * **Contrast:** For two or more such units acting as adjectives for a noun, they are not pluralized: `two 14-year-old girls`. ### 5.2 Plural noun forms English has regular and irregular ways of forming plurals, with specific rules for nouns ending in -s or -ics. #### 5.2.1 Nouns with two parts Some nouns consist of "two parts" and are treated as plural, even if they refer to a single item. These nouns take a plural verb. * **Examples:** `trousers`, `jeans`, `shorts`, `pants`, `pyjamas`, `glasses`, `binoculars`, `scissors`. * **Verb agreement:** `My trousers are too long.` * **"A pair of..." structure:** When used with `a pair of`, these nouns become singular. * **Example:** `a pair of jeans`, `a pair of glasses`. #### 5.2.2 Nouns ending in -ics Nouns ending in `-ics` (e.g., `economics`, `athletics`, `mathematics`, `maths`, `gymnastics`) are generally not plural, even though they end in -s. They take a singular verb. * **Example:** `Gymnastics is my favourite sport.` #### 5.2.3 Nouns ending in -s (singular and plural) Some nouns end in -s but can be either singular or plural, maintaining the same form for both. * **Singular nouns with a plural verb:** In certain cases, particularly with collective nouns or groups, a singular noun ending in -s can take a plural verb. * **Examples:** `audience`, `committee`, `company`, `family`, `firm`, `government`, `staff`, `team`, `the police`. * **Usage:** `The government have decided to...` or `The staff are not happy with their working conditions.` * **Note:** It is also possible to use a singular verb (e.g., `The government wants`), but the plural verb is common. Company and sports team names can also take plural verbs (e.g., `Shell have increased...`, `Italy are playing...`). * **Periods of time, sums of money, distances:** These are often treated as a single unit and take a singular verb. * **Example:** `Three years is a long time.`, `Fifty thousand pounds was stolen.`, `Two miles isn’t far to walk.` ### 5.3 Noun + noun structures Two nouns can be used together to create a compound noun or a phrase where the first noun modifies the second. The first noun often acts like an adjective. * **Function:** The first noun specifies the type or purpose of the second noun. * **Examples:** `a bus driver`, `income tax`, `the city centre`, `a television camera`, `language problems`, `marriage problems`, `health problems`, `a frying pan`, `a washing machine`. * **Multiple nouns:** Sometimes, more than two nouns can be combined (e.g., `hotel reception desk`). * **Singular form of the first noun:** The first noun is usually singular, even if the overall meaning is plural. * **Example:** `a car park` (for multiple cars), `an apple tree` (with many apples). * **Phrases with numbers:** When numbers are combined with units of time, money, or distance to form compound adjectives, they are hyphenated and singular. * **Examples:** `a three-hour journey`, `a ten-pound note`, `a four-week course`, `a six-mile walk`. * **Note:** The unit is not pluralized: `two 14-year-old girls`. ### 5.4 Possessives Possession can be indicated using the apostrophe 's (`'s`) or the preposition `of`. #### 5.4.1 Possessives with 's The apostrophe 's (`'s`) is primarily used for people and animals. * **Usage:** `Tom's computer`, `the cat's tail`. * **Omission of the noun:** The possessive can be used without the following noun if it is understood from context. * **Example:** `This isn’t my book, it’s my sister’s.` * **Singular nouns:** Add `'s`. * **Example:** `my sister's book`. * **Plural nouns ending in -s:** Add only an apostrophe (`'`). * **Example:** `my sisters’ room` (if there are two or more sisters). * **Plural nouns not ending in -s:** Add `'s`. * **Example:** `a children's book`. * **Joint possession:** For two or more nouns that share possession, add `'s` to the last noun. * **Example:** `Jack and Karen’s children.` * **Time-indicating words:** `a week's holiday`, `a ten minutes' walk`. #### 5.4.2 Possessives with 'of' The preposition `of` is typically used for things or ideas. * **Usage:** `the temperature of the water`, `the owner of the restaurant`. * **Common phrases:** `the beginning of`, `the middle of`, `the end of`, `the top of`, `the bottom of`, `the front/back/side of`. #### 5.4.3 's vs. of Sometimes, both `of` and `'s` can be used, though there might be a slight difference in emphasis or common usage. * **Example:** `The government's decision` or `the decision of the government`. ### 5.5 Nouns acting as adjectives (Noun + Noun structures) In noun + noun structures, the first noun functions like an adjective, describing the second noun. This forms a single conceptual unit. * **Examples:** `a bus driver`, `income tax`, `the city centre`, `a television camera`, `language problems`, `marriage problems`, `health problems`. * **Hyphenated compounds:** Some combinations are written as one word (e.g., `headache`), others as two (e.g., `car park`). * **Phrases with numbers:** When combining numbers with units of time, money, or distance to form adjectives, use a hyphen and the singular form of the unit. * **Examples:** `a three-hour journey`, `a ten-pound note`, `a four-week course`, `a six-mile walk`. * **Note:** `two 14-year-old girls`. The unit is not pluralized. --- # Adjectives and adverbs Adjectives modify nouns, providing descriptive information, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, indicating how, when, where, or to what extent an action is performed. ### 100.1 Formation of adverbs Adverbs are most commonly formed by adding "-ly" to an adjective. * **Examples:** * *quick* (adjective) + *ly* $\rightarrow$ *quickly* (adverb) * *careful* (adjective) + *ly* $\rightarrow$ *carefully* (adverb) * *heavy* (adjective) + *ly* $\rightarrow$ *heavily* (adverb) **Tip:** Not all words ending in "-ly" are adverbs; some are adjectives, such as *friendly, lively, elderly, lonely, lovely*. These adjectives describe nouns. For instance, "He smiled in a friendly way" uses "friendly" as an adjective modifying "way." ### 100.2 Adjective or adverb The distinction between adjectives and adverbs lies in what they modify. Adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs modify verbs, other adverbs, or adjectives. * **Adjective Usage:** After certain verbs like *to be, feel, look, sound*, an adjective is used to describe the subject. * **Examples:** * "Please be *quiet*." (quiet describes "you") * "My exams were really *bad*." (bad describes "exams") * "Why do you always look so *serious*?" (serious describes "you") * "I feel *happy*." (happy describes "I") * **Adverb Usage:** Adverbs modify verbs or describe adjectives. * **Examples:** * "Please speak *quietly*." (quietly describes how one speaks) * "I did really *badly* in the exam." (badly describes how one performed) * "Why do you never take my *seriously*?" (seriously describes how one takes something) * "The children were playing *happily*." (happily describes how the children were playing) ### 101. Adjectives and adverbs (2) Some common words function as both adjectives and adverbs, and some words ending in "-ly" have specific adverbial meanings. #### 101.1 Good and well * **Good** is an adjective: It describes nouns. * **Example:** "Darren is a *fast* runner." (fast describes the noun "runner") * **Well** is primarily an adverb: It modifies verbs. * **Example:** "Darren can run *fast*." (fast modifies the verb "run") * **Exception:** "Well" can be used as an adjective when it means "in good health." * **Example:** "How are you today?" "I'm very *well*, thank you." * **Usage with past participles:** "Well" is also used with past participles to form compound adjectives. * **Examples:** *well-known, well-educated, well-paid, well-behaved*. #### 101.2 Fast, hard, and late These words can function as both adjectives and adverbs without changing form. * **Fast:** * **Adjective:** "It's *hard* to find a job right now." (hard describes the state of finding a job) * **Adverb:** "Kate works *hard*." (hard modifies the verb "works") * **Late:** * **Adjective:** "Sorry I'm *late*." (late describes the subject) * **Adverb:** "I got up *late*." (late modifies the verb "got up") #### 101.3 Hardly * **Hardly** is an adverb that means "very little" or "almost not." * **Examples:** * "Sarah was very rude; she *hardly* spoke to me." * "We *hardly* know each other." * **Position:** "Hardly" typically goes before the main verb. * **Example:** "We *hardly* know each other." * **Usage with "any," "anybody," "anyone":** "Hardly" can be used with these words. * **Example:** "There's *hardly* any milk left." * **Meaning "certainly not":** * **Example:** "That's *hardly* surprising." ### 100.3 Word order with adverbs The position of adverbs in a sentence can affect meaning and emphasis. * **Verb + Object + Place + Time:** This is a common order for sentence elements. * **Example:** "Ben walks *to work* (place) *every morning* (time)." * **Adverbs with verbs:** * **Before the verb (single-word verbs):** If the verb is a single word, the adverb usually comes before it. * **Example:** "Laura *hardly ever* watches TV." * **After the verb ("to be"):** If the verb is "to be," the adverb generally follows it. * **Example:** "You're *always* late." * **After the first auxiliary verb (multi-word verbs):** With verbs of two or more words, the adverb typically follows the first auxiliary verb. * **Example:** "I *can never* remember." * **"Probably" with negative verbs:** When "probably" is used with a negative verb, the structure is usually verb + "probably." * **Example:** "I'll *probably not* see you." (not "I won't probably see you.") * **Adverbials of Manner, Place, and Time (MPT):** The general order for adverbials is Manner, then Place, then Time. * **Example:** "I saw him *in the pub* (place) *yesterday* (time)." * **Example:** "I saw him sitting *quietly* (manner) *on the stairs* (place) *that morning* (time)." * **Two similar adverbials:** The more specific adverbial usually comes first. * **Example:** "*On the table* (more specific) *in the kitchen*." ### 98. Adjectives ending in -ing and -ed Many adjectives describe feelings or characteristics and are formed from verbs, ending in either "-ing" or "-ed." * **-ing adjectives:** Describe the thing or person that causes the feeling. * **Example:** "My job is *boring*." (The job causes boredom.) * **-ed adjectives:** Describe the feeling that someone experiences. * **Example:** "I'm *bored* with my job." (This describes how the speaker feels.) ### 99. Adjectives: order of adjectives When multiple adjectives are used before a noun, they generally follow a specific order. * **General Order:** Opinion adjectives usually come before fact adjectives. * **Opinion:** *nice, beautiful* * **Fact:** *new, large, round, wooden* * **Order of Fact Adjectives:** The typical order for fact adjectives is: 1. Size/Length 2. Shape/Width 3. Age 4. Color 5. Origin 6. Material 7. Purpose * **Examples:** * "My brother lives in a *nice new* house." (opinion + age) * "I have a *beautiful large round wooden* table." (opinion + size + shape + material) * "a *small black plastic* bag" (size + color + material) * "an *old white cotton* shirt" (age + color + material) * **Size and Length vs. Shape and Width:** Adjectives of size and length (e.g., *big, small, tall, long*) usually precede adjectives of shape and width (e.g., *round, fat, thin, slim*). * **Example:** "a *large round* table." * **Multiple Colors:** When there are multiple colors, they are usually connected by "and." * **Example:** "a *black and white* dress." * **Time Indications:** Certain time-related adjective phrases have a fixed order. * **Examples:** "the *first two days*," "the *next few weeks*," "the *last ten minutes*." (Incorrect: "two first days," "few next weeks," "ten last minutes.") ### 101. Adjectives and adverbs (continued) #### 101.4 Fast, hard, and late (revisited) As mentioned, *fast, hard*, and *late* can be both adjectives and adverbs. * **Fast:** * **Adjective:** "Darren is a *fast* runner." * **Adverb:** "Darren can run *fast*." * **Hard:** * **Adjective:** "It's *hard* to find a job right now." * **Adverb:** "Kate works *hard*." * **Late:** * **Adjective:** "Sorry I'm *late*." * **Adverb:** "I got up *late*." #### 101.5 Lately * **Lately** is an adverb that specifically means "recently." It is not to be confused with "late." * **Example:** "Have you seen Sarah *lately*?" ### Comparative and Superlative Forms While not explicitly detailed on pages 98-101, comparative and superlative forms are a standard aspect of adjectives and adverbs. * **Comparative:** Used to compare two things (e.g., *faster, more beautiful*). * **Superlative:** Used to compare three or more things, identifying the extreme (e.g., *fastest, most beautiful*). > **Tip:** The formation of comparative and superlative forms depends on the length and structure of the adjective or adverb (e.g., adding "-er/-est," using "more/most," or irregular forms). ### Adjectives that look like adverbs Some words are adjectives but have a form that resembles an adverb (ending in "-ly"). These adjectives describe nouns. * **Examples:** * *Friendly* (adjective): "The *friendly* man smiled." * *Cowardly* (adjective): "He behaved in a *cowardly* manner." * *Silly* (adjective) * *Lively* (adjective) If you want to describe how someone performs an action using these words, you need to use an adverbial phrase. * **Example:** Instead of "He laughed friendly," use "He laughed *in a friendly way*." ### Adverbials An adverbial is a word, phrase, or clause that functions like an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb. * **Adverbials of Manner:** Describe how an action is done (e.g., *quietly, beautifully*). * **Adverbials of Place:** Indicate where an action occurs (e.g., *in the pub, on the stairs*). * **Adverbials of Time:** Specify when an action happens (e.g., *yesterday, that morning*). ### Notes on Usage and Word Order * **Verb + Object:** Verbs and their direct objects typically stay together. * **Example:** "I *like my job* very much." * **Verb + Object + Place:** The adverbial of place often follows the object. * **Example:** "We *took the children* (object) *to the zoo* (place)." * **Verb + Place + Time:** When both place and time are present, place usually precedes time. * **Example:** "Ben walks *to work* (place) *every morning* (time)." * **Adverbial placement with verbs:** * **Single verb:** Adverb usually before the verb. * **"To be" verb:** Adverb usually after the verb. * **Multi-word verbs:** Adverb usually after the first auxiliary verb. * **"Probably" with negatives:** Verb first, then "probably." This summary covers the key aspects of adjectives and adverbs presented on pages 98-101, focusing on their formation, usage, order, and common points of confusion. --- # Relative clauses Relative clauses provide additional information about a noun, specifying which person or thing is being referred to. ### 7.1 Formation and use of relative pronouns Relative clauses are formed using relative pronouns such as 'who', 'that', 'which', 'whose', and 'where'. The choice of pronoun depends on whether it refers to a person or a thing, and its function within the clause (subject or object). #### 7.1.1 'Who', 'that', and 'which' * **'Who'** is used for people. * **'That'** can be used for both people and things. * **'Which'** is used for things. > **Tip:** In defining relative clauses, 'that' is often preferred for things and people, especially in informal contexts. #### 7.1.2 'Whose' * **'Whose'** is used to express possession, typically for people, indicating whose possession it is. It shows a relationship of ownership or belonging. * Example: "We helped some people **whose** car had broken down." #### 7.1.3 'Whom' * **'Whom'** is a more formal alternative to 'who' when it functions as the object of the verb in the relative clause. * Example: "George is a person **whom** I admire very much." * It can also be used after a preposition: "It’s important to have friends with **whom** you can relax." #### 7.1.4 'Where' * **'Where'** is used to refer to a place. * Example: "I recently went back to the town **where** I grew up." #### 7.1.5 'When' and 'Why' * While not strictly relative pronouns, 'when' and 'why' can function similarly in relative clauses to specify time or reason. * Example for 'when': "The day **when** we got married..." (can also be "The day we got married...") * Example for 'why': "The reason **why** I'm calling you..." (can also be "The reason that I'm calling you...") ### 7.2 Defining and Non-defining Relative Clauses Relative clauses can be categorized into two main types: defining and non-defining. #### 7.2.1 Defining relative clauses * **Purpose:** These clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence. They identify which specific person or thing is being discussed, distinguishing them from others. * **Punctuation:** They are not separated by commas. * **Pronoun usage:** * 'Who' or 'that' for people. * 'Which' or 'that' for things. * 'Whose' for possession. * 'Where' for places. * **Omitting pronouns:** 'Who', 'that', and 'which' can be omitted if they are the object of the relative clause. * Example: "We stayed at the hotel (**that** / **which**) you recommended." (The pronoun can be omitted here). * Example: "Do you know the woman (**who** / **that**) Tom is talking to?" (The pronoun can be omitted here). #### 7.2.2 Non-defining relative clauses * **Purpose:** These clauses provide extra, non-essential information about a person or thing that has already been clearly identified. Removing the clause does not change the fundamental meaning of the sentence. * **Punctuation:** They are set off by commas. * **Pronoun usage:** * 'Who' for people. * 'Which' for things. * 'Whose' for possession. * 'Where' for places. * **Restrictions:** * **'That' cannot be used** in non-defining clauses. * The pronoun **cannot be omitted**. * Example: "My brother Ben, **who** lives in Hong Kong, is an architect." (Removing the clause "who lives in Hong Kong" still leaves "My brother Ben is an architect.") * Example: "We stayed at the Park Hotel, **which** a friend recommended." > **Tip:** If you can remove the clause without changing the core meaning and it provides additional detail, it's likely a non-defining clause. Pay close attention to the use of commas. #### 7.2.3 Prepositions in relative clauses * **Formal English:** Prepositions typically come *before* 'whom' or 'which' in non-defining clauses. * Example: "...friends with **whom** you can relax." * Example: "...the place **to which** he travelled." * **Spoken English:** In spoken English, prepositions are often kept *after* the verb, and 'who' is used instead of 'whom' when it refers to people. * Example: "Katherine told me she works for 'Latoma', **which** I’d never heard of before." (Preposition 'of' is after 'heard'). * Example: "Mr Lee, **who** I spoke to at the conference..." ('who' is used instead of 'whom', and 'to' is after 'spoke'). * Quantifiers like 'all of', 'most of', 'some of', 'neither of', 'both of', etc., can be followed by 'whom' or 'which'. * Example: "Helen has three brothers, all of **whom** are married." * Example: "They asked me a lot of questions, most of **which** I couldn’t answer." #### 7.2.4 Using 'Which' for extra information about a whole sentence * **'Which'** can be used to refer to the entire preceding clause, not just a single noun. This is a common feature of non-defining clauses. * Example: "Joe got the job, **which** surprised everybody." (Here, 'which' refers to the fact that Joe got the job). * Example: "The weather was good, **which** we hadn’t expected." * **Note:** **'What' is not used** in this context; only 'which' is appropriate. ### 7.3 Reduced Relative Clauses (-ing and -ed clauses) Relative clauses can often be shortened by removing the relative pronoun and the auxiliary verb ('be'), leaving a participle phrase. #### 7.3.1 -ing clauses (active meaning) * These clauses have an active meaning and are formed by using the present participle (-ing form of the verb). * They can be used to describe an ongoing action at a particular time or an action that happens all the time. * Example: "The woman **talking** to Tom..." (This is a shortened form of "The woman who is talking to Tom...") * Example: "Police **investigating** the crime are looking for three men." (Short for "Police who are investigating...") * Example: "The road **connecting** the two villages is very narrow." (Short for "The road which connects...") #### 7.3.2 -ed clauses (passive meaning) * These clauses have a passive meaning and are formed using the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed, but many are irregular. * Example: "The boy **injured** in the accident was taken to the hospital." (Short for "The boy who was injured...") * Example: "The Police never found the money **stolen** in the robbery." (Short for "The money which was stolen...") > **Tip:** Reduced relative clauses are a concise way to add descriptive information and are common in formal writing. * **With 'there is/was'**: These constructions can also be used with '-ing' or '-ed' clauses. * Example: "There were some children **swimming** in the river." * Example: "There was a big red car **parked** outside the house." * **'Left'**: The past participle 'left' can also be used in this way to mean 'remaining' or 'still there'. * Example: "We’ve eaten nearly all the chocolates; there are only a few **left**." --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Present continuous | Used for actions happening around the time of speaking that are not yet complete, often indicating temporary situations. It is formed with am/is/are + -ing. | | Present simple | Used for general truths, facts, habits, and things that happen repeatedly. It is formed with the base verb or the verb + -s/-es. | | Past simple | Used to describe completed actions in the past. It is formed with the regular -ed ending or irregular past tense forms. | | Past continuous | Used to describe an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past, often interrupted by another shorter action. It is formed with was/were + -ing. | | Present perfect | Used to connect the past with the present, indicating actions with results now or experiences up to the present. It is formed with have/has + past participle. | | Present perfect continuous | Used for activities that have recently stopped or just stopped, or to emphasize the duration of an ongoing activity that started in the past. It is formed with have/has been + -ing. | | Past perfect | Used to describe an action that happened before another action in the past. It is formed with had + past participle. | | Past perfect continuous | Used to describe an action that was in progress before another action in the past, emphasizing its duration. It is formed with had been + -ing. | | Future continuous | Used to talk about an action that will be in progress at a specific time in the future. It is formed with will be + -ing. | | Future perfect | Used to talk about actions that will be completed before a specific time in the future. It is formed with will have + past participle. | | Conditional sentences | Sentences that express a condition and its consequence, typically using 'if'. They are categorized into zero, first, second, and third conditionals, each with distinct structures and meanings. | | Wish | Used to express a desire for a different situation in the present or past, or to complain about something currently happening. It is followed by a past simple or past perfect tense. | | Reported speech | The way of reporting what someone else said without using their exact words. This often involves changes in verb tenses, pronouns, and time expressions. | | Auxiliary verb | A verb used in conjunction with a main verb to form tenses, moods, or voices. Common auxiliary verbs include 'be', 'do', and 'have'. | | Determiner | A word that introduces a noun and indicates quantity, possession, or specificity, such as articles ('a', 'an', 'the'), demonstratives ('this', 'that'), and possessives ('my', 'your'). | | Noun | A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns can be countable or uncountable, singular or plural. | | Article | A type of determiner that precedes a noun and specifies whether the noun is general or specific. The English articles are 'a', 'an', and 'the'. | | Relative clause | A clause that modifies a noun by providing additional information about it. It typically begins with a relative pronoun such as 'who', 'which', 'that', 'whose', or 'whom'. | | Adjective | A word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives typically indicate quality, size, shape, color, or origin. | | Adverb | A word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a whole sentence. Adverbs often indicate manner, place, time, frequency, or degree. | | Word order | The arrangement of words in a sentence. English has a relatively fixed word order, generally Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), with specific rules for adverbs and other sentence elements. | | Possessive | Indicating ownership or belonging. This can be shown using possessive adjectives (my, your), possessive pronouns (mine, yours), or the possessive 's. | | Countable noun | A noun that can be counted and has both singular and plural forms (e.g., 'apple', 'apples'). | | Uncountable noun | A noun that cannot be counted and typically has only one form (e.g., 'water', 'information'). | | Subject | The part of a sentence that performs the action or is described by the verb. | | Object | The part of a sentence that receives the action of the verb. | | Past participle | The form of a verb used in perfect tenses and passive voice. For regular verbs, it typically ends in -ed; irregular verbs have unique past participle forms. | | Preposition | A word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in the sentence, often indicating location, direction, or time (e.g., 'in', 'on', 'at', 'to'). |

# Gebruik van het werkwoord 'to be' Het werkwoord 'to be' is fundamenteel in de Engelse grammatica en kent diverse vormen, samentrekkingen en specifieke toepassingen, waaronder het gebruik van 'there is/are' en het onderscheid tussen 'it's' en 'its'. ## 1. Gebruik van het werkwoord 'to be' ### 1.1 Vormen van 'to be' Het werkwoord 'to be' kent de volgende hoofdvervoegingen: * **Infinitief:** be * **Verleden tijd enkelvoud:** was * **Verleden tijd meervoud:** were * **Voltooid deelwoord:** been #### 1.1.1 Tegenwoordige tijd en samentrekkingen De tegenwoordige tijd van 'to be' wordt als volgt gevormd: * I **am** * You **are** * He/She/It **is** * We/You/They **are** Er zijn veelvoorkomende samentrekkingen die vooral in informele contexten worden gebruikt: * I'm = I am * You're = You are * He's = He is * She's = She is * It's = It is * We're = We are * They're = They are #### 1.1.2 Verleden tijd en samentrekkingen De verleden tijd van 'to be' kent de volgende samentrekkingen: * Wasn't = was not * Weren't = were not ### 1.2 Specifieke toepassingen van 'to be' #### 1.2.1 'There is' en 'There are' Bij het aangeven dat iets bestaat, wordt in het Engels doorgaans 'there' gevolgd door een vorm van 'to be' gebruikt, met het onderwerp na het werkwoord. Deze constructies kunnen vertaald worden met 'er is/zijn', 'er staat/staan', 'er ligt/liggen', etc. * **Voorbeeld:** > There is a book on the table. > There are many people at the party. 'There' is **altijd** gevolgd door 'to be' in deze context. Soms kunnen er woorden tussen 'there' en 'to be' worden ingevoegd, bijvoorbeeld bij werkwoorden als 'seem' of 'appear', modale werkwoorden, of na voegwoorden en bijvoeglijke naamwoorden. * **Voorbeeld met ingevoegde woorden:** > There **happened to be** a lot of traffic. > There **seems to be** a problem. Na 'there + be' wordt vaak het persoonlijk voornaamwoord 'it' of 'they' gebruikt om meer details te geven. #### 1.2.2 'It's' versus 'Its' Het is cruciaal om het verschil tussen 'it's' en 'its' te kennen: * **It's:** Dit is een samentrekking van 'it is' of 'it has'. Deze vorm is informeler. * **Voorbeeld:** *It's* a beautiful day. (It is a beautiful day.) * **Voorbeeld:** *It's* got a great view. (It has got a great view.) * **Its:** Dit is een bezittelijk voornaamwoord, vergelijkbaar met 'zijn/haar' in het Nederlands. Het geeft bezit aan. * **Voorbeeld:** The company announced *its* new policy. (Het beleid van het bedrijf.) * **Voorbeeld:** The dog wagged *its* tail. (De staart van de hond.) #### 1.2.3 'To be' in plaats van 'hebben' In het Nederlands gebruiken we vaak 'hebben' in situaties waar het Engels 'to be' verkiest. Dit geldt met name voor: * **Leeftijd:** * Nederlands: Ik **ben** 20 jaar oud. * Engels: I **am** 20 years old. (Niet: I have 20 years.) * **Grootte, hoogte, gewicht:** * Nederlands: De kamer **is** groot. * Engels: The room **is** large. (Niet: The room has large.) * **Kleur:** * Nederlands: De auto **is** rood. * Engels: The car **is** red. (Niet: The car has red.) * **Prijzen:** Zowel bij het vragen naar als het vermelden van prijzen. * Nederlands: Hoeveel **kost** dat? * Engels: How much **is** that? * Nederlands: Het **kost** 50 euro. * Engels: It **is** 50 euros. > **Tip:** Let goed op bij deze betekenisverschillen om typische fouten te voorkomen. De context bepaalt of 'to be' of 'to have' correct is. #### 1.2.4 Overige toepassingen 'To be' wordt ook gebruikt in combinaties met andere werkwoorden, zoals 'to have' en 'to do', en in diverse uitdrukkingen die de staat of conditie van iets beschrijven. Hoewel de details van deze werkwoorden buiten de scope van de directe 'to be' focus vallen, is het belangrijk te weten dat 'to be' vaak een rol speelt in de basisstructuur van zinnen. --- # Gebruik van de werkwoorden 'to have (got)' en 'to do' Deze sectie biedt een gedetailleerde analyse van de verschillende functies van 'to have (got)' als hoofdwerkwoord en hulpwerkwoord, en de rol van 'to do' als hulpwerkwoord in negaties en vragen, evenals als hoofdwerkwoord. ### 2.1 'To be' 'To be' is een onregelmatig werkwoord met de volgende hoofdvormen: *be* (infinitief), *was/were* (verleden tijd), *been* (voltooid deelwoord). * **Tegenwoordige tijd:** De vormen zijn *am, is, are*. Tegenwoordige tijd kan ook worden uitgedrukt met contracties: `'m` (= *am*), `'re` (= *are*), `'s` (= *is*). * **Verleden tijd:** De vormen zijn *was* en *were*. Contracties zijn *wasn’t* (= *was not*) en *weren't* (= *were not*). #### 2.1.1 'There is' en 'there are' Bij het aanduiden van het bestaan van iets wordt in het Engels vaak begonnen met *there + be*. Dit kan vertaald worden als 'er is/zijn', 'er staat/staan', 'er ligt/liggen', 'er hangt/hangen', 'er gebeurt/gebeuren'. Het werkwoord *to be* wordt hier altijd gebruikt. > **Tip:** Let op de aanwezigheid van andere woorden tussen *there* en *to be*, zoals bij werkwoorden als *seem, appear*, modale werkwoorden (*may, can, must*), of bij de constructie *no + noun + to-inf.*. Na *there + be* wordt vaak het persoonlijk voornaamwoord *it* of *they* gebruikt om meer details te geven. #### 2.1.2 'It's' versus 'its' * `It's` is een samentrekking van *it is* of *it has*. * `Its` is een bezittelijk voornaamwoord. #### 2.1.3 'Be' in plaats van 'hebben' In het Nederlands wordt 'hebben' gebruikt in zinnen over leeftijd, grootte, lengte, gewicht, kleur, etc. In het Engels wordt dan vaak 'to be' gebruikt. Ook bij het vragen naar en vermelden van prijzen wordt 'to be' gebruikt. ### 2.2 'To have (got)' De hoofdvormen van 'to have (got)' zijn: *have* (tegenwoordige tijd), *had* (verleden tijd), *had* (voltooid deelwoord). * **Tegenwoordige tijd:** Contracties zijn `'ve` (= *have*), `'s` (= *has*). * **Verleden tijd:** Contracties zijn `'d` (= *had*). #### 2.2.1 'Have' als hulpwerkwoord 'Have' wordt gebruikt als hulpwerkwoord in de perfecte tijden (bv. *present perfect*, *past perfect*). In deze gevallen wordt het vaak gecontracteerd tot `'s`, `'ve`, `'d`. In negaties en vragen wordt *do* niet gebruikt; de inversie gebeurt met *have*. > **Tip:** Het hulpwerkwoord 'have' kan *niet* vervangen worden door 'have got' in deze constructies. #### 2.2.2 'Have' als hoofdwerkwoord 'Have' kan ook als hoofdwerkwoord fungeren. In dat geval wordt in negaties en vragen het hulpwerkwoord 'to do' gebruikt. Contracties worden hierbij meestal niet gebruikt. 'Have' als hoofdwerkwoord is een veelzijdig woord met verschillende betekenissen: * **Bezit:** *I have a car.* (Negatie: *I don’t have a car.* Vraag: *Do you have a car?*) * **Eten/Drinken:** *I had breakfast at 8.* * **Ervaren/Meemaken:** *We had trouble.* of *We had a nice holiday.* * **Activiteiten en ervaringen:** * *He is having a good time.* (Geniet ervan) * *They are having breakfast / supper / dinner / lunch / tea / a meal / a drink / a glass of wine.* * *I was having a bath / a swim / a walk / a wash / a shave / a rest / a shower / a sleep / a liedown / a dream when you phoned last night.* * *She is having a holiday / a day off.* * *Have a good time / a nice evening.* * *She has just had a baby.* * *Did you have the chance to speak to him in private?* * *The farmer is having trouble with his tractor.* * *Do you have your identity card with you when you go to town?* * *A sparrow does not usually have white feathers.* * *I seldom have a sore throat.* * *The shop doesn’t have any strawberries in winter.* > **Tip:** In de bovenstaande uitdrukkingen kan 'have got' niet gebruikt worden in plaats van 'have', behalve wanneer 'have' bezit betekent. #### 2.2.3 'Have' versus 'have got' In Brits-Engels wordt 'have got' vaak gebruikt in plaats van 'have' wanneer de betekenis 'bezitten' is (in brede zin, inclusief kenmerken en relaties). * **Bezitten:** *He has one car. He has got one car.* * **Kenmerk:** *I have brown eyes. I have got brown eyes.* * **Relatie:** *I have one brother. I have got one brother.* Als 'have' niet 'bezitten' betekent, kan 'have got' niet gebruikt worden. > **Tip:** 'Have got' heeft dezelfde betekenis als 'have' in deze contexten; 'got' is hier een 'leeg' woord. 'Have got' is informeler en gebruikelijker in spreektaal dan in geschreven taal. > **Tip:** 'Do' en 'got' worden niet samen gebruikt (bv. *Do you have got any children?* is incorrect). 'Got'-vormen komen het meest voor in de tegenwoordige tijd. Verleden tijd-vormen zijn meestal zonder 'got' (*I had a bad cold*). 'Got'-vormen worden niet gebruikt voor gewoontes en herhaalde acties. #### 2.2.4 Causatief gebruik van 'have' De structuur *have something done* wordt gebruikt om aan te geven dat iets door iemand anders voor ons gedaan wordt ('iemand iets laten doen'). De volgorde is: *Subject + form of to have + object + past participle*. 'To get' kan 'to have' vervangen en heeft dezelfde betekenis, maar is informeler. #### 2.2.5 'Have to' en 'have got to' Beide uitdrukkingen kunnen gebruikt worden als modale hulpwerkwoorden die verplichting uitdrukken (vergelijkbaar met *must*). * *Have to* vereist het gebruik van 'to do' in negaties en vragen. * Het informelere *have got to* vereist 'to do' niet in deze contexten. > **Tip:** Let op dat de contractie `'s` zowel *is* als *has* kan betekenen (bv. *He's ill.* vs. *He's got two sisters.*). De contractie `'d` kan *would* of *had* betekenen (bv. *I'd prefer a cup of tea.* vs. *He'd opened the door.*). ### 2.3 'To do' De hoofdvormen van 'to do' zijn: *do* (tegenwoordige tijd), *did* (verleden tijd), *done* (voltooid deelwoord). * **Tegenwoordige tijd:** Contracties zijn *don't* (= *do not*), *doesn't* (= *does not*). * **Verleden tijd:** Contractie is *didn't* (= *did not*). #### 2.3.1 'Do' als hulpwerkwoord in negaties en vragen 'Do' wordt gebruikt als hulpwerkwoord in combinatie met een hoofdwerkwoord in de *present simple* en *past simple* (wanneer er geen ander hulpwerkwoord beschikbaar is) in negaties en vragen. Het wordt ook gebruikt in negatieve gebiedende wijs. > **Tip:** 'Do' wordt *niet* gebruikt in *wh-questions* als het *wh-woord* het onderwerp is of deel uitmaakt van het onderwerp. > **Tip:** In standaard Engels wordt 'do' alleen in negaties met *not* gebruikt. Het wordt niet gebruikt met andere negatieve woorden zoals *never, hardly, nothing, no*. #### 2.3.2 'Do' in zinnen met inversie 'Do' wordt gebruikt wanneer er sprake is van inversie, wat gebeurt in vragen en wanneer een zin begint met een negatief, bijna-negatief of restrictief woord (*seldom, not until, never, hardly, (not) only, rarely*, etc.). #### 2.3.3 'Do' voor nadruk (emphatic do) 'Do' wordt gebruikt om een bewering te benadrukken of sterk te reageren op een verzoek om goedkeuring. Het hulpwerkwoord 'do' krijgt hierbij nadruk. Emfatisch 'do' kan ook voor gebiedende wijs geplaatst worden om dringende verzoeken uit te drukken. > **Opmerking:** 'Do' wordt niet gebruikt als er al een ander hulpwerkwoord aanwezig is; in dat geval krijgt dat hulpwerkwoord de nadruk. #### 2.3.4 'Do' om herhaling te voorkomen Het hulpwerkwoord 'do' wordt gebruikt om de herhaling van een hoofdwerkwoord te vermijden: * **In korte antwoorden:** *Who takes you to music school? – John's father does.* * **In vraagpartikels (question tags):** *You saw me, didn’t you?* * **Bij het uitdrukken van gelijkenis of verschil:** *My mother loves me. So does your father.* #### 2.3.5 'Do' als hoofdwerkwoord 'Do' kan ook als hoofdwerkwoord fungeren. Als hoofdwerkwoord vereist 'do' het gebruik van het hulpwerkwoord 'do' in negaties en vragen (dubbel 'do'). > **Voorbeeld:** *He didn’t do his homework, did he?* 'Do' als hoofdwerkwoord wordt gebruikt in diverse uitdrukkingen, waaronder: * *to do an exercise, one’s homework, a sum, a translation, housework, the cooking, the ironing* * *to do good, harm, wrong, right* * *to do business, trade* * *to do a favour, wonders, a service, justice, damage* * *to do one’s best, a good job, one’s duty, one’s hair* > **Vergelijking Nederlands/Engels:** Er zijn verschillen tussen het gebruik van 'maken' en 'doen' in het Nederlands en 'do' en 'make' in het Engels. Bijvoorbeeld: 'huiswerk maken' wordt 'to do homework', terwijl 'een oefening maken' ook 'to do an exercise' is. 'Schade aanrichten' is 'to do damage', maar 'een ontdekking doen' is 'to make a discovery'. #### 2.3.6 Vorming van de derde persoon enkelvoud en de verleden tijd van 'do' * **Tegenwoordige tijd:** De derde persoon enkelvoud eindigt op `-es` (*does*) bij werkwoorden die eindigen op `-o` of een sissend geluid (-s, -z, -ch, -sh, -x). * **Verleden tijd:** Gebruikt de vorm *did*. #### 2.3.7 Vorming van de tegenwoordige tijd en de verleden tijd van 'have' * **Tegenwoordige tijd:** De derde persoon enkelvoud eindigt op `-s` (*has*). * **Verleden tijd:** Gebruikt de vorm *had*. #### 2.3.8 Vorming van de tegenwoordige tijd en de verleden tijd van 'be' * **Tegenwoordige tijd:** Vormen zijn *am, is, are*. * **Verleden tijd:** Vormen zijn *was, were*. ### 2.4 Vergelijking en Synthese Deze werkwoorden zijn fundamenteel in de Engelse grammatica en hun correcte gebruik is essentieel voor het vormen van zinnen, negaties en vragen. 'To have (got)' en 'to do' hebben zowel functies als hoofdwerkwoord als hulpwerkwoord, terwijl 'to be' voornamelijk als hoofdwerkwoord fungeert, maar ook essentieel is in de vorming van tijden en passieve constructies. Het begrip van hun interactie, vooral in ontkenningen en vragen, is cruciaal. --- # Tijden en hun gebruik in het Engels Deze sectie behandelt de vorm en het gebruik van de tegenwoordige, verleden en voltooide tijden in het Engels, met specifieke aandacht voor de simpele en continue vormen. ### 3.1 Tegenwoordige tijden (Present Tenses) #### 3.1.1 Present Simple **Vorm:** * Basisvorm van het werkwoord. * Bij de derde persoon enkelvoud (he/she/it) wordt -s toegevoegd. * Regels voor toevoeging van -s: * Werkwoorden eindigend op -s, -z, -ch, -sh, -x: + -es (bv. *watches*, *kisses*, *mixes*). * Werkwoorden eindigend op -o (behalve -oo): + -es (bv. *goes*, *does*). * Werkwoorden eindigend op een medeklinker + -y: -y verandert in -i + -es (bv. *flies*, *cries*). * **Uitspraak van de '-s'-uitgang:** * /ɪz/ na een sissend geluid (-s, -z, -ch, -sh, -x). * /s/ na een stemloze medeklinker (niet-sissend). * /z/ na een stemhebbende medeklinker (niet-sissend) of na een klinker. **Gebruik:** * **Algemene waarheden en permanente situaties:** * *The earth goes around the sun.* * *Birds fly south for the winter.* * **Gewoontes en routines (regelmatige acties):** * *I get up at 8 o’clock every morning.* * *Robert usually goes away two or three times a week.* * Frequentiebijwoorden (*often, usually, always, normally, sometimes, occasionally, rarely, not often, hardly ever, never*) worden geplaatst: * Voor het hoofdwerkwoord: *I often take the Eurostar.* * Na het werkwoord *to be*: *I am usually nervous.* * Tijdsbepalingen zoals *every day, once a year* komen aan het begin of einde van de zin. * **Beschrijven van een reeks gebeurtenissen (bv. instructies):** * *First, you go to the C drive and locate the manager’s assistant’s folder.* * **Live commentaar, demonstraties, recepten:** * *Courtois grabs the ball and rolls it over to De Bruyne.* * *First, you roll out the pastry.* * **Observaties en verklaringen (met werkwoorden die spreken of schrijven uitdrukken):** * *I promise you everything will be all right.* * *The article says that employment has been rising.* * **Toekomstverwijzing (vast schema of programma):** * *The train leaves at 6.33 p.m.* * *The exhibition closes on Friday next week.* * **Tijdsbepalingen (met *when, after, until, before*) en voorwaarden (met *if*) met toekomstige verwijzing, waarbij de hoofdzin vaak in de future tense staat:** * *I’ll write to her when I have time.* * *If I win the EuroMillions, I’ll quit school.* #### 3.1.2 Present Continuous **Vorm:** * *Subject* + *vorm van to be* + *infinitief zonder to* + *-ing*. * **Spelling van de -ing vorm:** * infinitief zonder to + -ing (bv. *talking*, *going*). * Werkwoorden eindigend op een stomme -e: de -e wordt weggelaten (bv. *coming*, *leaving*). * Werkwoorden eindigend op -ie: verandert in -y + -ing (bv. *dying*, *lying*). * Werkwoorden eindigend op een enkele medeklinker (behalve -y, -w, -x) voorafgegaan door een enkele klinker en met klemtoon op de laatste lettergreep: de medeklinker wordt verdubbeld (bv. *stopping*, *tapping*, *preferring*). * In Brits Engels wordt de finale -l na een enkele klinker of twee afzonderlijk uitgesproken klinkers altijd verdubbeld (bv. *travelling*, *quarrelling*). * Finale -c wordt -ck (bv. *picnicking*, *panicking*). **Gebruik:** * **Actie die nu gaande is (op het moment van spreken/schrijven):** * *Sorry, Mr Clark can’t see you at the moment. He is talking to a customer.* * *It is not raining now.* * **Actie die ‘rond nu’ gebeurt (niet noodzakelijk exact op het moment van spreken):** * *Kate wants to work in Italy, so she is learning Italian.* * *At the moment we are building a new office.* * Vaak gebruikt met tijdsbepalingen als *now, at the moment, nowadays, currently, these days, right now, at present*. * **Tijdelijke situaties:** * *I am living with some friends until I find a place in London.* (Vergelijk met *My parents live in London.* – permanent) * *Janet is on maternity leave, so I am organizing the conferences.* (tijdelijk) * **Langzame, geleidelijke veranderingen en trends (vaak met *get, change, become, increase, rise, fall, grow, improve, begin, start*):** * *Is your English getting better?* * *The population of the world is increasing very fast.* * **Herhaalde actie met een idee van irritatie (vaak met *always*):** * *That boy is always asking stupid questions.* * **Achtergrondsituaties in een verhaal (in het heden):** * *A man is walking through the streets when someone taps on his shoulder.* * **Vaste afspraken in de toekomst:** * *My sister is getting married next Saturday.* * **Let op:** De continuous vorm wordt normaal niet gebruikt met stative verbs (werkwoorden die een staat beschrijven, geen actie). * *I notice that you moved your desk.* (niet: *I am noticing*) * Sommige werkwoorden zijn stative in de ene betekenis en dynamisch in de andere. **Present Simple vs. Present Continuous (samenvatting):** * **Gewoonte/routine** vs. **moment van spreken**: *Henry works for PDQ.* (routine) vs. *The man in the post room is packing some parcels.* (nu aan het doen). * **Algemene activiteiten** vs. **huidige projecten**: *We design psychometric tests.* (algemeen) vs. *At the moment we’re working on new tests.* (specifiek project). * **Permanente** vs. **tijdelijke situaties**: *Peter deals with enquiries.* (permanent) vs. *I am dealing with enquiries while Peter is away.* (tijdelijk). * **Feiten** vs. **geleidelijke veranderingen**: *Cheap imports lead to greater competition.* (feit) vs. *Cheap imports are leading to the closure of factories.* (verandering). * **Achtergrond** vs. **onderbrekende situatie**: *When I am doing the dishes, he always calls.* (Present Simple onderbreekt Present Continuous). * **Stative** vs. **dynamic verbs**: *I know the answer.* (stative) vs. *I am actually giving you the answer.* (dynamic). ### 3.2 Verleden Tijden (Past Tenses) #### 3.2.1 Past Simple **Vorm:** * **Reguliere werkwoorden:** Infinitief + -ed. * **Vorming van de -ed vorm:** * Werkwoorden eindigend op -e: alleen -d toevoegen (bv. *liked*, *managed*). * Werkwoorden eindigend op medeklinker + -y: -y verandert in -i + -ed (bv. *studied*, *carried*). * De finale medeklinker (behalve -l) wordt verdubbeld na een enkele klinker en klemtoon op de laatste lettergreep (bv. *stopped*, *referred*). * Finale -l wordt altijd verdubbeld na een enkele klinker in Brits Engels (bv. *levelled*, *labelled*). * Finale -c wordt -ck (bv. *panicked*). * **Uitspraak van de '-ed'-uitgang:** * /ɪd/ na /t/ of /d/ (bv. *chatted*, *ended*). * /t/ na een stemloze medeklinker (niet /t/) (bv. *reached*, *laughed*). * /d/ na een stemhebbende medeklinker (niet /d/), na een klinker of tweeklank (bv. *loved*, *preferred*). * **Onregelmatige werkwoorden:** Studeren van de lijst met onregelmatige werkwoorden. **Gebruik:** * **Feiten, eigenschappen, gewoontes en routines in het verleden:** * *The patient slept all day yesterday.* * *He always drank beer when he was at the pub.* * De hele situatie wordt bekeken als een afgerond geheel. * **Reeks gebeurtenissen of acties in het verleden:** * *We left at six, arrived in Dublin at ten and then took the plane to London.* * **Staten in het verleden:** * *I loved my grandfather.* * *We knew each other well.* * **Tijdsbepalingen:** Vaak gebruikt met adverbs van tijd die naar een afgesloten periode in het verleden verwijzen (*yesterday, last week, ago, in June, on 4 April*). * *We arrived at the airport ten minutes ago.* * *Mariela started college last month.* * **Na het werkwoord *wish* en de uitdrukkingen *if only*, *it’s time*, *I’d rather* wanneer de gewenste situatie in het heden of de toekomst ligt:** * *I wish I were more computer-literate.* * **In de *if*-clausule van een conditioneel type 2 (onwerkelijkheid in het heden/toekomst):** * *If I were you, I would come.* * **Om afstand te creëren en zinnen beleefder of tentatiever te maken:** * *Could you give me a hand?* (in plaats van *Can you give me a hand?*) #### 3.2.2 Past Continuous **Vorm:** * *Subject* + *vorm van to be (past)* + *infinitief zonder to* + *-ing*. * *I was working.* * *They were discussing.* **Gebruik:** * **Situaties die voortduurden op een bepaald moment in het verleden (focus op het midden van de situatie):** * *At nine o’clock yesterday morning the pupils were waiting for their teacher.* * *What were you doing on Thursday night?* * **Situaties die een achtergrond vormden voor een andere gebeurtenis (in Past Simple):** * *When I arrived, John was clearing the table.* (Achtergrond: John was bezig met opruimen. Onderbreking: Ik arriveerde.) * *They were walking on the river bank when I saw them.* * **Nadruk op de duur van een voortdurende situatie:** * *I was waiting in the departure lounge for more than two hours.* * **Meerdere situaties die tegelijkertijd voortduurden:** * *IBM was beginning to lose its way and many skilled people were leaving.* * **Representeren van een verleden situatie als tijdelijk (niet permanent):** * *John was using my tennis racket until he could afford to buy one.* * **Herhaalde vroegere actie met irritatie (vaak met *always*):** * *He was always ringing me up during lunch time!* * **Om een uitspraak minder direct en beleefder/tentatiever te maken (meer dan Past Simple):** * *I was hoping you would be there too.* * *I was wondering if that would be convenient for you.* **Past Simple vs. Past Continuous (samenvatting):** * **Nadruk op duur** vs. **aparte, complete situatie**: *We discussed the report.* (aparte actie) vs. *We were discussing the report for over an hour.* (nadruk op duur). * **Achtergrondsituatie** vs. **onderbrekende situatie**: *Matt phoned while we were having dinner.* (Phoned onderbreekt having dinner). * **Focus op het midden** vs. **complete actie**: *I was walking home when I met Dave.* (midden van het lopen) vs. *I walked home after the party.* (complete actie). * **Situatie op een bepaald tijdstip** vs. **verleden gewoonte**: *Kate was watching TV when we arrived.* (situatie op dat moment) vs. *Kate watched TV a lot when she was ill.* (gewoonte). * **Simultane situaties** vs. **reeks situaties**: *When Karen arrived, we were having dinner.* (we waren al bezig) vs. *When Karen arrived, we had dinner.* (eerst kwam Karen, dan aten we). * **Bij stative verbs** wordt alleen de simple vorm gebruikt: *I knew you were there.* (niet: *I was knowing*). ### 3.3 Voltooide Tijden (Perfect Tenses) #### 3.3.1 Present Perfect Simple **Vorm:** * *Subject* + *have/has* + *past participle* (voltooid deelwoord). * **Past participle:** * Reguliere werkwoorden: infinitief + -ed (zelfde als Past Simple). * Onregelmatige werkwoorden: studeren van de lijst. **Gebruik:** * **Situatie met een connectie of link met het heden (resultaat, ervaring, recentheid). De tijd is niet belangrijk of is een periode tot nu toe.** * De connectie met het heden is conceptueel: de situatie is voorbij, maar ligt in een periode tot nu toe, of brengt nieuws, of het resultaat is nog zichtbaar. * **Gebruikt met tijdsbepalingen die naar een periode tot nu toe verwijzen (die nog niet voorbij is):** * *yet, already, so far, before, often, never, ever, always, recently, lately, this minute.* * *I have never eaten sushi before.* (in mijn leven) * *I have already had some.* (*already* meestal in bevestigende zinnen) * *She has already gone home.* * *Can I speak to Colette? – I’m afraid she has already gone home.* * *I just met an old friend.* * *Did you eat yet?* (*yet* meestal in vragen en ontkenningen) * **Nieuws brengen (recent verleden):** * *Somebody stole my car!* (Kan ook met Past Simple in Amerikaans Engels). * **Relevantie voor het heden (het resultaat is nog zichtbaar):** * *I’ve repaired the TV. It’s working OK now.* (Het resultaat is dat de TV nu werkt). * **Gebruikt met stative verbs (ook al is de betekenis continu) en wanneer er een indicatie is van frequentie (*how many times? / how much?*):** * *I have lived here for ten years.* (state, continu) * *How many times has this happened?* #### 3.3.2 Present Perfect Continuous **Vorm:** * *Subject* + *have/has been* + *infinitief zonder to* + *-ing*. **Gebruik:** * **Situatie die begonnen is voor het heden en voortduurt tot (en mogelijk na) het moment van spreken (letterlijke link met het heden).** * *I have been working here for ten years.* (de situatie duurt nog voort) * **Vaak gecombineerd met *since* (beginpunt) of *for* (duur):** * *He has been sick for more than a week.* * **Activiteit die mogelijk recent gestopt is, maar waarvan de effecten nog zichtbaar zijn (verklarend, met ondertoon van excuus, verwijt of klacht):** * *His hair was wet. He had been swimming.* (effect: nat haar) * *He was extremely tired as he had been working so hard.* (verklaring voor vermoeidheid) * **Niet gebruikt met stative verbs of aantallen (in plaats daarvan Present Perfect Simple):** * *He had been in prison for five years.* (niet: *had been being*) * *She had loved him all her life.* (niet: *had been loving*) * **Vragen naar duur (*How long?*) met Present Perfect Continuous, vragen naar frequentie of aantallen (*How many times?*, *How much?*) met Present Perfect Simple.** **Past Tense vs. Present Perfect Tense:** * **Afgesloten verleden tijd** vs. **periode tot nu toe**: *I saw him yesterday.* (afgesloten) vs. *Have you seen him since yesterday?* (periode tot nu toe). * **Nieuwe, recente situaties** vs. **situaties die niet recent of nieuw zijn**: *I’ve repaired the TV.* (recent) vs. *Mozart was a composer.* (niet recent). * **Nieuws** vs. **details**: Present Perfect voor nieuwigheden, Past Simple voor details. * *Ow! I’ve burnt myself.* (nieuws) * *How did you do that? I picked up a hot dish.* (details in Past Simple). #### 3.3.3 Present Perfect Simple *Zie 3.3.1 Present Perfect Simple* #### 3.3.4 Past Perfect Simple **Vorm:** * *Subject* + *had* + *past participle*. **Gebruik:** * **Situatie die plaatsvond vóór een ander moment of een andere situatie in het verleden (anterioriteit). De andere verleden situatie wordt meestal in Past Simple uitgedrukt.** * *When we arrived at Sue’s office, she had left.* (Ze was al weg *voordat* wij arriveerden). * **Vergelijkbaar met de link van Present Perfect met het heden, maar dan in relatie tot een punt in het verleden:** * *He said he had never been there before.* (Zijn uitspraak was in het verleden; de ervaring was vóór die uitspraak). * **Heeft soms modale betekenissen (onwerkelijkheid in het verleden):** * *I wish I had known.* (Ik wou dat ik het geweten had – maar dat heb ik niet gedaan). * **In de *if*-clausule van een conditioneel type 3 (onwerkelijkheid in het verleden):** * *If I had known, I would have come.* * **Om een zin beleefder/tentatiever te maken (meer dan Past Simple of Past Continuous), duidt op grote afstand tot de realiteit:** * *I had hoped you would be there.* #### 3.3.5 Past Perfect Continuous **Vorm:** * *Subject* + *had been* + *infinitief zonder to* + *-ing*. **Gebruik:** * **Duur van een actie tot een bepaald moment in het verleden (het verleden equivalent van Present Perfect Continuous).** * *He had been living there for 5 years when he found out that the flat belonged to somebody else.* * **Verklarende betekenis: verklaart de reden voor een latere situatie in het verleden.** * *His hair was wet. He had been swimming.* (Zwemmen verklaart het natte haar). * **Niet gebruikt met stative verbs en aantallen (in plaats daarvan Past Perfect Simple).** * *He had been in prison for five years.* (niet: *had been being*) * *She had loved him all her life.* (niet: *had been loving*) ### 3.4 Werkwoorden: To Be, To Have (Got), To Do #### 3.4.1 To Be **Vormen:** * **Present:** *am, is, are* (contracties: *‘m, ‘s, ‘re*) * **Past:** *was, were* (contracties: *wasn’t, weren’t*) * **Past Participle:** *been* **Gebruik:** * **Als hoofdwerkwoord:** * Beschrijft bestaan: *There is a problem.* * Beschrijft toestand, eigenschap, identiteit. * Na *there* wordt het onderwerp na *to be* geplaatst: *There is/are...* * Vaak gebruikt om leeftijd, grootte, hoogte, gewicht, kleur, prijzen aan te geven. * **Als hulpwerkwoord:** In passieve constructies en continue tijden. #### 3.4.2 To Have (Got) **Vormen:** * **Present:** *have, has* (contracties: *‘ve, ‘s*) * **Past:** *had* (contractie: *‘d*) * **Past Participle:** *had* **Gebruik:** * **Als hulpwerkwoord:** In de perfecte tijden (present perfect, past perfect). * **Als hoofdwerkwoord:** * **Bezitten (possess):** *I have a car.* Hier kan *have got* vaak gebruikt worden (informeler). * *What time do you have lunch?* (geen *have got* bij betekenis 'bezitten') * **Ervaren, eten, drinken, activiteiten ondernemen:** * *We had trouble.* * *They are having breakfast.* * *I was having a bath.* * *She has just had a baby.* * **Let op:** *Have got* wordt minder vaak in het verleden gebruikt en niet bij gewoontes of herhaalde acties. #### 3.4.3 To Do **Vormen:** * **Present:** *do, does* (contracties: *don’t, doesn’t*) * **Past:** *did* (contractie: *didn’t*) * **Past Participle:** *done* **Gebruik:** * **Als hulpwerkwoord:** In ontkennende zinnen en vragen in de Present Simple en Past Simple (wanneer er geen ander hulpwerkwoord is). * *Do you like it?* * *He doesn’t work here.* * *Did you see him?* * *Wh-vragen*: *do* wordt niet gebruikt als het wh-woord het onderwerp is. (*Who saw it?* niet: *Who did see it?*) * *Do* wordt ook gebruikt bij inversie na negatieve of restrictieve woorden (*Never have I seen...*). * **Voor nadruk (emphatic do):** * *I do like it!* * *Do come in!* (dringend verzoek/uitnodiging) * **Om herhaling van een hoofdwerkwoord te vermijden (in korte antwoorden, question tags, etc.):** * *Who takes you to school? John’s father does.* * *You saw me, didn’t you?* * *My mother loves me. So does your father.* * **Als hoofdwerkwoord:** * Uitdrukkingen zoals: *do homework, do housework, do good, do harm, do business, do a favour, do one’s best.* * Vaak verwarring met *make* in het Nederlands. ### 3.5 Specifieke Werkwoorden en Gebruik #### 3.5.1 Its vs. It's * **Its:** bezittelijk voornaamwoord (van *it*). * *The department store has apologised to its customers.* * **It's:** samentrekking van *it is* of *it has*. * *It’s a profitable part of the business.* #### 3.5.2 Who's vs. Whose * **Who's:** samentrekking van *who is* of *who has*. * *Who’s running this company?* * **Whose:** bezittelijk (van wie/welk). * *Hasda Ltd., whose market share shrank 6%, is performing poorly.* #### 3.5.3 Your vs. You're * **Your:** bezittelijk voornaamwoord (van *you*). * *Could you move your car?* * **You're:** samentrekking van *you are*. * *You’re late!* #### 3.5.4 There vs. Their vs. They're * **There:** * Als inleidend onderwerp (*There is, There are*). * Als bijwoord van plaats. * **Their:** bezittelijk voornaamwoord (van *they*). * *Investors had to sell their shares.* * **They're:** samentrekking van *they are*. * *They’re accused of evading taxes.* #### 3.5.5 To vs. Too vs. Two * **To:** voorzetsel (richting, doel) of deel van een infinitief. * *The Petersons went on holiday to Italy.* * *I need to study.* * **Too:** * Synoniem voor *also*. * Geeft overmaat aan (*too expensive*). * **Two:** het getal twee. * *There were only two biscuits left.* #### 3.5.6 Some vs. Any * **Some:** * Bevestigende zinnen. * Verzoeken en aanbiedingen (waar een 'ja' antwoord verwacht wordt). * Ongeveer getal/hoeveelheid. * **Any:** * Ontkennende zinnen en na woorden als *never, without, hardly*. * Vragen. * Bevestigende zinnen met de betekenis "het maakt niet uit welke" (*any suggestion would be welcome*). #### 3.5.7 Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns * **Countable:** meervoud mogelijk, kunnen geteld worden (*one table, two tables*). * **Uncountable:** geen meervoud, kunnen niet geteld worden (*some money*). * Sommige zelfstandige naamwoorden kunnen in beide betekenissen voorkomen (*paper/a paper*). * Gebruik *one(s)* om telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden te vermijden. #### 3.5.8 Much vs. Many * **Much:** met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (enkelvoud). * *He has too much money.* * *It’s much easier.* (comparatief) * **Many:** met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (meervoud). * *Many jobs.* * **A lot of / Lots of:** kan met zowel telbare als ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden gebruikt worden (minder formeel). #### 3.5.9 Little vs. Few en A little vs. A few * **Little:** met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (weinig, negatief idee). * *I have little hope.* * **Few:** met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (weinig, negatief idee). * *Few solutions.* * **A little:** met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (een beetje, positief idee). * *A little water.* * **A few:** met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (een paar, positief idee). * *A few questions.* #### 3.5.10 Less vs. Least en Fewer vs. Fewest * **Less / (the) least:** met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden en bijvoeglijke naamwoorden. * *Paying less attention.* * *The least amount of work.* * **Fewer / (the) fewest:** met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (meervoud). * *Fewer people.* * *The fewest mistakes.* #### 3.5.11 An amount of vs. A number of * **An amount of:** met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden. * *An amount of money.* * **A number of:** met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (meervoud). * *A number of factors.* * *The number of cars.* (specifieke aantal) #### 3.5.12 Of vs. Off * **Of:** staat vaak voor een zelfstandig naamwoord, uitgesproken als /əv/. * *20% of all managers.* * **Off:** uitspraak /ɒf/, vaak in uitdrukkingen (*day off, 10% off*) en phrasal verbs (*sell off, pay off*). #### 3.5.13 Than vs. Then * **Than:** gebruikt na een vergelijkende trap. * *More than 900,000 customers.* * **Then:** verwijst naar tijd of gelegenheid. * *I’ll stay for an hour, but then I have to leave.* #### 3.5.14 Teach vs. Learn * **Teach:** kennis/training geven. * *She taught English to foreign students.* * **Learn:** kennis/training ontvangen. * *I’ve learnt a lot about computers.* * **Learned** (adjectief, uitspraak /'lɜːnɪd/): geleerd, geleerd persoon. #### 3.5.15 Raise/Rise, Lay/Lie * **Raise:** veroorzaken dat iets omhoog gaat (regelmatig, heeft object). * *He raised his eyes from his work.* * **Rise:** omhoog gaan, stijgen (onregelmatig, geen object). * *Prices are rising again.* * *The sun rises in the east.* * **Lay:** iets neerleggen (regelmatig, heeft object). * *I have laid it there myself.* * **Lie:** liggen (onregelmatig) of liegen (regelmatig). * *The money must be lying on the table.* (liggen) * *I would never lie to you.* (liegen) * **Araise:** ontstaan, verschijnen. *Another problem has arisen.* #### 3.5.16 To Be, To Have (Got), To Do (Samenvatting van de belangrijkste verschillen) * **To Be:** gebruik met *there is/are*, beschrijft staten, wordt gebruikt in continue tijden en passief. * **To Have (Got):** bezit, ervaringen. *Have got* is informeler en minder gebruikelijk in verleden tijd of bij herhaling. * **To Do:** hulpwerkwoord in simpele tijden (vragen/ontkenningen), nadruk, vervanging van hoofdwerkwoord, hoofdwerkwoord in specifieke uitdrukkingen. ### 3.6 Tijdsaanduidingen en hun Impact op de Tijdkeuze * **Afgesloten verleden tijd (Past Simple):** wordt gebruikt wanneer de **tijd** van de situatie genoemd of geïmpliceerd wordt en deze volledig afgesloten is. * **Heden/heden-gerelateerde tijden (Present Simple, Present Continuous, Present Perfect):** * **Present Simple:** gewoontes, feiten, schema's. * **Present Continuous:** actie nu, tijdelijke situaties, trends. * **Present Perfect:** connectie met het heden, resultaten, ervaringen. * **Verleden tijd (Past Simple, Past Continuous, Past Perfect):** * **Past Simple:** afgesloten feiten, gewoontes in het verleden, reeks acties. * **Past Continuous:** actie gaande op een bepaald moment in het verleden, achtergrond. * **Past Perfect:** actie voor een ander moment in het verleden. * **Voltooid verleden tijd (Past Perfect Simple/Continuous):** beschrijft een situatie die voor een ander moment in het verleden plaatsvond. * **Adverbials of time** spelen een cruciale rol bij het kiezen van de juiste tijd. Let op woorden als *yesterday, last week, ago* (Past Simple), *now, at the moment* (Present Continuous), *since, for, already, yet* (Present Perfect). --- **Formules en LaTeX Voorbeelden (indien relevant voor deze sectie):** * De vorming van de Present Simple derde persoon enkelvoud kan wiskundig benaderd worden met speciale regels voor werkwoorden eindigend op bepaalde lettercombinaties, bijvoorbeeld: * Voor werkwoorden eindigend op *-s, -z, -ch, -sh, -x*: $\text{werkwoord} + es$ * Voor werkwoorden eindigend op *-o*: $\text{werkwoord} + es$ * Voor werkwoorden eindigend op een medeklinker $+ y$: $\text{medeklinker} + ies$ * De vorming van de Present Continuous: * $\text{infinitief} + ing$ * Werkwoorden eindigend op stomme *-e*: $\text{infinitief zonder } e + ing$ * De vorming van de Past Simple reguliere werkwoorden: * $\text{infinitief} + ed$ * Werkwoorden eindigend op *-e*: $\text{infinitief zonder } e + d$ * Werkwoorden eindigend op medeklinker $+ y$: $\text{medeklinker} + ied$ * De basisstructuur van de perfecte tijden: * Present Perfect Simple: $have/has + \text{past participle}$ * Present Perfect Continuous: $have/has + been + ing\text{-vorm}$ * Past Perfect Simple: $had + \text{past participle}$ * Past Perfect Continuous: $had + been + ing\text{-vorm}$ **Tips voor het studeren:** > **Tip:** Oefen het identificeren van de tijd in zinnen. Probeer te begrijpen waarom een bepaalde tijd is gekozen, kijkend naar de tijdsbepalingen en de context. > > **Tip:** Maak oefeningen met 'fill in the blanks' voor de verschillende tijden. Dit helpt om de nuances tussen vergelijkbare tijden te onderscheiden. > > **Tip:** Let specifiek op de verschillen tussen de tijden die in het Nederlands anders worden uitgedrukt, zoals het gebruik van het Present Perfect in plaats van de Past Simple. > > **Tip:** Houd een lijst bij van onregelmatige werkwoorden en hun voltooid deelwoorden. Regelmatige herhaling is hier essentieel. > > **Tip:** Oefen met het herkennen van de betekenis van *little/few* versus *a little/a few*. De aanwezigheid van 'a' maakt een groot verschil in betekenis. > > **Tip:** Besteed extra aandacht aan de verschillen tussen *its* en *it's*, *their* en *they're*, en *to, too, two*. Deze fouten komen vaak voor. --- # Zelfstandige naamwoorden en genitief Dit onderdeel behandelt de grammaticale kenmerken van zelfstandige naamwoorden, waaronder geslacht, telbaarheid en meervoudsvorming, alsook de vorming en het gebruik van de genitief. ### 4.1 Geslacht van zelfstandige naamwoorden In het Engels is het grammaticale geslacht van zelfstandige naamwoorden voornamelijk gebaseerd op het biologische geslacht of afwezigheid daarvan. * **Mannelijk (Masculine):** Verwijst naar mannen, jongens en mannelijke dieren. Het corresponderende voornaamwoord is `he` of `they`. * **Vrouwelijk (Feminine):** Verwijst naar vrouwen, meisjes en vrouwelijke dieren. Het corresponderende voornaamwoord is `she` of `they`. * **Onzijdig (Neuter):** Verwijst naar objecten en dieren waarvan het geslacht niet bekend is of niet relevant is. Het corresponderende voornaamwoord is `it` of `they`. **Uitzonderingen:** Schepen, auto's en soms andere objecten die met affectie of respect worden beschouwd, kunnen als vrouwelijk worden behandeld. **Verschillende vormen:** Sommige zelfstandige naamwoorden hebben aparte mannelijke en vrouwelijke vormen (bv. `actor` – `actress`, `groom` – `bride`). Veel zelfstandige naamwoorden hebben echter dezelfde vorm voor zowel mannelijk als vrouwelijk geslacht. ### 4.2 Telbare en ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden Het onderscheid tussen telbare en ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden is cruciaal voor het juiste gebruik van lidwoorden, determinatoren en meervoudsvormen. * **Telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (Countable nouns):** * Kunnen in het meervoud staan (bv. `table` – `tables`). * Kunnen geteld worden (bv. `one table`, `two tables`). * Kunnen voorafgegaan worden door `a/an` in het enkelvoud. * Gebruiken `many` of `a number of` in plaats van `much` of `an amount of`. * Kunnen vervangen worden door `one(s)` om herhaling te vermijden (bv. `Which is your car? The red one or the blue one?`). * **Ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (Uncountable nouns):** * Hebben geen meervoudsvorm. * Kunnen niet direct geteld worden (bv. `one hate`, `two hates` is incorrect). * Gebruiken `some` om een onbepaalde hoeveelheid aan te duiden. * Gebruiken `much` of `an amount of` in plaats van `many` of `a number of`. * Om een specifieke eenheid aan te duiden, worden hulpwoorden gebruikt zoals `a piece of`, `a glass of`, `a pair of`. **Opmerking:** Sommige zelfstandige naamwoorden kunnen zowel telbaar als ontelbaar zijn, afhankelijk van de betekenis. Bijvoorbeeld, `paper` (papier, ontelbaar) versus `a paper` (een krant, telbaar). ### 4.3 Meervoudsvormen De vorming van het meervoud in het Engels volgt over het algemeen enkele regels, met diverse onregelmatige uitzonderingen. * **Algemene regel:** Toevoeging van `-s` aan het enkelvoud (bv. `belong` > `belongs`, `lose` > `loses`). * **Woorden eindigend op -s, -z, -ch, -sh, -x:** Toevoeging van `-es` (bv. `watch` > `watches`, `kiss` > `kisses`). * **Woorden eindigend op -o (met uitzondering van -oo):** Toevoeging van `-es` (bv. `go` > `goes`, `do` > `does`). * **Woorden eindigend op een medeklinker + -y:** De `-y` verandert in `-i` en er wordt `-es` toegevoegd (bv. `fly` > `flies`, `cry` > `cries`). * **Woorden eindigend op een klinker + -y:** Toevoeging van `-s` (bv. `play` > `plays`, `buy` > `buys`). * **Woorden eindigend op -f of -fe:** Vaak verandert `-f/-fe` in `-v` en wordt `-es` toegevoegd (bv. `knife` > `knives`, `life` > `lives`). Er zijn echter uitzonderingen (bv. `roof` > `roofs`). * **Onregelmatige meervoudsvormen:** Er is een aanzienlijk aantal zelfstandige naamwoorden met onregelmatige meervoudsvormen die uit het hoofd geleerd moeten worden (bv. `child` – `children`, `man` – `men`, `mouse` – `mice`, `ox` – `oxen`, `foot` – `feet`, `goose` – `geese`, `tooth` – `teeth`, `louse` – `lice`, `phenomenon` – `phenomena`, `criterion` – `criteria`). * **Woorden die altijd in het meervoud staan:** Sommige woorden zijn altijd meervoud, zelfs als ze naar één ding verwijzen (bv. `people`, `police`, `stairs`, `clothes`, `arms`, `thanks`, `earnings`, `savings`). * **Woorden die eindigen op -s maar enkelvoudig zijn:** Sommige woorden eindigen op `-s` maar hebben een enkelvoudige betekenis (bv. `news`, `politics`, `physics`). * **Collectieve zelfstandige naamwoorden (Collective nouns):** Deze verwijzen naar een groep. Afhankelijk van of de nadruk ligt op het individu binnen de groep of op de groep als een geheel, kan het werkwoord enkelvoudig of meervoudig zijn (bv. `The team is playing well` versus `The team are arguing amongst themselves`). * **Enkele/dubbele eenheden:** Woorden die artikelmaten aangeven, zoals `dozen`, `hundred`, `thousand`, `million`, krijgen geen meervoudsvorm als ze direct door een getal worden voorafgegaan (bv. `three million people`). Echter, als ze zelfstandig worden gebruikt, krijgen ze wel een meervoud (bv. `millions of people`). Artikelen van kleding of objecten die uit twee gelijke delen bestaan, zijn altijd meervoudig (bv. `trousers`, `pyjamas`). #### **Pronunciatie van de '-s' uitgang** De uitgang `-s` (in meervouden, derde persoon enkelvoud en genitieven) kan op drie manieren worden uitgesproken: * **/ɪz/ (of /əz/):** Na een sisklank (-s, -z, -ch, -sh, -x). * **/s/:** Na een stemloze medeklinker die geen sisklank is. * **/z/:** Na een stemhebbende medeklinker (die geen sisklank is) of na een klinker. ### 4.4 De genitief (bezitsvorm) De genitief, ook wel de bezitsvorm genoemd, toont de relatie van een persoon of entiteit tot iets anders. * **Vorming:** * **Enkelvoudige zelfstandige naamwoorden:** Toevoeging van `’s` (bv. `Sally's motorbike`, `the dog's life`). * **Meervoudige zelfstandige naamwoorden die eindigen op -s:** Toevoeging van een apostrof (`’`) na de `-s` (bv. `the students' books`). * **Meervoudige zelfstandige naamwoorden die niet eindigen op -s:** Toevoeging van `’s` (bv. `children's toys`). * **Bij namen die eindigen op -s:** In klassieke namen of namen van beroemde personen kan de vorm eindigen op `’` of `’s` (bv. `James’s`, `Socrates’`). In de meeste andere gevallen wordt `’s` gebruikt. * **Bij twee gekoppelde namen:** De `’s` wordt toegevoegd aan de tweede naam (bv. `Fred and Mary's flat`). * **Gebruik:** * Om bezit aan te tonen (bv. `my sister's friend`). * Bij persoonlijke en onbepaalde voornaamwoorden (bv. `someone's passport`). * Bij namen van dieren (bv. `the cat's toy`). * Bij groepen mensen of plaatsen waar mensen wonen/werken (bv. `the world's problems`, `the city's economy`). * Bij tijdsperioden (bv. `two days' work`). #### **De dubbele genitief** De dubbele genitief is een constructie die bezit uitdrukt door een combinatie van de genitief-`'s` of een `of`-constructie. * **Drie mogelijkheden om bezit uit te drukken:** 1. **Genitief:** `my sister's friend`. 2. **`of`-constructie:** `the name of the book`. 3. **Naam-samengesteld woord of naam-frase:** `the garage roof`. * **Dubbele genitief (combinatie van 1 & 2):** * `A friend of my sister's`. * `A habit of Ann's`. * Dit is ook mogelijk met voornaamwoorden: `a friend of mine`, `a book of yours`. De dubbele genitief wordt vaak gebruikt om te voorkomen dat een `of`-constructie te lang wordt, of om een subtiel verschil in betekenis te benadrukken. #### **Specifieke gevallen en alternatieven** * **Niet voor dingen:** De `of`-constructie wordt meestal gebruikt voor dingen, niet voor bezit, zoals `the end of the road`, `the smell of the sea`. * **Voorzetsels met posities:** Gebruik `of` met woorden als `front`, `back`, `top`, `bottom`, en `end`. * **Veelgebruikte combinaties:** Voor bekende en alledaagse combinaties van zelfstandige naamwoorden (noun compounds), wordt de `of`-constructie vaak vermeden (bv. `a war film`, `a water bottle`). * **Samenstellingen (Compounds):** In Engelse samenstellingen komt het specifiekere zelfstandig naamwoord altijd eerst (bv. `running shoes`, `a water bottle`). * **Genitief voor levende wezens, `of` voor levenloze dingen:** Over het algemeen wordt de genitief gebruikt om bezit van levende wezens aan te duiden, terwijl de `of`-constructie wordt gebruikt voor levenloze objecten. Er zijn echter uitzonderingen, vooral bij uitdrukkingen van tijd, afstand en bij gebruik van `a number of`. **Tip:** Let op het verschil tussen samenstellingen (`noun + noun`) en `preposition + noun` (bv. `a war film` versus `a film about a dog`). ### 4.5 Gebruik van specifieke woorden en uitdrukkingen Dit gedeelte van de tekst bevat een aantal veelvoorkomende grammaticale aandachtspunten en veelvoorkomende fouten. * **Its vs. It's:** * `Its` is het bezittelijk voornaamwoord van `it`. * `It's` is een samentrekking van `it is` of `it has`. * **Who's vs. Whose:** * `Who's` is een samentrekking van `who is` of `who has`. * `Whose` is een bezittelijk voornaamwoord dat "van wie/wat" betekent en wordt gebruikt in vragen en betrekkelijke bijzinnen. * **Your vs. You're:** * `Your` is het bezittelijk voornaamwoord van `you`. * `You're` is een samentrekking van `you are`. * **There vs. Their vs. They're:** * `There` wordt gebruikt als inleidend subject (bv. `there is`, `there are`) of als bijwoord van plaats. * `Their` is het bezittelijk voornaamwoord van `they`. * `They're` is een samentrekking van `they are`. * **To vs. Too vs. Two:** * `To` wordt gebruikt als voorzetsel of om een infinitief te vormen. * `Too` betekent "ook" of "te" (overmatig). * `Two` is het cijfer 2. * **Some vs. Any:** * `Some` wordt gebruikt in bevestigende zinnen, verzoeken en aanbiedingen. Het kan ook een benaderd aantal aanduiden. * `Any` wordt gebruikt in ontkennende zinnen, na woorden als `never`, en in vragen. In bevestigende zinnen kan `any` betekenen "het maakt niet uit welke". * **Much vs. Many:** * `Much` wordt gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (enkelvoud). * `Many` wordt gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden (meervoud). * `A lot of` of `lots of` kan met beide soorten zelfstandige naamwoorden worden gebruikt en is informeler. * **Little vs. Few / A little vs. A few:** * `Little` (ontelbaar) en `Few` (telbaar) impliceren een negatieve hoeveelheid ("weinig"). * `A little` (ontelbaar) en `A few` (telbaar) impliceren een positieve, zij het kleine, hoeveelheid ("een beetje", "een paar"). * **Less vs. Fewer / Least vs. Fewest:** * `Less` en `Least` worden gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden. * `Fewer` en `Fewest` worden gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden. * **An amount of vs. A number of:** * `An amount of` wordt gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden. * `A number of` wordt gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden. * **Of vs. Off:** * `Of` correspondeert meestal met het Nederlandse "van" en wordt vaak zwak uitgesproken. * `Off` wordt gebruikt in diverse uitdrukkingen en phrasal verbs en wordt niet zwak uitgesproken. * **Than vs. Then:** * `Than` wordt gebruikt in vergelijkingen. * `Then` verwijst naar tijd of opeenvolging. * **Teach vs. Learn:** * `Teach` betekent "lesgeven" (iemand kennis bijbrengen). * `Learn` betekent "leren" (kennis opdoen). * **Raise/Lay vs. Rise/Lie:** * `Raise` (regelmatig) en `Lay` (onregelmatig) zijn transitief (hebben een lijdend voorwerp nodig) en betekenen "veroorzaken dat iets omhoog gaat" of "neerleggen". * `Rise` (onregelmatig) en `Lie` (onregelmatig) zijn intransitief (hebben geen lijdend voorwerp nodig) en betekenen "omhoog gaan" of "liggen". * Er is ook een regelmatige intransitieve `lie` ("liegen"). #### **To Be, To Have (Got), To Do** * **To be:** De vormen van `to be` (am, is, are, was, were, been) worden gebruikt om te beschrijven, situaties aan te geven (`there is/are`) en in de passieve vorm. Let op de samentrekkingen (`'m`, `'re`, `'s`, `isn't`, `aren't`). * **To have (got):** `Have` en `have got` kunnen bezit, relaties en kenmerken uitdrukken. `Have got` is informeler en wordt voornamelijk in de tegenwoordige tijd gebruikt. `Have` functioneert ook als hulpwerkwoord voor de perfecte tijden. * **To do:** `Do` fungeert als hulpwerkwoord in ontkenningen en vragen in de simple present en simple past, en als hoofdwerkwoord. Let op het gebruik van `do` in vragen wanneer het woord dat wordt bevraagd het subject is. #### **Causatieve vorm** De causatieve vorm `have something done` wordt gebruikt om aan te geven dat je iets door iemand anders laat uitvoeren. De structuur is: `Subject + form of to have + object + past participle`. `To get` kan `to have` vervangen in informelere contexten. #### **Obligatie en Modaliteit** * `Have to` en `have got to` drukken beide verplichting uit. `Have to` vereist het gebruik van `to do` in ontkenningen en vragen, terwijl `have got to` dat niet doet. #### **Samentrekkingen 's en 'd** * `'s` kan staan voor `is` of `has`. * `'d` kan staan voor `would` of `had`. #### **Het hulpwerkwoord 'do'** Het hulpwerkwoord `do` wordt gebruikt in ontkennende zinnen, vragen en om nadruk te leggen in de simple present en simple past, wanneer er geen ander hulpwerkwoord aanwezig is. `Do` wordt niet gebruikt als het wh-woord het subject is. Het kan ook worden gebruikt om herhaling van het hoofdwerkwoord te vermijden in korte antwoorden of om nadruk te leggen. #### **Werkwoorden in de tegenwoordige tijd (Present Simple)** * **Vorming:** Het basiswerkwoord wordt gebruikt, met een `-s` of `-es` aan het einde voor de derde persoon enkelvoud. * **Uitspraak van de '-s':** Volgt dezelfde regels als meervoudsuitgangen. * **Gebruik:** * Algemene waarheden en permanente situaties. * Gewoonten en routines. * Reeksen van gebeurtenissen (bv. in instructies). * Live commentaar, demonstraties, recepten. * Observaties en verklaringen. * Toekomstige gebeurtenissen volgens een tijdschema of vast programma. * Bijwoordelijke bepalingen van tijd (`when`, `after`, `until`, `before`) en voorwaarde (`if`) die naar de toekomst verwijzen. #### **Werkwoorden in de tegenwoordige onvoltooide tijd (Present Continuous)** * **Vorming:** `to be` + werkwoord op `-ing`. Let op de spellingregels voor de `-ing` vorm. * **Gebruik:** * Acties die nu (op het moment van spreken) gaande zijn. * Acties die "rond nu" plaatsvinden, zelfs als ze niet exact op het moment van spreken gebeuren. * Tijdelijke situaties. * Langzame, geleidelijke veranderingen en trends. * Herhaalde acties met een ondertoon van irritatie (vaak met `always`). * Achtergrondverhalen in vertellingen. * Vaste afspraken in de toekomst. **Belangrijk:** Stative verbs (werkwoorden die een staat beschrijven in plaats van een actie) worden over het algemeen niet in de continuous vorm gebruikt. Sommige werkwoorden kunnen statisch of dynamisch zijn afhankelijk van de betekenis. #### **Onderscheid Present Simple vs. Present Continuous** Het verschil zit in de focus: * **Present Simple:** Gewoonte, routine, algemene waarheid. * **Present Continuous:** Actie op dit moment, tijdelijke situatie, huidige projecten. #### **Werkwoorden in de verleden tijd (Past Simple)** * **Vorming:** Regelmatige werkwoorden krijgen `-d` of `-ed`. Onregelmatige werkwoorden hebben specifieke verleden tijdsvormen die geleerd moeten worden. * **Uitspraak van de '-ed':** /t/, /d/, of /ɪd/ afhankelijk van de slotklank van het werkwoord. * **Gebruik:** * Afgesloten gebeurtenissen en feiten in het verleden. * Reeksen van acties in het verleden. * Oude gewoonten of routines in het verleden. * Situaties of staten in het verleden. * Na `wish`, `if only`, `it's time`, `I'd rather` als de gewenste situatie in het heden of de toekomst ligt. * In de `if`-clausule van een conditionele type 2. * Om afstand te creëren en beleefder te klinken. #### **Werkwoorden in de verleden onvoltooide tijd (Past Continuous)** * **Vorming:** `was/were` + werkwoord op `-ing`. * **Gebruik:** * Situaties die aan de gang waren op een specifiek moment in het verleden (focus op de duur). * Achtergrondsituaties die onderbroken worden door een actie in de past simple. * Tijdelijke situaties in het verleden. * Herhaalde verleden acties met een ondertoon van irritatie (vaak met `always`). * Om uitspraken beleefder en voorzichtiger te maken. #### **Onderscheid Past Simple vs. Past Continuous** * **Past Simple:** Complete, afgesloten gebeurtenissen. * **Past Continuous:** Acties die aan de gang waren, achtergrond, duur. #### **Tegenwoordige voltooid tegenwoordige tijd (Present Perfect Simple)** * **Vorming:** `have/has` + verleden deelwoord. * **Gebruik:** * Situaties die een link hebben met het heden (resultaat nog zichtbaar, recente gebeurtenis, ervaringen tot nu toe). De tijdsperiode is niet volledig afgesloten. * Met tijdsaanduidingen die een periode tot nu toe aangeven (bv. `yet`, `already`, `so far`, `ever`, `never`, `just`, `recently`, `lately`). * Om nieuws te brengen. * Om aan te geven dat iets nog steeds relevant is in het heden, vaak door het resultaat. * Met statieve werkwoorden en indicatie van frequentie. #### **Tegenwoordige voltooid onvoltooide tijd (Present Perfect Continuous)** * **Vorming:** `have/has been` + werkwoord op `-ing`. * **Gebruik:** * Situaties die tot nu toe (en mogelijk daarna) duren. * Met `since` en `for` om de duur aan te geven. * Voor activiteiten die mogelijk recent zijn gestopt, maar waarvan de effecten nog zichtbaar zijn (vaak met een ondertoon van uitleg, excuus of klacht). **Onderscheid Present Perfect Simple vs. Continuous:** * **Simple:** Focus op voltooide acties binnen een periode tot nu toe, resultaten, ervaringen. * **Continuous:** Focus op de duur van een actie die tot nu toe gaande is of recent is gestopt. #### **Verleden voltooid tegenwoordige tijd (Past Perfect Simple)** * **Vorming:** `had` + verleden deelwoord. * **Gebruik:** * Om te verwijzen naar een situatie die vóór een ander moment of een andere gebeurtenis in het verleden plaatsvond. De tweede, latere gebeurtenis staat meestal in de past simple. * Om onwerkelijkheid of hypothetische situaties in het verleden uit te drukken (bv. na `wish`, in conditionele type 3). * Om een uitspraak beleefder te maken door een grotere afstand tot de realiteit te creëren. #### **Verleden voltooid onvoltooide tijd (Past Perfect Continuous)** * **Vorming:** `had been` + werkwoord op `-ing`. * **Gebruik:** * Om de duur van een actie tot een bepaald moment in het verleden aan te geven. Het is het verleden equivalent van de present perfect continuous. * Met een verklarende functie, om de reden voor een latere gebeurtenis in het verleden te verklaren. **Opmerking:** De past perfect continuous wordt niet gebruikt met statieve werkwoorden of om aantallen aan te geven. --- ## Veelgemaakte fouten om te vermijden - Bestudeer alle onderwerpen grondig voor examens - Let op formules en belangrijke definities - Oefen met de voorbeelden in elke sectie - Memoriseer niet zonder de onderliggende concepten te begrijpen

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | It's | Dit is een informele samentrekking van 'it is' of 'it has'. | | Its | Dit is het bezittelijk voornaamwoord dat aangeeft dat iets van 'it' (het/de) is. | | Who's | Dit is een informele samentrekking van 'who is' of 'who has'. | | Whose | Dit is een bezittelijk voornaamwoord dat 'van wie' of 'waarvan' betekent, gebruikt in vragen en betrekkelijke bijzinnen om eigendom aan te geven. | | Your | Dit is het bezittelijk voornaamwoord dat 'van jou' of 'van u' betekent. | | You're | Dit is een informele samentrekking van 'you are'. | | There | Dit woord wordt gebruikt als een lege inleidende onderwerp in zinnen zoals 'there is' en 'there are', en kan ook een bijwoord van plaats zijn. | | Their | Dit is een bezittelijk voornaamwoord dat 'hun' betekent. | | They're | Dit is een informele samentrekking van 'they are'. | | To | Dit woord kan een voorzetsel zijn, dat altijd voorafgaat aan een zelfstandig naamwoord, of deel uitmaken van een infinitief wanneer het een werkwoord voorafgaat. | | Too | Dit woord is een synoniem voor 'ook' of geeft een overmaat aan wanneer het een bijvoeglijk naamwoord of bijwoord voorafgaat. | | Two | Dit is een getal. | | Some | Dit woord wordt gebruikt in bevestigende zinnen, in verzoeken en aanbiedingen, en om een ongeveer aantal aan te geven. | | Any | Dit woord wordt gebruikt in ontkennende zinnen, na woorden als 'never', en in vragen; in bevestigende zinnen kan het betekenen 'het maakt niet uit welke'. | | Much | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het enkelvoud, met de vergrotende trap van bijvoeglijke naamwoorden, en bij bepaalde werkwoorden die verandering aangeven. | | Many | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het meervoud. | | Little | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het enkelvoud en betekent 'weinig', en kan een negatieve connotatie hebben. | | Few | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het meervoud en betekent 'weinig', en kan een negatieve connotatie hebben. | | A little | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het enkelvoud en betekent 'een beetje', en drukt vaak een positief idee uit. | | A few | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het meervoud en betekent 'een paar', en drukt vaak een positief idee uit. | | Less | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het enkelvoud en met bijvoeglijke naamwoorden of werkwoorden. | | Least | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het enkelvoud en met bijvoeglijke naamwoorden of werkwoorden, en is de overtreffende trap van 'less'. | | Fewer | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het meervoud. | | Fewest | Dit woord wordt gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het meervoud, en is de overtreffende trap van 'fewer'. | | An amount of | Dit wordt gebruikt met ontelbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het enkelvoud. | | A number of | Dit wordt gebruikt met telbare zelfstandige naamwoorden in het meervoud. | | Of | Dit voorzetsel correspondeert meestal met het Nederlandse 'van' en wordt vaak zwak uitgesproken als /əv/. | | Off | Dit woord wordt vaak gebruikt in uitdrukkingen zoals 'have a day off' of in phrasal verbs, en wordt niet zwak uitgesproken. | | Than | Dit woord wordt gebruikt na een vergrotende trap. | | Then | Dit woord verwijst naar tijd of een gelegenheid. | | Teach | Dit werkwoord betekent 'kennis, training of lessen geven aan iemand'. | | Learn | Dit werkwoord betekent 'kennis opdoen door studie of ervaring'. | | Raise | Dit is een regelmatig werkwoord dat 'verhogen' of 'iets doen stijgen' betekent en heeft altijd een lijdend voorwerp. | | Lay | Dit is een onregelmatig werkwoord dat 'neerleggen' of 'iets doen liggen' betekent en heeft altijd een lijdend voorwerp. | | Lie | Dit onregelmatige werkwoord betekent 'liggen' en heeft geen lijdend voorwerp; er is ook een regelmatig werkwoord 'lie' dat 'liegen' betekent. | | Rise | Dit onregelmatige werkwoord betekent 'stijgen' of 'omhoogkomen' en heeft geen lijdend voorwerp. | | To be | Het werkwoord 'to be' is een van de meest fundamentele werkwoorden in het Engels en kent vele vormen en toepassingen, waaronder het uitdrukken van bestaan, toestand en als hulpwerkwoord. | | To have (got) | Dit werkwoord kan 'bezitten' betekenen, of fungeren als hulpwerkwoord in voltooid tijden. De vorm 'have got' is informeler en meer gebruikelijk in het Brits-Engels. | | To do | Dit werkwoord dient als hulpwerkwoord in ontkennende zinnen en vragen in de tegenwoordige en verleden tijd, en kan ook als zelfstandig hoofdwerkwoord fungeren. | | Present Simple | De tegenwoordige tijd die wordt gebruikt voor algemene waarheden, vaste situaties, gewoontes en routines, en voor het beschrijven van een reeks gebeurtenissen. | | Present Continuous | De tegenwoordige tijd die wordt gebruikt voor acties die nu aan de gang zijn, tijdelijke situaties, langzame veranderingen en geplande toekomstige gebeurtenissen. | | Past Simple | De verleden tijd die wordt gebruikt voor afgeronde feiten, gewoontes in het verleden, een reeks opeenvolgende acties in het verleden, en voor toestanden in het verleden. | | Past Continuous | De verleden tijd die wordt gebruikt voor situaties die op een bepaald moment in het verleden voortduurden, achtergrondinformatie gaf, tijdelijke situaties beschreef of irritatie uitdrukte. | | Present Perfect Simple | De voltooid tegenwoordige tijd die wordt gebruikt wanneer de tijd van de gebeurtenis niet gespecificeerd is, maar er een verband is met het heden; het drukt ervaringen, prestaties of recente gebeurtenissen uit. | | Present Perfect Continuous | De voltooid tegenwoordige tijd die wordt gebruikt om de duur van een actie aan te geven die begon in het verleden en tot nu toe doorgaat, vaak met de nadruk op de activiteit zelf. | | Past Perfect Simple | De voltooid verleden tijd die wordt gebruikt om te verwijzen naar een situatie die vóór een ander verleden moment of een andere verleden situatie plaatsvond. | | Past Perfect Continuous | De voltooid verleden tijd die wordt gebruikt om de duur van een actie tot een bepaald punt in het verleden aan te geven, of om de reden voor een latere verleden situatie te verklaren. | | Genitive | De genitief, vaak aangeduid met een apostrof en 's' (of alleen een apostrof voor meervoudige naamwoorden die eindigen op -s), wordt gebruikt om bezit of relatie aan te geven. | | Countable Nouns | Zelfstandige naamwoorden die geteld kunnen worden en een meervoudsvorm hebben. | | Uncountable Nouns | Zelfstandige naamwoorden die niet geteld kunnen worden en geen meervoudsvorm hebben. |

# Introduction to financial vocabulary and concepts This study guide section introduces fundamental financial vocabulary and concepts, covering personal finance basics like budgeting and providing an overview of corporate finance. ## 1\. Introduction to financial vocabulary and concepts This section lays the groundwork for understanding financial terminology, personal financial management, and the core principles of corporate finance. ### 1.1 Unit 1: Let’s talk money This unit focuses on essential verbs and commonly confused words within the financial domain, while also establishing a general understanding of finance. #### 1.1.1 The basics: verbs in finance Understanding the various roles verbs play in financial contexts is crucial for building vocabulary. Many financial terms are derived from verbs. * **To invest:** To commit money or capital with the expectation of financial return. * **To deposit:** To place money into a bank account. * **To waste:** To use or expend carelessly, extravagantly, or fruitlessly. * **To withdraw:** To take money out of an account. * **To accumulate:** To gather or acquire (an increasing number or quantity of something). * **To owe:** To be under obligation to pay or repay someone. * **To transfer:** To move from one place to another. * **Consolidation:** The act of combining several separate loans or financial obligations into a single, new transaction that replaces the old ones. * **To borrow:** To take and use (something belonging to another) with the intention of returning it after use. * **To regulate:** To control or supervise by means of rules and regulations. #### 1.1.2 Language corner: commonly confused words Distinguishing between similar-sounding or similarly spelled words is vital to avoid misunderstandings in financial communication. * **Salary vs. Wages:** Salary typically refers to a fixed amount paid at regular intervals (e.g., monthly or bi-weekly), while wages are usually paid hourly and can vary based on hours worked. * **Net income vs. Revenue:** Revenue is the total income generated by a company from its business operations before any expenses are deducted. Net income, on the other hand, is the profit remaining after all expenses, taxes, and interest have been paid. * **Lend vs. Borrow:** To lend is to give something to someone temporarily, expecting it to be returned. To borrow is to take and use something from someone temporarily, with the intention of returning it. * **Obligation vs. Bond:** An obligation is a moral or legal duty to be indebted to someone or something. A bond is a type of debt security where an issuer owes the holders a debt and is obliged to repay the principal and interest. * **Liability vs. Asset:** A liability is a debt or financial obligation that is owed to another party. An asset is a resource with economic value that an individual, corporation, or country owns or controls with the expectation that it will provide future benefit. #### 1.1.3 Building your vocabulary: finance in general Finance can be broadly categorized, with each category having distinct focuses. * **Finance:** The management of large amounts of money, especially by governments or large companies. It involves the study of money, credit, investments, and financial institutions. * **Personal finance:** The financial planning and management of an individual's or household's money. This includes budgeting, saving, investing, and insurance. * **Public finance:** The study of the role of the government in the economy. It covers government expenditure, taxation, and debt. * **Corporate finance:** Concerns the financial activities of corporations. This includes how companies raise capital, invest in projects, and manage their financial risks. ### 1.2 Unit 2: Personal finance This unit delves into the practicalities of managing personal finances, with a focus on budgeting and the impact of inflation. #### 1.2.1 The basics: let’s talk about budgeting Budgeting is a cornerstone of personal finance, enabling individuals to plan and control their spending to meet their financial goals. * **Budget:** A plan for how to spend your money over a specific period, typically a month. * **Expenses:** The costs incurred to live and operate. * **Fixed expenses:** Costs that remain the same each month and are generally non-negotiable (e.g., rent/mortgage, loan repayments, insurance premiums). * **Flexible expenses:** Costs that can change from month to month and can be adjusted or reduced (e.g., groceries, entertainment, clothing, utilities if usage varies). * **Income:** Money earned or received. * **Gross income:** Total income before any deductions. * **Disposable income:** Income remaining after taxes and other mandatory deductions, available for spending or saving. * **Budget deficit:** A situation where expenses exceed income. * **Balanced budget:** A situation where income equals expenses. * **Emergency fund:** Money set aside to cover unexpected expenses or emergencies. * **Financial plan:** A comprehensive strategy for managing an individual's finances to achieve their short-term and long-term goals. #### 1.2.2 Words in context: the impact of inflation Inflation, the rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising, erodes purchasing power. * **Inflation rate:** The percentage increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. * **Consumer price index (CPI):** A measure that examines the weighted average of prices of a basket of consumer goods and services, such as transportation, food, and medical care. * **Purchasing power:** The value of a currency expressed in terms of the amount of goods or services that one unit of money can buy. Inflation reduces purchasing power. * **(Global) supply chain:** The network of organizations, people, activities, information, and resources involved in moving a product or service from supplier to customer. Disruptions can affect prices. * **Aggregate money supply:** The total amount of money that is in circulation or in existence in a country. #### 1.2.3 Language corner: linking words Linking words (or transition words) are essential for creating coherent and logical connections between ideas and sentences. * **Showing contrast:** * **Whereas:** Used to compare and contrast two different things. * **By contrast:** Used to emphasize the difference between two things. * **Nevertheless:** Used to introduce a statement that contrasts with or seems to contradict what has just been said. * **Although:** Used to introduce a subordinate clause that contrasts with the main clause. * **Showing cause and effect/reason:** * **Consequently:** As a result. * **Therefore:** For that reason; for this purpose. * **Adding information:** * **Furthermore:** In addition; moreover. * **Moreover:** A further point or argument in defense or support of the first. * **Showing sequence/addition:** * **Afterwards:** At a later time; subsequently. * **Then:** After that; next. ### 1.3 Unit 3: Preparation - What is corporate finance? Corporate finance is a critical area that deals with the financial decisions made by businesses. * **Corporate finance:** The field of finance that deals with the financial activities of corporations. It covers how companies raise capital, invest in projects, and manage their financial risks. * **Capital investment:** The purchase of capital goods, such as property, plant, and equipment, by a company. * **Tax considerations:** The impact of various taxes on financial decisions and profitability. * **Financial planning:** The process of setting financial goals and developing strategies to achieve them, including budgeting, saving, and investing for a company. ### 1.4 Unit 3: Corporate finance This unit explores key aspects of corporate finance, including company capital, financial statements, and the concepts of bankruptcy and insolvency. #### 1.4.1 Words in context: company capital Companies require capital to operate and grow. This capital can come from various sources, representing different forms of financial claims on the company. * **Equity:** Represents ownership in a company. It is the residual interest in the assets of an entity after deducting all its liabilities. * **Ordinary share (Common share):** Represents ownership in a company and entitles the holder to voting rights and a share of profits through dividends, which are not predetermined. * **Preferred share:** A class of ownership that has a higher claim on assets and earnings than common stock. Preferred shares typically have a fixed dividend that must be paid out before common shareholders receive any dividends, and they usually do not carry voting rights. * **Debt:** Represents borrowed money that must be repaid, typically with interest. * **Bond:** A type of debt security where the issuer owes the holders a debt and is obliged to repay the principal and interest. Bonds have a predetermined maturity date. * **Security:** A financial instrument that represents ownership (like stocks) or debt (like bonds). * **Principal:** The original amount of a loan or investment, on which interest is calculated. * **Holders:** Individuals or entities that own a security. #### 1.4.2 Financial statements Financial statements are formal records of the financial activities and position of a business, person, or other entity. They provide insights into a company's performance and financial health. * **Income statement (Profit and Loss Statement):** Reports a company's financial performance over a specific accounting period. * **Sales revenue:** The total income generated from the sale of goods or services. * **Cost of Goods Sold (COGS):** The direct costs attributable to the production or purchase of the goods sold by a company. * **Matching principle:** An accounting principle that dictates that expenses should be recognized in the same period as the revenues they help generate. * **Accrual accounting:** An accounting method where revenue and expenses are recorded when they are earned or incurred, regardless of when the cash is actually received or paid. * **EBIT (Earnings Before Interest and Taxes):** A measure of a firm's profit that includes all revenues and all expenses except interest expenses and income tax expenses. * **Balance sheet:** Reports a company's assets, liabilities, and shareholders' equity at a specific point in time. * **Shareholders' equity:** The amount of money that shareholders have invested in a company and the profits that have been retained. It is calculated as Assets - Liabilities. * **Cash (and equivalents):** Includes physical currency, bank deposits, and highly liquid short-term investments that can be readily converted to cash. * **Retained earnings:** The portion of a company's net income that is not paid out as dividends to shareholders but is kept by the company to reinvest in its operations or pay down debt. * **Cash flow statement:** Reports the cash generated and used by a company during a specific period. * **Deferred taxes:** Taxes that are owed but not yet paid, often due to differences between accounting and tax rules. * **Pure cash movement:** Highlights actual cash transactions, often undoing accrual accounting principles to show only cash inflows and outflows. * **Working capital:** The difference between a company's current assets and current liabilities. It indicates the company's liquidity and short-term financial health. * Amounts in parentheses typically indicate negative figures, such as cash outflows or liabilities. #### 1.4.3 The basics: bankruptcy Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay debts. * **To declare bankruptcy:** To formally state that a company is unable to pay its debts. * **Insolvent:** Unable to pay debts owed. * **Liquidation:** The process by which a company (or part of a company) is brought to an end, and its assets and property are redistributed. * **Claim:** A creditor's assertion of a right to payment from the debtor or the debtor's property. * **Lien:** The right to take and hold or sell the property of a debtor as security or payment for a debt or duty. * **Priority:** The ranking of claims that determines the order in which they will be paid if there is not enough money to pay all claims in full. * **Secured debt:** Debt that is backed by a mortgage, pledge of collateral, or other lien; debt for which the creditor has the right to pursue specific pledged property upon default. #### 1.4.4 Concepts related to insolvency Insolvency refers to a state of financial distress where an entity is unable to meet its financial obligations. * **Centre of Main Interests (COMI):** The location of a company's primary place of business and where its main interests are centered. This is a key factor in determining jurisdiction in cross-border insolvency cases. * **Undermined creditworthiness:** A situation where a company's ability to borrow money or obtain credit is weakened due to poor financial performance or reputation. * **Cessation:** The fact or process of ending or being brought to an end. * **To be delinquent on:** To fail to perform an obligation or duty, especially a financial one. * **To fall due:** To become payable or receivable at a specific time. ### 1.5 Unit 4: Preparation - Words in context: what is the NYSE? The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) is a prominent global marketplace for securities. * **NYSE (New York Stock Exchange):** The world's largest securities exchange, providing a marketplace for buying and selling corporate stocks and other securities. * **Auction:** A public sale in which property or merchandise is sold to the highest bidder. In financial markets, it refers to the process of matching buyers and sellers. * **Broker:** An individual or firm that charges a fee or commission for executing buy and sell orders submitted by an investor. * **Dealer:** A person or firm in the business of buying and selling securities for their own account. * **Bid price:** The price at which a buyer is willing to purchase a security. * **Ask price:** The price at which a seller is willing to sell a security. * **Fee:** An amount of money paid for a particular piece of work or service. * **To execute a transaction:** To complete a buy or sell order for a security. ### 1.6 Unit 4: Stock markets This unit introduces stock markets, the types of markets and securities traded, and the various participants involved. #### 1.6.1 The basics: types of markets Stock markets facilitate the trading of securities, connecting buyers and sellers. * **Stock market:** A market where stocks (shares) of publicly listed companies are bought and sold. * **Primary market:** The market where new securities are issued for the first time by corporations or governments to investors. This is how companies raise new capital. * **Secondary market:** The market where previously issued securities are traded between investors. This provides liquidity for investors. * **Over-the-counter (OTC):** A decentralized market where participants trade securities directly with each other without a central exchange. #### 1.6.2 The basics: types of securities Securities are financial instruments that represent ownership or debt. * **Equity securities:** Represent ownership in a corporation. * **Common shares:** See 1.4.1. * **Preference shares (Preferred stock):** See 1.4.1. * **Debt securities (Fixed-income security):** Represent a loan made by an investor to a borrower (typically corporate or governmental). * **Bond:** See 1.4.1. * **Corporate bond:** A debt security issued by a corporation. * **Government bond:** A debt security issued by a national government. * **Maturity date:** The date on which the principal amount of a debt, such as a bond, is due to be repaid. * **Promise of repayment:** A commitment by the issuer to pay back the borrowed amount. * **Interest:** The cost of borrowing money or the return on an investment. #### 1.6.3 Building your vocabulary: derivatives Derivatives are complex financial instruments whose value is derived from an underlying asset. * **Derivative:** A contract between two or more parties whose value is based on an agreed-upon security and that is commonly used for hedging or speculation. The underlying assets can include stocks, bonds, commodities, currencies, interest rates, and market indices. * **To hedge:** To make an investment to reduce the risk of adverse price movements in an asset. * **To speculate:** To engage in risky financial transactions in an attempt to profit from fluctuation in the price of a financial instrument. * **Option:** A contract that gives the investor the right, but not the obligation, to buy (call option) or sell (put option) an asset at a fixed price on or before a specific date. * **Call option:** Gives the holder the right to buy an asset. * **Put option:** Gives the holder the right to sell an asset. * **In-the-money:** When an option is profitable to exercise immediately. * **Out-of-the-money:** When an option is not profitable to exercise immediately. * **Swap:** A customized, individual contract between two parties to exchange interest rates or currencies. * **Forward contract:** A customized contract to buy or sell an asset at a specified price on a future date. * **Future contract:** A standardized contract to buy or sell an asset at a predetermined price at a specified time in the future, traded on an exchange. #### 1.6.4 Language corner: contrasting concepts Understanding contrasting concepts is essential for clear communication, especially when explaining financial products or strategies. * **Market order vs. limit order:** A market order is an instruction to buy or sell a security at the best available current price, while a limit order is an instruction to buy or sell a security only at a specified price or better. * **Bull market vs. bear market:** A bull market is characterized by rising prices, while a bear market is characterized by falling prices. * **Hedge fund vs. mutual fund:** Mutual funds are pooled investment vehicles available to the general public, regulated by government authorities. Hedge funds are private investment partnerships that use aggressive strategies, often with less regulation. * **Ask price vs. bid price:** As discussed in 1.5. #### 1.6.5 The basics: types of investors and how they are protected Investors can be classified based on their investment style, background, and strategy. * **Active strategy:** Involves frequent buying and selling of securities with the aim of outperforming the market. * **Passive strategy:** Involves holding a diversified portfolio designed to mirror a market index, with minimal trading. * **Angel investor:** An individual or group who provides capital for a startup business, usually in exchange for convertible debt or ownership equity. * **P2P lender (Peer-to-peer lender):** An investor who lends money to individuals or businesses through online platforms. * **Personal investor:** An individual who invests their own capital for personal gain. * **Bank:** A financial institution that provides loans and other financial services. They can act as investors by providing capital. * **Venture capitalist:** A type of private equity investor that provides capital to firms exhibiting long-term growth potential, typically in the form of equity or through a structure that enables them to gain a stake in the firm. #### 1.6.6 Words in context: MiFID II/MiFIR MiFID II (Markets in Financial Instruments Directive II) and MiFIR (Markets in Financial Instruments Regulation) are EU regulations aimed at increasing transparency and investor protection in financial markets. * **Purpose of MiFID II/MiFIR:** To improve the transparency, efficiency, and competitiveness of financial markets, and to enhance investor protection. * **Harmonised protection:** A standardized level of investor protection across different member states of the European Union. * **Directive:** An EU law that sets out a goal that all EU countries must achieve. However, it is up to the individual countries to decide how to do this. * **Regulation:** An EU law that is binding and directly applicable in all member states without the need for national legislation. * **Dark pool:** A private forum or exchange for trading securities that is not accessible by the investing public. Trades are not disclosed in real-time. * **Central counterparty (CCP):** An entity that acts as an intermediary between buyers and sellers in a transaction, reducing counterparty risk by guaranteeing the completion of the trade. * * * # Corporate finance and financial statements This section explores the fundamental aspects of corporate finance, focusing on company capital, the essential financial statements, and concepts related to financial distress. ### 2.1 What is corporate finance? Corporate finance deals with the sources of funding and the capital structure of corporations, the actions that managers take to increase the value of the firm to shareholders, and the tools and analysis used to allocate financial resources. Key areas within corporate finance include: * **Capital investment:** The process of planning and managing a firm's long-term investments. This involves deciding which projects or assets to invest in to generate future returns. * **Tax considerations:** Understanding and managing the tax implications of business decisions. This involves optimizing the tax burden legally to maximize after-tax profits. * **Financial planning:** The process of setting financial goals and developing strategies to achieve them. This encompasses budgeting, forecasting, and managing financial risks. ### 2.2 Company capital Company capital refers to the financial resources a company needs to operate and grow. This can be sourced through various means, and understanding its structure is crucial. #### 2.2.1 Equity capital Equity represents ownership in a company. * **Ordinary shares:** These are common shares that represent ownership in a company and entitle the owner to a vote in matters put before shareholders, typically in proportion to their percentage ownership. They do not have predetermined dividend amounts. * **Preferred shares:** This class of ownership in a corporation has a higher claim on its assets and earnings than common stock. Preferred shares generally have a dividend that must be paid out before dividends to common shareholders, and these shares usually do not carry voting rights. #### 2.2.2 Debt capital Debt represents borrowed money that must be repaid, usually with interest. * **Bonds:** A bond is a security that consists of a debt where the authorized issuer owes the holders a debt and is obliged to repay the principal and interest. * **Corporate bonds:** These are debt securities issued by corporations. * **Government bonds:** These are debt securities issued by governments. #### 2.2.3 Other concepts related to capital * **Shareholders' equity:** This is the total value of a person or company, calculated by subtracting liabilities from total assets. In accounting, equity is often represented as assets minus liabilities. * **Working capital:** This refers to the difference between a company's current assets and current liabilities. It represents the operational liquidity of a business and is a key indicator of short-term financial health. A positive working capital indicates that a company has sufficient funds to meet its short-term obligations. ### 2.3 Financial statements Financial statements are formal records of the financial activities and position of a business, person, or other entity. They provide a snapshot of a company's financial performance and health. The three primary financial statements are: #### 2.3.1 Income statement The income statement, also known as the profit and loss (P&L) statement, reports a company's financial performance over a specific accounting period. * **Sales revenue:** The total amount of money a company earns from its primary business activities, such as selling goods or services. * **Cost of goods sold (COGS):** The direct costs attributable to the production or purchase of the goods sold by a company. * **EBIT (Earnings Before Interest and Taxes):** A measure of a firm's profit that includes all revenues and expenses except interest expenses and income taxes. It reflects the profitability of a company's core operations. * **Matching principle:** This accounting principle requires that expenses be recorded in the same period as the revenues that generated them. * **Accrual accounting:** This method of accounting recognizes revenues when earned and expenses when incurred, regardless of when cash is exchanged. #### 2.3.2 Balance sheet The balance sheet provides a summary of a company's assets, liabilities, and shareholders' equity at a specific point in time. It is based on the fundamental accounting equation: Assets = Liabilities + Shareholders' Equity. * **Assets:** Resources owned by a company that have economic value and are expected to provide future benefits. * **Liabilities:** Obligations of a company to pay money or provide services to other entities. * **Shareholders' equity:** The residual interest in the assets of an entity after deducting all its liabilities. * **Cash and equivalents:** Highly liquid investments that can be readily converted into cash, such as short-term government bonds or money market funds. * **Retained earnings:** The portion of a company's net income that is not distributed to shareholders as dividends but is instead kept by the company to reinvest in its business or pay off debt. The term "retained" refers to the earnings being kept within the company. #### 2.3.3 Cash flow statement The cash flow statement tracks the movement of cash into and out of a company during a specific period. It is divided into three main activities: operating, investing, and financing. * **Deferred taxes:** Taxes that are owed but not yet paid. They arise from the difference between accounting profit and taxable profit. * **Pure cash movements:** The cash flow statement "undoes" accrual accounting principles to show the actual cash movements in and out of the business. This provides a clearer picture of a company's ability to generate cash. > **Tip:** The cash flow statement is crucial because it shows the actual cash a company has available to meet its obligations, unlike the income statement which can be affected by accrual accounting. ### 2.4 Bankruptcy and insolvency concepts Bankruptcy and insolvency refer to a company's inability to meet its financial obligations. #### 2.4.1 Bankruptcy Bankruptcy is a legal process that allows individuals or businesses that cannot repay their debts to a lender to be discharged from those debts. * **Bankruptcy:** The legal status of a person or entity that is unable to pay their debts. * **Insolvent:** A company that is no longer able to pay its debts. * **Liquidation:** The process by which a company (or part of a company) is brought to an end, and the assets and property of the company are redistributed. This can be voluntary or compulsory. * **Claim:** A creditor's assertion of a right to payment from the debtor or the debtor's property. * **Lien:** The right to take and hold or sell the property of a debtor as security or payment for a debt or duty. * **Priority:** The ranking of unsecured claims that determines the order in which unsecured claims will be paid if there is not enough money to pay all unsecured claims in full. * **Secured debt:** Debt that is backed by a mortgage, pledge of collateral, or other lien; debt for which the creditor has the right to pursue specific pledged property upon default. * **Declared bankruptcy:** To formally file for bankruptcy protection when a company's financial difficulties prevent it from continuing to operate independently. > **Tip:** While bankruptcy is a formal legal process, insolvency describes the state of being unable to pay debts, which may or may not lead to bankruptcy. #### 2.4.2 Concepts related to insolvency * **Undermined creditworthiness:** A situation where a company's ability to borrow money is significantly reduced due to its poor financial standing or past defaults. * **Center of Main Interests (COMI):** In the context of cross-border insolvency, COMI refers to the jurisdiction where a debtor company's main interests are located, which often determines which country's insolvency laws will apply. * **Pursuant to:** In accordance with or according to. * **Cessation:** The process of ending or stopping. * **To be delinquent on:** To be late or overdue in making a payment. * **To fall due:** When a payment or debt becomes payable. * **To enjoy discretion:** To have the freedom to make a decision or act as one thinks best. * * * # Stock markets and investment instruments This section delves into the fundamental components of stock markets, exploring various market types, securities, derivatives, and the protections afforded to different investor categories. ### 3.1 Types of markets Stock markets facilitate the buying and selling of securities. They can be broadly categorized into primary and secondary markets. * **Primary market:** This is where securities are created and sold for the first time. Issuers, such as corporations or governments, sell newly issued stocks or bonds directly to investors to raise capital. * **Secondary market:** This is where previously issued securities are traded among investors. The issuing entity is not directly involved in these transactions. This market provides liquidity for investors, allowing them to buy and sell securities after their initial issuance. Two prominent examples of secondary markets in the United States are the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) and the NASDAQ. * **New York Stock Exchange (NYSE):** The NYSE is one of the world's largest securities exchanges, serving as a marketplace for trading a vast number of corporate stocks and other securities. It lists a significant percentage of major indices like the S&P 500 and the Dow Jones Industrial Average, as well as many of the world's largest corporations. Trading on the NYSE historically involved brokers on the trading floor who would auction securities, with brokers setting "bid" prices (what they are willing to pay) and dealers matching sellers who set "ask" prices (what they are willing to sell for). Dealers profit from the difference between the bid and ask prices. While floor trading still exists, a substantial portion of transactions now occur electronically. * **NASDAQ:** The NASDAQ is another major U.S. stock exchange known for its technology-heavy listings. It operates primarily as an electronic market, with computers matching buyers and sellers. **Over-the-counter (OTC) market:** This is a decentralized market where participants trade securities directly with each other, rather than through a central exchange. Prices are typically determined by negotiation between buyers and sellers, and it's common for less liquid or smaller companies' securities to be traded OTC. ### 3.2 Types of securities Securities are financial instruments that represent an ownership position in a publicly-traded corporation (stock), a creditor relationship with a governmental body or a corporation (bond), or rights to ownership as represented by an option. There are two fundamental types of securities: equity securities and debt securities. #### 3.2.1 Equity securities Equity securities represent ownership in a corporation. Holders of equity securities are known as shareholders. * **Common shares (Ordinary shares):** These are the most prevalent type of stock. They represent ownership in a corporation and typically come with voting rights, allowing shareholders to participate in key company decisions. Common shareholders are entitled to a share of the company's profits (through dividends) and its assets in case of liquidation, but only after debt holders and preferred shareholders have been paid. Their return is linked to the company's fortunes. * **Preferred shares (Preference shares):** These are a class of ownership that has a higher claim on a company's assets and earnings than common stock. Preferred shareholders usually receive a fixed dividend that must be paid out before any dividends are paid to common shareholders. They generally do not carry voting rights. #### 3.2.2 Debt securities Debt securities represent a loan made by an investor to a borrower (typically a corporation or government). The borrower promises to repay the principal amount of the loan on a specific date (maturity date) and usually pays periodic interest payments. These are also known as fixed-income securities. * **Bonds:** Bonds are a type of debt security where the issuer owes the holders a debt and is obliged to repay the principal and interest at a specified maturity date. * **Corporate bonds:** Issued by corporations to raise capital. * **Government bonds:** Issued by national governments to finance their spending. * **Other debt instruments:** Various other forms of debt exist, such as notes, debentures, and certificates of deposit, each with specific terms regarding repayment and interest. ### 3.3 Derivatives Derivatives are a class of securities whose value is dependent upon or derived from one or more underlying assets. The derivative itself is a contract between two or more parties. Its value is determined by fluctuations in the underlying asset, which can include stocks, bonds, commodities, currencies, interest rates, and market indices. Derivatives are primarily used for two main purposes: speculation and hedging investments. * **Speculation:** Using derivatives to bet on the future direction of an asset's price, aiming to profit from price movements. * **Hedging:** Using derivatives to reduce or offset the risk of adverse price movements in an underlying asset. #### 3.3.1 Types of derivatives * **Options:** An option is a contract that gives the investor the \_right, but not the obligation, to buy (call option) or sell (put option) an asset at a fixed price on or before a specified date. If the option is exercised, the investor can be "in-the-money" (profitable) or "out-of-the-money" (unprofitable). * **Futures Contracts:** A futures contract is a standardized legal agreement to buy or sell a particular commodity, asset, or security at a predetermined price at a specified time in the future. Futures contracts are standardized for quality and quantity to facilitate trading on a futures exchange. * **Forward Contracts:** Similar to futures, a forward contract is a customized contract between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a specified price on a future date. They are often used for hedging but are not standardized and are traded over-the-counter. * **Swaps:** A swap is a derivative contract through which two institutions exchange interest rates or currencies. They are customized and individual contracts, often used for hedging or speculation. ### 3.4 Types of investors and how they are protected Investors can be classified in various ways, including by their investment style, background, and strategy. Understanding these classifications is crucial for understanding regulatory protections. #### 3.4.1 Investor classification * **Active vs. Passive Strategy:** * **Active strategy:** Investors actively manage their portfolios, making frequent buy and sell decisions in an attempt to outperform market benchmarks. They often conduct in-depth research and analysis. * **Passive strategy:** Investors aim to match the performance of a market index by holding a diversified portfolio of securities that mirror the index. This approach typically involves less trading and lower fees. * **Investor Backgrounds:** * **Angel investor:** Typically an individual or group of individuals who provide capital to startups or small businesses in exchange for equity. They often invest in early-stage companies with high growth potential. * **P2P lender:** An investor who lends money to individuals or businesses through online peer-to-peer lending platforms. * **Personal investor (Retail investor):** An individual investing their own capital for personal gain. They may invest in various opportunities, including businesses, stocks, and bonds. * **Venture capitalist (VC):** An investor who invests in startups and small businesses that have been deemed to have long-term growth potential. VCs typically invest in exchange for equity. * **Bank:** Banks act as investors by providing loans to businesses and individuals, earning returns through interest payments. #### 3.4.2 Investor protection Regulatory frameworks exist to protect investors from fraud, manipulation, and unfair practices. * **MiFID II/MiFIR (Markets in Financial Instruments Directive II / Markets in Financial Instruments Regulation):** These EU regulations aim to ensure a high degree of harmonized protection for investors in financial instruments. They cover areas such as transparency, market structure, and investor conduct. * **Harmonised protection:** This refers to a consistent and uniform level of investor protection across all member states of the European Union. * **Directive vs. Regulation:** A directive sets out a goal that all EU countries must achieve, but it is up to each country to decide how to implement it into national law. A regulation is a binding legislative act that must be applied in its entirety across the EU. * **Dark Pools:** These are private financial forums or exchanges for trading securities. They are called "dark" because they are generally inaccessible to the investing public. Trades executed in dark pools are typically not reported publicly until after they have been completed, leading to a lack of pre-trade transparency. * **Central Counterparty (CCP):** A CCP acts as an intermediary between buyers and sellers in financial transactions, becoming the buyer to every seller and the seller to every buyer. This role is crucial in managing counterparty risk, as it guarantees the completion of trades even if one party defaults. > **Tip:** Understanding the distinction between different investor types (e.g., retail vs. institutional, active vs. passive) is important for grasping the varying levels of regulatory scrutiny and protections they receive. Institutional investors, due to their sophistication and size, often have different regulatory requirements and protections than individual retail investors. * * * # Common language errors and vocabulary building This section focuses on common pitfalls in financial English, including subject-verb agreement and precise word usage, alongside effective strategies for expanding one's financial vocabulary. ### 4.1 Common Language Errors This subsection details frequent mistakes students make, which can negatively impact their grades and professional communication. #### 4.1.1 Subject/verb agreement A verb must agree in number (singular or plural) with its subject. A singular subject requires a singular verb, and a plural subject requires a plural verb. Teachers are particularly attentive to the absence of the '-s' ending on third-person singular subjects in the present tense. > **Example:** > > * ✅ CORRECT: "That company **is** listed on the Stock Exchange." > > * ✅ CORRECT: "Companies **benefit** from additional funding." > > * ❌ WRONG: "He **work** for InBev." (Should be "He works") > #### 4.1.2 Adjective/Adverb An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun and is often used with the verb 'to be'. An adverb, on the other hand, modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Many adjectives are formed by adding '-ly' to another adjective. > **Example:** > > * "A **successful** firm." (Adjective modifying the noun "firm") > > * "He **is successful**." (Adjective used with the verb 'to be') > > * "He negotiated the deal **successfully**." (Adverb modifying the verb "negotiated") > > * "A **successfully modified** product." (Adverb modifying the adjective "modified") > #### 4.1.3 Uncountable nouns Uncountable nouns, such as \_advice, \_information, \_transport, \_research, and \_training, do not have singular or plural forms. They cannot be used with articles like "a" or "an," nor with quantifiers like "many" or "few." > **Example:** > > * ❌ WRONG: "I gave him **an advice**." > > * ✅ CORRECT: "I gave him **some advice**." or "I gave him **a piece of advice**." > #### 4.1.4 Commonly confused words Several pairs of words are frequently mistaken for one another. It is crucial to understand their distinct meanings and usage. * **To vs. too:** * `to`: Used as a preposition (e.g., "a trip to London") or an infinitive marker (e.g., "something to do," "to work"). * `too`: Used as an adverb, indicating excess (e.g., "too red," "too much"). * **They’re vs. their vs. there:** * `they're`: Contraction of "they are." * `their`: Possessive pronoun (e.g., "their home"). * `there`: Indicates a place or existence. * **Were vs. where:** * `were`: Past tense of "to be." * `where`: Interrogative adverb used to ask about place. * **Then vs. than:** * `then`: Refers to time (e.g., "Then she kissed me."). * `than`: Used for comparison (e.g., "larger than him"). * **Your vs. you’re:** * `your`: Possessive pronoun (e.g., "your book"). * `you’re`: Contraction of "you are." * **Of vs. off:** * `off`: Can indicate separation or a state of being turned off (e.g., "The plane took off," "Switch off the light," "gives off a suspicious smell"). * `of`: Indicates possession, origin, or composition (e.g., "made of wool," "of Spanish descent," "member of a social club"). > **Tip:** Create flashcards or a personal dictionary with these commonly confused words, including their definitions and example sentences, to aid memorization. #### 4.1.5 Use of texting language Avoid informal abbreviations and language typically found in text messages (e.g., "u" for "you," "i" for "I"). Maintain the appropriate language register, whether formal or informal, depending on the context. ### 4.2 Building your vocabulary Effective vocabulary building in finance involves understanding core concepts, recognizing word families, and actively engaging with new terms. #### 4.2.1 Understanding finance categories Finance can be broadly divided into three major areas: * **Personal finance:** Deals with the financial decisions and activities of individuals and households, such as budgeting, saving, investing, and managing debt. * **Public finance:** Concerns the financial activities of governments, including taxation, government spending, and debt management. * **Corporate finance:** Focuses on the financial decisions and actions of corporations, including capital investment, financial planning, and tax considerations. #### 4.2.2 Word families and derivations Recognizing how words can change form (e.g., a verb becoming a noun or adjective) is a powerful tool for vocabulary expansion. > **Example:** > > * **Verb:** `To invest` > > * **Noun:** `Investment` > > * **Adjective:** `Investable` > #### 4.2.3 Creating a personal vocabulary list A structured approach to vocabulary building can significantly enhance learning. A recommended format for a vocabulary list includes: * **Word:** The basic form of the word (verb or concept). * **Synonym:** Other words with similar meanings, useful for understanding nuances (caution: not all synonyms are appropriate in legal or specific financial contexts). * **Definition:** A clear explanation of the word, ideally from the syllabus or a reliable dictionary. The goal is to be able to explain the word, not necessarily to memorize it verbatim. * **Sample sentence:** An example sentence demonstrating the correct usage of the word in its intended context. It's important to ensure the sample sentence reflects the correct meaning of the word, especially for words with multiple definitions. > **Tip:** Do not translate words directly into your native language. Focus on understanding and using the word correctly in English. #### 4.2.4 Vocabulary related to specific financial topics * **Budgeting:** Key terms include \_fixed expenses, \_flexible expenses, \_income, \_expenses, \_disposable income, \_balanced budget, \_budget deficit, \_emergency fund, and \_risk management. * **Inflation:** Concepts such as \_inflation rate, \_consumer price index, \_purchasing power, and \_deflation are crucial. * **Corporate Finance:** Vocabulary encompasses \_capital structuring, \_financial planning, \_share, \_bond, \_equity, \_debt, \_articles of association, and \_memorandum of association. * **Bankruptcy and Insolvency:** Essential terms include \_insolvent, \_liquidation, \_claim, \_lien, \_priority, \_secured debt, \_voluntary liquidation, and \_compulsory winding-up. * **Stock Markets:** Understanding terms like \_broker, \_dealer, \_primary market, \_secondary market, \_stock exchange, \_equity security, \_debt security, \_derivative, \_to hedge, and \_to speculate is vital. * **Types of Securities:** Differentiating between \_equity securities (e.g., \_ordinary share, \_preference share) and \_debt securities (e.g., \_corporate bond, \_government bond) is fundamental. * **Derivatives:** Key terms include \_swap, \_option, \_forward contract, \_future contract, \_call option, and \_put option. * **Types of Investors:** Familiarity with categories such as \_angel investor, \_venture capitalist, and \_personal investor is important. > **Tip:** When encountering new vocabulary, try to identify its root, prefix, and suffix to understand its meaning and potential derivatives. This strengthens your grasp of word families. * * * ## Common mistakes to avoid * Review all topics thoroughly before exams * Pay attention to formulas and key definitions * Practice with examples provided in each section * Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Finance | The management of large amounts of money, especially by governments or large companies; the management of money and investments. | | Budgeting | The process of creating a plan to spend your money. It involves tracking income and expenses to allocate funds effectively. | | Inflation | A general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing value of money; the rate at which prices are rising and consequently the purchasing power of currency is falling. | | Corporate finance | The division of finance dealing with financial activities of corporations, including funding, capital structuring, and investment decisions. | | Financial statements | Formal records of the financial activities and position of a business, person, or other entity. Key statements include the income statement, balance sheet, and cash flow statement. | | Bankruptcy | A legal status of a person or entity that cannot repay debts; it involves a court-supervised process for dealing with insolvent debtors. | | Insolvency | The state of being unable to pay one's debts; the inability to meet financial obligations as they fall due. | | Stock markets | A centralized or decentralized market where shares of publicly-traded companies are bought and sold, facilitating the exchange of ownership stakes. | | Securities | Tradable financial assets, such as stocks and bonds, that represent ownership or a creditor relationship with an entity. | | Derivatives | Financial contracts whose value is derived from an underlying asset, such as stocks, bonds, commodities, or currencies; used for hedging or speculation. | | Equity securities | Securities that represent ownership in a corporation, such as common stock and preferred stock, entitling holders to a share of profits and assets. | | Debt securities | Securities that represent borrowed money that must be repaid, usually with interest, such as bonds and debentures. | | Investor protection | Measures and regulations designed to safeguard investors from fraudulent or unfair practices in financial markets. | | Liability | A person or entity's legal responsibility for something, especially debts or financial obligations. | | Asset | Anything of value owned by an individual or company, which can be converted into cash. | | Working capital | The difference between a company's current assets and current liabilities, representing the company's short-term financial health and operational efficiency. | | Shareholder's equity | The value of a company's assets that belongs to its owners or shareholders; calculated as total assets minus total liabilities. | | EBIT | Earnings Before Interest and Taxes; a measure of a company's operating profit before accounting for interest expenses and income taxes. | | COGS | Cost of Goods Sold; the direct costs attributable to the production or purchase of the goods sold by a company during a period. | | Primary market | A market where securities are created and sold for the first time, such as during an initial public offering (IPO). | | Secondary market | A market where previously issued securities are bought and sold among investors, such as stock exchanges. |

# Introduction to English linguistics and core concepts This section introduces the fundamental definition of linguistics, its various branches, and key concepts such as synchronic vs. diachronic and descriptive vs. prescriptive approaches to language study. ### 1.1 What is linguistics Linguistics is the systematic study of human language, focusing on the unique human capacity to express ideas and feelings through voluntarily produced speech sounds or their equivalents, such as gestures in sign languages. Scholars who engage in the systematic study of language are known as linguists, grammarians, communication experts, or philologists. To facilitate precise study, linguists break down complex questions into smaller, more manageable ones, leading to various specialized branches of linguistics [1](#page=1). Some examples of these branches include: * **Evolutionary Linguistics:** Investigates how and why language developed [1](#page=1). * **Historical/Diachronic Linguistics:** Examines how and why language constantly changes over time [1](#page=1). * **1st Language Acquisition:** Studies how children acquire language [1](#page=1). * **Multilingualism:** Explores how speakers of multiple languages use them in real life [1](#page=1). * **Neurolinguistics:** Investigates how and where language is stored and processed in the brain [1](#page=1). * **Cognitive Linguistics:** Analyzes the interaction between language and cognition [1](#page=1). * **Functional Linguistics:** Focuses on the communicative functions of language [1](#page=1). * **Typology:** Compares and contrasts how languages differ from each other [2](#page=2). ### 1.2 Six core areas of linguistics Linguistics can be broadly divided into six core areas: 1. **Phonetics:** The study of speech sounds, their articulation, and perception. It can be examined from various perspectives, such as social phonetics or the phonetics of child language [2](#page=2). 2. **Phonology:** Focuses on the sound system of a language as an abstract system. It accounts for variations in pronunciation, such as dialectal differences [2](#page=2). 3. **Morphology:** Deals with morphemes, such as prefixes, and their function and organization within words [2](#page=2). 4. **Syntax:** The study of sentence structure and grammatical rules [2](#page=2). 5. **Semantics:** Concerned with the general meaning of words and sentences, independent of specific contexts [2](#page=2). 6. **Pragmatics:** Analyzes language meaning in relation to its context and its use by speakers [2](#page=2). ### 1.3 Central concepts of linguistics Several key concepts are central to the study of linguistics: * **Synchronic vs. diachronic:** * **Diachronic** refers to the study of language across different points in time, examining changes and differences. The further back in time one looks, the more different a language will be [2](#page=2). * **Synchronic** refers to the study of language at a particular point in time. It involves abstraction, as language is in constant transition, making synchronic studies essential for diachronic research [2](#page=2). > **Tip:** Language is constantly changing and can be viewed as a "complex adaptive system" [2](#page=2). * **Descriptive vs. prescriptive:** * **Descriptive** linguistics focuses on describing how people actually speak and write, observing language in different social circumstances, and recognizing variations such as appropriate/inappropriate, formal/informal, and standard/non-standard usage [2](#page=2). * **Prescriptive** linguistics involves setting rules for how language *should* be spoken or written, often defining proper usage according to an authority and classifying usage as right/wrong or good/bad. Teachers often adopt a prescriptive approach [3](#page=3). * **Langue vs. parole:** * **Langue** refers to the underlying competence or system of understanding a language [3](#page=3). * **Parole** refers to the actual performance or the act of using the language system in practice, including individual usage in specific situations [3](#page=3). * **Signifier vs. signified:** * The **signifier** is the sound or word itself [3](#page=3). * The **signified** is the concept or content being described by the signifier [3](#page=3). ### 1.4 History of linguistics as a science Modern linguistics emerged in the early 20th century, with Ferdinand de Saussure considered its "founding father" and a key figure whose contributions marked a significant milestone [3](#page=3). ### 1.5 Language as an evolutionary "Complex Adaptive System" The concept of language as an evolutionary "Complex Adaptive System" draws parallels with genetics. In this model, new variants can develop, akin to mutations. These variants may compete, leading to the layering (co-existence) or loss of less frequently used variants [3](#page=3). --- # Language as a system of signs and animal communication Humans are fundamentally a symbolic species, possessing an intricate sign system that distinguishes them from other animals. This topic explores the nature of signs, the structure of language as a semiotic system, and contrasts human language with animal communication, highlighting the unique properties of human linguistic abilities [4](#page=4). ### 2.1 Semiotics: The study of signs Semiotics is the study of signs. In this context, a sign is defined as a pairing of a form with a meaning, where the form need not be a physical object; it can also be a sequence of sounds. The understanding of signs is a learned, subconscious process acquired over time, rather than an innate, genetic trait. Linguistic signs primarily involve words and symbols [4](#page=4). #### 2.1.1 Types of signs There are three primary types of signs, categorized by the relationship between their form and meaning: * **Icon**: The relationship between the form and meaning is one of resemblance [4](#page=4). > **Example:** A road sign depicting a silhouette of a person walking represents a pedestrian crossing through visual resemblance. * **Index**: The form implies the concept indirectly through a causal link [4](#page=4). > **Example:** Smoke is an index of fire, as there is a direct causal relationship between them. * **Symbol**: The relationship between the form and meaning is arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent or natural connection. Linguistic signs are typically symbols [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** While these categories are distinct, there can be instances where interpretations vary, and some signs may exhibit characteristics of more than one type. #### 2.1.2 Language as a system of symbols A linguistic sign is composed of two components: the **signifier** (the form) and the **signified** (the meaning) [4](#page=4). > **Tip:** While most linguistic signs are arbitrary symbols, there are exceptions like onomatopoeia, where the sound of a word resembles the sound it describes (e.g., "buzz," "splash"). However, even onomatopoeic words exhibit some arbitrariness, as the sounds dogs make are represented differently in various languages, and they are still considered icons rather than pure symbols. Certain written signs, like pictograms, can also be considered icons due to their visual resemblance to what they represent [5](#page=5). A "word" can be defined as an arbitrary, conventionalized sign or symbol; a form-meaning pairing stored in the human mind (langue) or produced as speech (parole) in spoken, written, or signed modes [5](#page=5). ### 2.2 Animal communication vs. human language Animals undeniably possess communication systems. These systems are used to signal information such as danger or food sources, and can even exhibit regional differences, as seen in bird songs. However, the question of intentionality in animal communication is significant. Vocalization is not a fundamental requirement for language, as sign languages demonstrate [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** Talking birds like parrots may imitate sounds but do not typically dissect them into discrete units that can be recombined in novel ways, suggesting their communication is qualitatively different from human language [6](#page=6). Animal communication systems are qualitatively different from human language systems. The distinction is not always sharp, with examples like dolphin signature whistles and research into chimpanzee communication showing some overlap. However, there is an objective difference, as far as current knowledge indicates [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). #### 2.2.1 Properties of human language Several properties make human language unique when considered collectively: * **Reflexivity**: The ability to refer to the communication system itself; humans can talk about language [6](#page=6). > **Example:** Discussing the grammar rules of English. * **Displacement**: The ability to communicate about things that are not present in time or space. Animal communication is often tied to the immediate situation (here and now), whereas humans can discuss the past, future, hypothetical, or non-existent entities [6](#page=6). > **Example:** Talking about what happened yesterday, planning for next year, or discussing mythical creatures like unicorns. * **Arbitrariness**: The lack of a necessary connection between the signifier and the signified. This is a core feature of most linguistic signs, as discussed earlier [4](#page=4) [6](#page=6). * **Productivity/Open-endedness**: Humans can create an infinite number of novel sentences from a finite set of elements. Animal languages are typically very restricted in their signal repertoire [6](#page=6). > **Example:** A Cicada species might have only four distinct signals, whereas humans can construct vastly complex and unique utterances [6](#page=6). * **Cultural transmission**: Language is learned over time, not instinctively inherited. While animal communication is often instinctive, human language acquisition involves social learning [6](#page=6). * **Duality/Double articulation**: Human language has two levels of structure. At the lowest level, meaningless sounds or signs (phonemes/graphemes) are combined to form meaningful units (morphemes/words). These meaningful units are then combined to form larger structures like sentences [6](#page=6). > **Example:** The sounds /k/, /æ/, /t/ have no inherent meaning individually, but combined, they form the word "cat," which has meaning [6](#page=6). * **Recursion**: The ability to embed statements within other statements, creating potentially infinite linguistic structures through subordination and hypotaxis [6](#page=6). > **Example:** "I think you are a fool" can be embedded into another statement: "You think that I think that you are a fool." This embedding can continue indefinitely [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** By school age, children typically develop complex language systems enabling extended discourse with an infinite number of novel utterances, a capability unmatched by any other known modern creature [7](#page=7). --- # Morphology and word formation Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and the rules that govern them, exploring how the smallest meaningful units, morphemes, combine to form words [8](#page=8). ### 4.1 General definitions Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structure of words and the rules that govern it. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in language. Words can be monomorphemic (composed of a single morpheme) or polymorphemic (composed of multiple morphemes) [8](#page=8). ### 4.2 Types of morphemes Morphemes can be categorized based on their ability to stand alone: * **Free morphemes:** These can appear independently without being attached to other morphemes. Examples include "man," "cat," "these," and "from" [8](#page=8). * **Bound morphemes:** These can only appear in combination with other morphemes. Examples include the bound morphemes in "unhappy," "selfishness," "happily," and "cats" [8](#page=8). Morphemes can also be distinguished by their function and meaning: * **Lexical morphemes:** These are also known as content words and establish a relationship between the word and the world. They include nouns, adjectives, and verbs, such as "tree," "talk," "deep," and "negation". New lexical morphemes can be added and new lexemes created quite easily [9](#page=9). * **Grammatical morphemes:** These are also known as function words and establish a relationship with other parts of the sentence. They include prepositions, articles, conjunctions, pronouns, and markers for plural, case, and tense. Spontaneous neologisms are impossible for grammatical morphemes [9](#page=9). Morphemes can also be categorized by their position relative to a base: * **Prefixes:** These are affixes that appear before the base. Examples include "un-" in "unhappy," "dis-" in "dislike," and "mal-" in "malnutrition" [9](#page=9). * **Suffixes:** These are affixes that appear after the base. Examples include "-ment" in "management," "-hood" in "motherhood," and "-ful" in "cupful" [9](#page=9). Differentiating based on autonomy, important terms include: * **Bases:** These are parts of words, like "mother" in "motherhood," which serve as the foundation for attaching other morphemes [9](#page=9). * **Derivatives:** A word derived from a base, such as "motherhood," is called a derivative [9](#page=9). * **Roots:** Simplex bases are called roots. Roots are the core element in a word and are essential for its existence [9](#page=9). ### 4.3 Inflectional and derivational morphemes Bound morphemes can be either grammatical/inflectional or lexical/derivational [10](#page=10). * **Inflection:** This occurs when grammatical information and categories are expressed by affixes. Examples in modern English include the plural "-s," the possessive "'s," and the regular past tense "-ed" [10](#page=10). * **Derivation:** This occurs when new lexemes are created by adding an affix to a lexical base. Examples include "reality," "fondness," "rewrite," "disclaim," and "friendly" [10](#page=10). It is possible for a single word to contain both derivational and inflectional morphemes [10](#page=10). #### Differences between inflection and derivation | Feature | Inflection | Derivation | | :------------------------- | :------------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------- | | **Word-class change** | Never changes a word-class | Can change word-class | | **Form-meaning relationship** | Stable form-meaning relationship | Variable form-meaning relationship | | **Base attachment** | Suffixes attach to all possible bases | Affixes attach to a subset of possible bases | | **Affix type** | Only suffixes | Suffixes and prefixes | > **Tip:** Inflectional morphemes typically add grammatical information (like number or tense) without changing the core meaning or word class, whereas derivational morphemes often create new words with distinct meanings and can change the word class. #### Unique morphemes "Cranberry morphemes" are a type of bound morpheme that cannot be assigned a specific meaning or grammatical function but serve to distinguish one word from another. An example is the "-berry" in "strawberry" or "cranberry," where the morpheme itself doesn't add an independent meaning related to "berry" in the way that "raspberry" might [11](#page=11). ### 4.4 Allomorphy A morpheme is the smallest meaningful and/or functionally relevant element of an utterance. A morpheme can manifest in different forms, called morphs, which are the formal realizations of a morpheme. Allomorphs are morphs that represent a specific morpheme [11](#page=11). These variations in form can occur for several reasons: 1. **Phonologically conditioned:** The shape of the allomorph depends on the surrounding sounds [11](#page=11). > **Example:** The indefinite article has different allomorphs: $[\partial]$ before consonants, $[\partial n]$ before vowels, and $[ei]$ when stressed [11](#page=11). 2. **Morphologically conditioned:** The shape of the allomorph depends on the morpheme it is attached to [11](#page=11). > **Example:** Bases can change their shape when different affixes follow, such as "exclaim" becoming "exclamation," "able" becoming "ability," and "receive" becoming "receptive" [12](#page=12). 3. **Lexically conditioned:** The shape of the allomorph depends on the entire word [11](#page=11). > **Example:** Irregular plurals, like "sheep" (singular and plural), "oxen" (plural of ox), and "children" (plural of child), are lexically conditioned allomorphs [12](#page=12). ### 4.5 Word formation New words can be added to a language through several processes: * **Coinage/Root creation:** Inventing words from scratch, such as "Google," "blurb," "Kodak," "Marmite," and "Hobbit" [13](#page=13). * **Borrowing:** Adopting words from other languages, like "sushi" and "Kindergarten" [13](#page=13). * **Semantic change:** Giving a new meaning to an existing word, such as "mouse" [13](#page=13). * **Word formation:** Creating new words from existing elements, such as "facebook," "facebooker," "dadbod," "hangry," "catfish," "to vape," "conscious uncoupling" [13](#page=13). #### Productive word formation processes These are the most common and active processes for creating new words: ##### Compounding This process involves combining two or more existing words to create a new one [13](#page=13). * **Examples:** "English students," "lecture hall," "handout," "flashlight," "headset," "textbook," "word-formation," "word-class" [13](#page=13). * **Stress:** In English noun compounds, the stress typically falls on the left-hand member, distinguishing them from noun phrases where the adjective modifies the noun. For example, "English STUdents" refers to students from England, while "ENGlish students" refers to students who study the English language. Similarly, "a green HOUSE" implies a house that is green, whereas "a GREENHOUSE" refers to a specific type of building [14](#page=14). * **Structure:** Compound words consist of a modifier (left-hand element) and a head (right-hand element). They can be nominal, adjectival, or verbal. The right-hand element usually carries the main meaning, syntactic category, word class, and inflections (e.g., plural "-s") [14](#page=14). * **Complexity and Constituency:** A constituent is a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical structure. For instance, in "wild-life sanctuary," "wildlife" functions as a single unit within the larger compound [15](#page=15). ##### Affixation This is a form of derivational morphology where new words are created by adding an affix to a base, often changing the word class [15](#page=15). * **Prefixes:** Rarely change the word class of the derivative. They can have specific meanings, such as "mono-" (one), "poly-" (many), "contra-" (opposite), "ad-" (toward), "un-" (not), and "hyper-" (over) [15](#page=15). * **Suffixes:** Often change the word class of the derivative. They can indicate roles like "somebody doing something" (-er), the "act of" (-al), or the "state of condition" (-ness) [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). > **Note:** A single suffix form, like "-er," can have a range of meanings, such as "person who Xs" or "instrument that Xs". Suffixes also exhibit preferences for certain base word classes [16](#page=16). * **Blocking:** This occurs when an affixation is prevented because a synonymous word already exists. For example, "thief" is used instead of "stealer," and "friendship" instead of "friendhood" [16](#page=16). #### Less productive word formation processes These processes are less frequent but still contribute to word creation: ##### Conversion Also known as "zero-derivation," this is the creation of a new word belonging to a new word class without any overt marking [17](#page=17). * **Examples:** "a gesture" > "to gesture," "water" > "to water," "to flirt" > "a flirt," "Google" > "to google," "empty" > "to empty" [17](#page=17). ##### Shortenings These processes involve the deletion of linguistic material rather than addition, typically without changing the word class or meaning, with the exception of back-formation [17](#page=17). 1. **Clipping (Truncation):** Either the main stressed syllable or the first syllable of a word is retained [17](#page=17). * **Examples:** "Patricia" > "Pat," "Veterinary" > "Vet," "Gymnasium" > "Gym," "Influenza" > "Flu," "Airplane" > "Plane" [17](#page=17). 2. **Blends:** Formed by combining parts of two words [17](#page=17). * **Examples:** "Smoke" + "Fog" = "Smog," "Motel," "hangry," "shopaholic" [17](#page=17). 3. **Abbreviation:** Formed from initial letters or sounds of several words. * **Acronyms:** Pronounced as a word (e.g., UNESCO, RAM, OPEC, TOEFL) [17](#page=17). * **Initialisms:** Pronounced letter by letter (e.g., TV, CD, PC, DJ, OED, BNC, IPA) [17](#page=17). 4. **Back-formation:** This is a reversed process of derivation where a complex word is historically older, often from borrowing. A seeming suffix is later stripped away to fit the pattern of "ordinary" derivation with a change in word class [17](#page=17). * **Examples:** "Editor" > "edit," "Commentator" > "Commentate" [17](#page=17). > **Summary of Shortening Processes:** > * **One Word:** Back-formation, Clippings > * **More than one word:** Blends, Abbreviations (acronyms, initialisms) [18](#page=18). --- # Semantics, lexicon, and meaning relations Semantics is the study of meaning in language, exploring lexical semantics, various theories of word meaning, semantic relations, and the structure of the mental lexicon. ## 4. Semantics, lexicon, and meaning relations Semantics is the study of the nature and structure of meaning in human language. It operates on three levels: lexical semantics (meaning of words/morphemes), sentential/phrasal semantics (meaning of syntactic units larger than words), and discourse semantics (meaning created in context). Semantics focuses on conventional meaning, independent of context, while pragmatics examines intended meaning in context [19](#page=19). ### 4.1 The word and the world: the semiotic triangle The linguistic sign connects a form (word) and a meaning (concept). Early views posited that word meaning is directly related to real-world objects (referential theory). However, not all words refer to tangible objects (e.g., "ask," "if") and multiple expressions can refer to the same object but not have the same meaning (e.g., "the tree," "the plant") [20](#page=20). A more robust view defines meaning as the relationship between a linguistic expression and a mental category or concept used for classification. This conceptual approach involves three elements: the linguistic form, the thought/concept, and the referent in reality. Meaning is therefore a relation between a linguistic form and a concept. Wittgenstein famously proposed that "the meaning of a word is its use in the language" [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). #### 4.1.1 Dimensions of word meaning Word meaning can be understood through several dimensions [21](#page=21): * **Sense vs. Referent:** * **Sense** refers to the mental concept associated with a linguistic expression, belonging to *langue* (the language system). It represents ways of referring to something. For example, the sense of "cow" is roughly "a large domesticated four-legged animal species" [21](#page=21). * **Referent** is the actual object or entity in the world pointed to by a word or phrase when used in *parole* (actual speech). Reference is restricted by sense [21](#page=21). * **Denotation vs. Connotation:** * **Denotation** describes the primary, stable meaning of a linguistic expression, its relationship to concrete external entities [22](#page=22). * **Connotation** includes all associations, ideas, and emotions related to a linguistic expression [22](#page=22). * **Intension vs. Extension:** * **Intension** comprises the semantic properties an object must possess to fall within the word's meaning. It can be represented by a set of semantic features. For example, the intension of "bird" might include [+animate, -human, +wings, +feathers [22](#page=22). * **Extension** refers to the actual entities in the real world that satisfy the intension. The extension of "bird" includes all types of birds [22](#page=22). ### 4.2 Approaches to word meaning and categorization Understanding word meaning is linked to cognitive categorization. When we define a word, we access our mental concept, which influences word usage [22](#page=22). #### 4.2.1 Approaches to categorization Three main approaches explain how we categorize entities [23](#page=23): 1. **Semantic Feature Analysis (Aristotle):** This approach defines categories by a set of necessary and sufficient semantic features [23](#page=23). * *Example:* MAN [+human, +male, +adult; WOMAN [+human, -male, +adult; BACHELOR [+human, +adult, +male, -married [23](#page=23). * *Benefits:* Easy to understand and naturally defines semantic relations [23](#page=23). * *Problems:* Features are themselves concepts (endless cycle), doesn't explain why some members are better examples (e.g., penguin as a bird), features may not be atomic, and it can fail to capture all aspects of word meaning or differentiate words with identical features but different uses [23](#page=23). 2. **Family Resemblance (Wittgenstein):** Wittgenstein argued that not all members of a category share a single common feature, but rather a network of overlapping resemblances, like members of a family [23](#page=23). * *Example:* The category GAME includes activities like tennis, cards, and chess. While not all share every feature (e.g., "requires more than one person"), pairs exhibit various resemblances [24](#page=24). 3. **Prototype Theory (Rosch):** This theory proposes that categories have a graded structure, with some members being more typical or "prototypical" than others [24](#page=24). * *Example:* While a three-legged, toothless albino tiger deviates from typical semantic features (striped, four legs, carnivorous), it is still recognized as a tiger because it shares sufficient resemblances with the prototype [24](#page=24). * *Advantages:* Allows for non-typical members, fuzzy boundaries, associative meaning, and explains linguistic expressions for different grades of belonging (e.g., "typically," "strictly speaking") [24](#page=24). * *Difference from Family Resemblance:* Prototype theory identifies a "core" or most typical member, while family resemblance treats all members as equal in their role within the network [24](#page=24). ### 4.3 The lexicon and word forms The **lexicon** is the set of words in a language. An educated adult speaker knows approximately 25,000 to 80,000 words. The mental lexicon is not an alphabetical list but a structured network where words are connected, evidenced by word association tests. The meaning of words is significantly influenced by their connections to other words [26](#page=26) [27](#page=27). #### 4.3.1 Word forms and their senses Words can have multiple meanings (lexical ambiguity) [27](#page=27). * **Polysemy:** A single word form has multiple related meanings. The meanings share a conceptual link, often stemming from a core meaning [27](#page=27). * *Examples:* "head" (of a person, nail, institution); "mouse" (animal, PC device) [27](#page=27) [28](#page=28). * **Homonymy:** A single word form has multiple unrelated meanings [28](#page=28). * *Examples:* "bat" (animal, sports equipment); "bark" (dog sound, tree covering) [28](#page=28). * **Homophony:** Different word forms share the same pronunciation but have different spellings and meanings [28](#page=28). * *Examples:* "flower/flour," "knight/night" [28](#page=28). * **Homography:** Different word forms share the same spelling but have different pronunciations and meanings [28](#page=28). * *Examples:* "dove" (bird vs. to plunge); "tear" (in eye vs. to rip) [28](#page=28). * **Heteronyms:** A subset of homographs with different pronunciations. ### 4.4 Semantic relations among words Semantic relations describe how word meanings are interconnected [29](#page=29). #### 4.4.1 Synonymy Synonyms are words with different forms but approximately the same meaning [29](#page=29). * *Examples:* "beautiful, lovely, pretty"; "buy, purchase, acquire" [29](#page=29). * **Complications:** Synonyms are rarely perfectly interchangeable due to differences in stylistic level, social/regional variety, or specific contexts. "Near-synonyms" is a more accurate term [29](#page=29). * **Euphemism:** A milder or more agreeable expression used to replace one that is offensive or unpleasant [30](#page=30). #### 4.4.2 Antonymy Antonyms are words with opposite meanings, sharing most semantic components except one [30](#page=30). * *Examples:* "big/small," "clean/dirty," "dead/alive" [30](#page=30). * **Types of Antonyms:** 1. **Gradable antonyms:** Opposites along a continuum, allowing for comparative forms and modification by adverbs (e.g., "hot/cold," "fast/slow") [30](#page=30). 2. **Complementaries:** Mutually exclusive pairs where something is one or the other, with no middle ground (e.g., "alive/dead," "true/false") [30](#page=30). 3. **Reversives:** Directional opposites indicating movement in opposite directions (e.g., "enter/exit," "come/go") [31](#page=31). 4. **Converses:** Relational opposites viewed from different perspectives (e.g., "buy/sell," "teacher/student") [31](#page=31). * **Complications:** A word can have different antonyms depending on its meaning in context (e.g., "light" can be opposed by "heavy," "strong," or "dark") [31](#page=31). #### 4.4.3 Hyponymy Hyponymy describes a hierarchical relationship where one word is a specific type of another. The more general term is the **hypernym** (superordinate), and the specific term is the **hyponym** (subordinate) [32](#page=32). * *Example:* "Color" (hypernym) to "red, blue, green" (hyponyms) [32](#page=32). #### 4.4.4 Meronymy Meronymy represents a part-whole relationship, describing components of an object or entity [32](#page=32). * *Examples:* "pits" (part) of a "peach" (whole); "finger" (part) of a "hand" (whole) [32](#page=32). ### 4.5 Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic relations These relations describe how words are connected in language [32](#page=32). * **Paradigmatic relations:** 'Vertical' relationships where words can substitute for each other in a specific position within a sentence structure. These words are semantically related and belong to the same word class or semantic field [33](#page=33). * *Example:* In the sentence structure "Name → Verb → Adjective → Noun," words within each column (e.g., "Julia, Mary, Fred") are in a paradigmatic relation [33](#page=33). * **Syntagmatic relations:** 'Horizontal' relationships between words that co-occur in a specific sequence within a structure. These are words that frequently appear together [33](#page=33). * *Example:* In the sentence "Julia loves strong tea," "strong tea" shows a syntagmatic relation [33](#page=33). #### 4.5.1 Collocations and Colligation * **Collocations:** Cases of strong syntagmatic relations where certain lexemes frequently co-occur, forming "word partnerships". The likelihood of co-occurrence can vary in strength [34](#page=34). * *Examples:* "beige car," "blond hair"; "get lost/fired/a job" [34](#page=34). * **Colligation:** A collocation involving a specific grammatical structure [34](#page=34). * *Example:* "looking forward to + ING" [34](#page=34). * **Fixed Collocations/Formulaic Phrases:** Highly fixed expressions or "chunks" that convey a specific meaning, which may differ from the literal meaning of their components [35](#page=35). #### 4.5.2 Idioms Idioms are expressions whose meaning cannot be predicted from the meanings of their individual words and general grammatical rules; they are non-compositional. They represent a spectrum from transparent (semi-compositional) to non-transparent (non-compositional) [35](#page=35). * *Examples:* "Spill the beans" (divulge information - semi-compositional); "Kick the bucket" (to die - non-compositional) [35](#page=35). * Translating idioms word-for-word is often unsuccessful [36](#page=36). ### 4.6 Phrasal and sentential semantics While the lexicon is finite, sentences can be produced infinitely. The meaning of most phrases and sentences is **compositional**, meaning it's determined by the meaning of its parts and their combination (e.g., word order) [36](#page=36). #### 4.6.1 Contextual meaning and ambiguity Context is crucial for resolving lexical ambiguity (when a word has multiple meanings) and distinguishing between different senses of polysemous words or homophones. Ambiguity can also be structural, arising from sentence structure [36](#page=36). * **Lexical ambiguity:** A word has multiple meanings [36](#page=36). * *Example:* "The Rabbi married my sister" (became husband vs. officiated ceremony) [36](#page=36). * **Structural ambiguity:** The arrangement of words allows for multiple interpretations [36](#page=36). * *Example:* "Sherlock saw the man using binoculars" (who has them?) [36](#page=36). The distinction between **objective meaning (semantics)** and **speaker meaning (pragmatics)** is important [36](#page=36). ### 4.7 Meaning relations among propositions These relations concern the truth conditions of declarative sentences [37](#page=37). * **Paraphrase:** Two sentences have approximately the same meaning and describe the same situation. They are true under the same circumstances [37](#page=37). * *Example:* "Mary sold a car to Tom." $\Leftrightarrow$ "Tom bought a car from Mary." [37](#page=37). * **Entailment:** The truth of one sentence logically implies the truth of another. This relation is asymmetrical [37](#page=37). * *Example:* "Mary likes all fruits." $\implies$ "Mary likes apples." [37](#page=37). * **Contradiction:** If one sentence is true, the other must be false. This is a form of negative entailment [37](#page=37). * *Example:* "Charles is a bachelor." $\implies \neg$ "Charles is married." [37](#page=37). ### 4.8 Semantic roles Semantic roles (also called thematic roles or theta roles) describe the semantic relationship between a semantic argument (noun/pronoun) and its predicate (verb) in a sentence. They help establish what happens in a situation [38](#page=38). * **Key Elements:** Predicates (verbs) indicate actions and select arguments (nouns/pronouns) [38](#page=38). * **Examples of Semantic Roles:** * **Agent:** Entity performing the action [38](#page=38). * **Experiencer:** Receives input or undergoes a feeling/state [38](#page=38). * **Force/Natural Cause:** Non-animate force performing an action [38](#page=38). * **Patient/Theme:** Entity undergoing a process or change of state [38](#page=38). * **Beneficiary/Recipient:** Element for whose benefit the action is performed [38](#page=38). * **Stimulus:** Prompts sensory or emotional feeling [38](#page=38). * **Instrument:** Entity used to carry out an action [38](#page=38). * **Source:** Starting point of movement or action [38](#page=38). * **Goal:** End point or destination of action [38](#page=38). * **Location:** Place where an action occurs [38](#page=38). * **Path:** The route between source and goal [38](#page=38). * **Time:** When an action occurs [38](#page=38). * **Manner:** The way an action is carried out [38](#page=38). --- # Syntax and grammatical structure This topic delves into the fundamental principles of grammar, focusing on syntax to understand how words are organized into meaningful phrases and sentences. ### 5.1 Grammar: Definitions and scope Grammar can be defined in several ways, reflecting different perspectives and branches of linguistics [40](#page=40). * **Broad Definition:** In a comprehensive linguistic sense, grammar encompasses the complete system of phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic information and rules that speakers possess [40](#page=40). * **More Narrow Definition:** This definition focuses on the rules governing the sounds, words, sentences, and their combinations and interpretations, often restricting itself to syntax and morphology while excluding vocabulary and pronunciation [40](#page=40). * **Common Usage:** The term "grammar" is also used to refer to the characteristics of morphology and syntax of a language [40](#page=40). In linguistics, grammar is understood as an abstract mental system that enables communication and understanding, viewed as a set of rules. Grammar books, while valuable, are typically descriptions and often incomplete representations of this internal system [40](#page=40). ### 5.2 Syntax Syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, with word order being a crucial element. The term "syntax" originates from ancient Greek, combining "syn" (together) and "taxis" (an ordering), signifying "coordination" [41](#page=41). Linguists often divide the description of a language into lexicon, phonology, and grammar (which includes syntax and morphology) [41](#page=41). #### 5.2.1 The role of syntax in meaning Syntax plays a vital role in making sense of language, even with nonsensical words. Correct word order can render a sentence meaningful, while incorrect order can make it seem "off". For example [41](#page=41): > **Example:** > 1. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously* [41](#page=41). > 2. Colorless green ideas sleeps furious [41](#page=41). > 3. Ideas furiously colorless sleep green [41](#page=41). Even with abstract words, structural rules related to word order and morphology help distinguish grammatical roles like subject and predicate, aiding in semantic interpretation [41](#page=41). A syntactic analysis aims to account for all and only grammatically correct phrases and sentences in a language. This is rooted in the concept of **generative grammar**, which assumes a finite set of grammatical rules can generate an infinite number of well-formed sentences [41](#page=41). #### 5.2.2 Levels of syntactic structure Syntactic structure can be analyzed at various levels, progressing from words to larger units: * **Sentence:** The largest unit, typically beginning with a capital letter and ending with punctuation. A sentence is a string of words organized by grammatical rules (LANGUE). It consists of at least a verb and often a subject, with other common parts including objects and adjuncts [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43). * **Clauses:** Sentences can be composed of one or more clauses, each organized around a verb. Clauses can be main (independent) or subordinate (dependent), and finite or non-finite [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43). * **Phrases:** Groups of words that function as a unit within a clause. They have internal hierarchical structure and are named after their head element [42](#page=42) [46](#page=46). * **Word/Lexeme:** Individual words and their grammatical categories (parts of speech) [42](#page=42). * **(Morpheme/Phoneme):** These are lower levels of linguistic structure not the primary focus of syntax [42](#page=42). **Sentence vs. Utterance:** A **sentence** is an abstract grammatical construct (LANGUE), while an **utterance** is the concrete, actual use of one or more sentences in a specific context (PAROLE). Understanding an utterance requires knowledge of both sentence meaning and pragmatics. This guide focuses on the syntactic analysis of fuller sentence structures [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43). > **Tip:** When analyzing language, distinguishing between the abstract grammatical structure (sentence) and its real-world use (utterance) is crucial for linguistic study [42](#page=42). ### 5.3 Word classes (Parts of Speech) Word classes categorize words based on their semantic, morphological, and syntactic properties. They can be divided into **closed classes** (limited number, difficult to add new words, e.g., prepositions) and **open classes** (large number, easier to add new words, e.g., nouns) [44](#page=44). **Criteria for determining word classes:** 1. **Semantic:** Based on the meaning of the word. * **Nouns:** Denote persons, objects (concrete/abstract) [44](#page=44). * **Verbs:** Denote actions or states [44](#page=44). * **Adjectives:** Denote qualities (concrete/abstract) [44](#page=44). * **Prepositions:** Denote relations (place, time, etc.) [45](#page=45). * **Adverbs:** Denote manner, likelihood, frequency, attitude, degree, etc. [45](#page=45). * **Determiners:** Specify the reference of an NP (definite, indefinite, etc.) [45](#page=45). * **Conjunctions:** Connect words, phrases, or clauses [45](#page=45). * *Note:* Semantic criteria can be ambiguous, and exceptions exist [45](#page=45). 2. **Morphological:** Based on word formation and inflections. * **Nouns:** Plural endings, derivational suffixes (e.g., -ment, -ness) [45](#page=45). * **Verbs:** Past tense endings, derivational affixes (e.g., re-, -fy) [45](#page=45). * **Adjectives:** Comparative/superlative endings, derivational affixes (e.g., un-, -ful) [45](#page=45). * **Adverbs:** Suffixes like -ly, -wise [45](#page=45). * *Note:* Morphological markers can sometimes be ambiguous or apply to multiple word classes [45](#page=45). 3. **Syntactic (Distributional):** Based on where words can appear in a sentence relative to other word classes. * Adjectives precede nouns [45](#page=45). * Determiners precede adjectives [45](#page=45). * Adverbs modifying adjectives precede them [45](#page=45). * *Note:* Syntactic criteria are language-specific and have exceptions [45](#page=45). Categorizing words often involves considering all three criteria, with some cases being more straightforward than others. The **prototype approach** can also be useful, identifying more typical examples of each word class [45](#page=45). ### 5.4 Phrases Phrases are syntactic units consisting of a head word and its dependents. They are essential building blocks of sentences [46](#page=46). **Five main types of phrases:** 1. **Noun Phrase (NP):** Headed by a noun (e.g., "a dog," "two black cats") [46](#page=46). 2. **(Extended) Verb Phrase ((E)VP):** Headed by a verb (e.g., "bought a car," "is watching a movie") [46](#page=46). 3. **Adjectival Phrase (AdjP):** Headed by an adjective (e.g., "very big," "incredibly stupid") [46](#page=46). 4. **Prepositional Phrase (PP):** Headed by a preposition (e.g., "on the table," "during the lecture") [46](#page=46). 5. **Adverbial Phrase (AdvP):** Headed by an adverb (e.g., "very often") [46](#page=46). The **head** is the most important element, determining the phrase's type and its potential roles in a sentence. **Dependents** are other elements within the phrase (prehead or posthead) [46](#page=46). **Phrase structure rules** describe the elements that can form specific phrases: * `NP → (Det) (Adj) N (PP) (Clause)` [46](#page=46). * `VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)` [46](#page=46). * `AP → (Adv) Adj` [46](#page=46). * `PP → P NP` [46](#page=46). * `Clause → NP VP` [46](#page=46). Within phrases, elements can be classified as **complements** (necessary semantic arguments) or **modifiers** (optional elements) [46](#page=46). **Phrase structure can be visually represented using tree diagrams**, which illustrate the hierarchical relationships between constituents, or through bracketing [47](#page=47). > **Tip:** Tree diagrams and bracketing are valuable tools for visualizing the hierarchical organization of phrases and sentences [47](#page=47). ### 5.5 Constituents and constituency tests A **syntactic constituent** is a sequence of words that forms a unit and functions as a building block within language. A single word is always a constituent, but the focus is on identifying larger constituent units [47](#page=47). **Constituency tests** are used to determine if a sequence of words forms a constituent: 1. **Pronominalization/Substitution:** If a string of words can be replaced by a pronoun or pro-form, it is likely a constituent [47](#page=47). > **Example:** "The dog ate some bones." → "It ate them." [47](#page=47). 2. **Movement:** If a string of words can be moved together to a different position in the sentence (e.g., through passive voice), it is likely a constituent [47](#page=47). > **Example:** "The dog ate some bones." → "Some bones were eaten by the dog." [47](#page=47). 3. **Coordination:** If a constituent can be joined by a coordinating conjunction (like "and") with another similar constituent, it is likely a constituent [48](#page=48). > **Example:** "The dog ate some bones and some cookies." [48](#page=48). 4. **Gapping:** Creating a tag question that leaves a gap for the constituent [48](#page=48). > **Example:** "The dog has eaten all the bones, hasn't it \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_?" [48](#page=48). 5. **Sentence Fragments/Question Tests:** If a sentence fragment can serve as a natural answer to a question, it is likely a constituent [48](#page=48). > **Example:** "Who has eaten all the bones?" → "The dog." [48](#page=48). It is important to use multiple tests, as not all tests may apply to every constituent [48](#page=48). ### 5.6 Features of Grammar Grammatical systems possess several key features: 1. **Hierarchy:** Constituents are organized in layers, with smaller constituents embedded within larger ones. This nesting and order are crucial for meaning. Hierarchy is evident in bracketed formats and tree diagrams [49](#page=49). 2. **Recursivity:** This is the property of allowing self-similar repetition, enabling the embedding of an infinite number of structures within others, such as NPs within NPs [49](#page=49). 3. **Ambiguity:** Human grammars allow for sentences to have multiple interpretations [49](#page=49). > **Example:** "The soldiers saw the men with the binoculars." (It's unclear who has the binoculars) [49](#page=49). Ambiguity can be represented using bracketing and tree diagrams, highlighting the importance of hierarchical structure [49](#page=49). ### 5.7 Syntactic form vs. Syntactic function * **Syntactic form** refers to the internal properties of a constituent, defined by semantic, morphological, and syntactic criteria. This includes word classes (e.g., noun, verb) and phrase types (e.g., NP, VP) [49](#page=49). * **Syntactic function** describes the role of a constituent within a larger grammatical context, representing its external role [50](#page=50). **Key Syntactic Functions:** * **Subject:** Typically precedes the verb in English and is often realized by NPs, but can also be clauses or PPs [50](#page=50). * **Predicate:** Traditionally defined as everything in a sentence except the subject. The core predicating element is the **predicator** (the verb) [50](#page=50). * **Complement:** A non-subject argument that is obligatory and cannot be omitted. * **Direct Objects:** Follow the verb, often realized by NPs or clauses [50](#page=50). * **Indirect Objects:** Occur between the verb and direct object, often realized by NPs or PPs [50](#page=50). * **Subject Complements:** Provide information about the subject, typically following a copular verb and realized by NPs or AdjPs [50](#page=50). * **Object Complements:** Follow a direct object and provide information about it, often realized by NPs or AdjPs [50](#page=50). * **Prepositional Objects:** Follow a verb or direct object and are realized by PPs. Crucially, these are arguments and obligatorily fill a semantic role [50](#page=50). * **Adjuncts:** Optional elements that provide additional information, also referred to as adverbials (at the VP level) or modifiers. They can be AdvP, AdjP, PP, clause, or NP [51](#page=51). * **Modifiers:** E.g., "available," "extremely boring" [51](#page=51). * **Adverbial:** E.g., "last week," "because I was angry" [51](#page=51). **Distinguishing Adjuncts from Prepositional Objects:** Adjuncts provide optional information, while prepositional objects are obligatory arguments [51](#page=51). > **Example:** > * "I [put [the book [on the table]]" - "on the table" is a prepositional object (Goal) [51](#page=51). > * "I noticed [the book [on the table]]" - "on the table" is an adjunct to the NP "the book" [51](#page=51). > * "I [[arranged [the books]] [on the table]." - "on the table" is an adjunct to the VP [51](#page=51). **No One-to-One Relation:** One grammatical form can have multiple functions, and one function can be expressed by different forms. NPs, for example, can function as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, or adjuncts [51](#page=51). ### 5.8 Complementation patterns The verb is a central element in a clause, and its **complementation patterns** describe the obligatory arguments (complements) it requires [52](#page=52). * **Intransitive verbs:** Require only a subject and no complements (e.g., "laugh," "cry") [52](#page=52). > **Example:** "The girl cried." [52](#page=52). * **Monotransitive verbs:** Require a subject and one direct object (S V Od) (e.g., "buy," "eat") [52](#page=52). > **Example:** "The dog ate the bone." [52](#page=52). * **Ditransitive verbs:** Require a subject, an indirect object, and a direct object (S V Oi Od or S V Od Oi) (e.g., "give," "send") [52](#page=52). > **Example:** "The girl gave the dog the bone." [52](#page=52). * **PP-complement verbs:** Require a prepositional object (Op) or a direct object and a prepositional object (S V Op or S V Od Op). These are sometimes called complex transitive words [52](#page=52). > **Example (S V Op):** "He ventured into the deserted building." [52](#page=52). > **Example (S V Od Op):** "He put the book on the table." [52](#page=52). * **Copular verbs:** Connect the subject to a subject complement (S V Cs) (e.g., "be," "become"). They can also be involved in sentences with object complements (S V Od Co), where a copular verb can be implied between the direct object and object complement [52](#page=52). > **Example (S V Cs):** "The dog is in the garden." [52](#page=52). > **Example (S V Od Co):** "I consider him a fool." [52](#page=52). The presence of adjuncts does not alter these fundamental complementation patterns. **Transitivity** refers to the property of a verb having direct objects [53](#page=53). --- # Language typology and historical linguistics This section delves into the classification of languages based on their structural and functional characteristics, exploring linguistic universals and tracing the historical evolution of languages, with a particular focus on the development of English. ### 6.1 Language typology Language typology is the study and classification of languages according to their structural and functional features. It focuses on formal characteristics and involves cross-linguistic comparison to identify patterns and correlations. Unlike etymology, typology is not concerned with a language's origin [54](#page=54). #### 6.1.1 Morphological classification Languages can be classified based on their morphology [55](#page=55): * **Analytic (isolating) languages:** * Characterized by one word equaling one morpheme and one meaning [55](#page=55). * Semantically transparent [55](#page=55). * Examples include Mandarin and Papiamentu [55](#page=55). * English is considered "pretty isolating" today [55](#page=55). * **Synthetic languages:** * **Non-fusional (agglutinating):** * Words contain multiple morphemes, with one morpheme usually corresponding to one meaning [55](#page=55). * Semantically transparent [55](#page=55). * Examples: Turkish, Quechua, Basque [55](#page=55). * **Fusional (inflectional):** * Words are polymorphemic, with one morpheme carrying multiple meanings [55](#page=55). * Semantically non-transparent [55](#page=55). * Examples: Latin, Spanish, Russian [55](#page=55). It's important to note that most languages are typically a mix of these types. English, for instance, is mostly analytic but retains some synthetic (inflectional, fusional) elements. Old English had a more complex inflectional system, which significantly reduced during Middle English, leading to increased reliance on prepositions and auxiliary verbs [55](#page=55). #### 6.1.2 Word order classification Word order is another key feature for language classification, particularly in analytic languages where inflection is minimal [56](#page=56). * **Isolating (analytic) languages:** * Rely heavily on strict word order due to the lack of inflection [56](#page=56). * Example: "The dog bit the cat" (S-V-O) and "The cat bit the dog" (S-V-O) demonstrate how changing word order alters meaning [56](#page=56). * **Synthetic languages:** * Have freer word order due to their reliance on inflections to convey grammatical relationships [56](#page=56). * Example (German): "Der Hund biss die Katze" (S-V-O) and "Die Katze biss der Hund" (O-V-S) [56](#page=56). * Old English also exhibited flexible word order thanks to case marking [56](#page=56). Common word orders at the clause level include: * **SVO:** English, Indonesian (35-40%) [56](#page=56). * **SOV:** Japanese, Turkish (40-45%) [56](#page=56). * **VSO:** Welsh, Tagalog, Hebrew (10-15%) [56](#page=56). * **VOS:** Malagasy, Tzotsil (3-5%) [56](#page=56). * **OVS:** Amazonian languages (<1%) [56](#page=56). #### 6.1.3 Head-directionality Languages can also be classified by their head-directionality in phrases [56](#page=56): * **Head-initial languages:** The head of a phrase comes first, followed by specifiers, complements, or adjuncts (e.g., NP: N A Det - "meal good the") [56](#page=56). * **Head-final languages:** The head of a phrase comes last, preceded by specifiers, complements, or adjuncts (e.g., NP: Det A N - "the good meal") [56](#page=56). English exhibits a mixed system: * **Clause level:** Primarily strict SVO order in main and subordinate clauses, with exceptions like fronting (e.g., "HIM I don't like") [57](#page=57). * **Phrase level:** * NP, AP, AdvP: Mixed (head-final or head-initial) [57](#page=57). * PP, VP: Head-initial [57](#page=57). #### 6.1.4 Linguistic universals Joseph Greenberg is considered a founding father of modern typology, renowned for his work on linguistic universals. Linguistic universals are features that can be found in all languages or at least have a high probability of occurring [54](#page=54) [55](#page=55) [57](#page=57). Types of universals include: * **Absolute vs. Non-absolute (probabilistic):** * **Absolute:** True for all languages (e.g., all languages have consonants and vowels, distinguish nouns and verbs, and have ways to form questions) [57](#page=57). * **Non-absolute:** Occur in most languages with high probability and admit exceptions (e.g., most languages have adjectives; languages usually use rising intonation for yes/no questions) [57](#page=57). * **Implicational vs. Non-implicational:** * **Implicational:** If a language has structure X, it must also have structure Y. For example, if a language has inflection, it always has derivation. Another example is that languages with dominant VSO order tend to have adjectives after the noun with overwhelming more than chance frequency [57](#page=57). * **Non-implicational:** State a property that exists in a language without implying another property [57](#page=57). ### 6.2 Historical linguistics Historical linguistics, or diachronic linguistics, is the study of language change over time. It encompasses the history of particular languages based on written evidence, the comparative reconstruction of ancestor languages (even without written records), and the study of variation and ongoing change [58](#page=58). #### 6.2.1 Reasons for studying linguistic change Studying linguistic change is crucial for several reasons [58](#page=58): * Synchronic language systems are not static; they are the result of historical processes [58](#page=58). * Irregularities and exceptions in a language are often remnants of older stages [58](#page=58). * Linguistic forms can be inexplicable from a purely synchronic perspective [58](#page=58). * Awareness of variation and change is vital for social success (e.g., understanding register and style) [58](#page=58). * It reveals interesting internal and external reasons for language change [58](#page=58). * It illuminates universal mechanisms and phenomena like semantic bleaching and grammaticalization [58](#page=58). #### 6.2.2 Observable language change The most apparent changes are often additions to the lexicon, with numerous neologisms appearing in modern English. However, changes occur across all linguistic sub-categories, affecting form, meaning, and function [58](#page=58) [59](#page=59). Examples of semantic and phonetic changes: * Middle English (ME) "food" /o:/ to Modern English (ModE) "food" /u:/ [59](#page=59). * ME "mîn hûs" to New High German (NHD) "mein" /ai/ "Haus" /au/ [59](#page=59). * ME "goodbye" from "God be with ye" [59](#page=59). * Middle High German (MHD) "geil" (rich) to NHD "lüstern" / "super" [59](#page=59). * Latin "nescius" (not knowing/foolish) to ModE "nice" (delightful) [59](#page=59). * Old English (OE) "gesælig/selig" (happy) to ModE "silly" (stupid) [59](#page=59). Recent morpho-syntactic changes include shifts in the use of progressive verbs and adverbs. Current synchronic variation is often a precursor to long-term change [59](#page=59). #### 6.2.3 Models of linguistic change Language is viewed as an evolutionary "Complex Adaptive System". The process of linguistic change involves the emergence of new variants (mutations), their successful spread and replication, competition between variants, and eventual layering (co-existence) or loss [60](#page=60). **Gradual Change (The S-Curve):** Changes typically begin small, spread gradually through a population, and then plateau, with no change ever reaching 100% adoption. The process involves innovation, variation, diffusion, implementation, and potentially standardization [60](#page=60). **Scenarios for Language Change:** 1. **Child Acquisition:** Language change occurs from generation to generation as children reanalyze their parents' grammar and output, leading to different patterns in their own competence and performance. For example, the reanalysis of "Hamburger" into "[Ham + burger]" or the shift in the use of "gonna" [61](#page=61). 2. **Variation with Adult Speakers:** An innovation starts with one speaker, spreads through different social groups, and is adopted by more speakers, eventually affecting the entire language community. This relates to the S-curve model [61](#page=61). #### 6.2.4 Stages of English The history of English is typically periodized as follows [62](#page=62): * **Old English (OE):** c. 500 – 1100 CE * **Middle English (ME):** c. 1150 – 1500 CE * Early Middle English (eME): c. 1100 – 1300 CE * Late Middle English (lME): c. 1300 – 1500 CE * **Modern English (ModE):** * Early Modern English (EME): c. 1500 – 1700 CE * Late Modern English (LME): c. 1700 – 1900 CE * Present Day English (PDE): c. 1900 – today ##### 6.2.4.1 Prehistory of English * **Celtic Influence:** Very small, mainly place names related to hills and rivers, as Celtic tribes were pushed back by later arrivals [63](#page=63). * **Roman Influence:** Latin became the official language during Roman rule, but its direct influence on English at that time was limited to words like "ceaster" (camp). A significant Latin influence later emerged with the Christianization of Britain starting in 597 CE [63](#page=63). * **Germanic Tribes:** Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians began settling in Britain from around 440 CE, establishing "Engla land" (land of the Angles). Old English had three main dialects: West-Saxon, Kentish, and Anglian. Old English morphology was more complex, featuring gender, cases, and a more extensive inflectional system, similar to modern German. Its syntax was flexible due to case marking. Vocabulary included loanwords from Celtic, Latin (via West Germanic and directly), and Scandinavian languages [64](#page=64) [65](#page=65) [66](#page=66) [67](#page=67). * **Viking Invasions:** Three phases of raids, settlement, and rule (e.g., Danelaw, Cnut's kingship) significantly impacted the language, contributing core vocabulary and pronouns like "they," "their," and "them" [65](#page=65). ##### 6.2.4.2 Middle English (c. 1150-1500) * **Norman Conquest:** The Norman elite spoke Anglo-Norman French, which became the prestige language for polite discourse, law, and literature, while Latin remained the language of the Church. English dialects continued to be spoken by the general population, with little written evidence before c. 1150 [67](#page=67). * **Return of English (1300-1500):** Weakening ties with France, the Hundred Years' War, and internal socio-political changes led to a decline in French prestige and the re-emergence of English as a language for standard functions and literature (e.g., Chaucer, Langland). The Statute of Pleading in 1362 mandated English for lawsuits [67](#page=67) [68](#page=68). * **Linguistic System:** * **Spelling:** OE conventions were replaced by French equivalents [68](#page=68). * **Morphology:** Phonological reduction of inflections to schwa led to the loss of many inflections and leveling [69](#page=69). * **Syntax:** Word order became increasingly SVO as morphological case marking declined [69](#page=69). * **Vocabulary:** Highly mixed, with a substantial influx of French loanwords (e.g., "castle," "justice," "pork," "country," "fashion," "surgeon") [69](#page=69). ##### 6.2.4.3 Early Modern English (1500-1700) * **External History:** The introduction of the printing press and the rise of England as a nation-state contributed to linguistic standardization. The London variety of the South-East Midlands emerged as the standard. English colonization of the Americas led to its spread and diversification, making it one of the fastest-changing languages [70](#page=70). * **Literature:** William Shakespeare's works are a prime example of EME literature [70](#page=70). * **Linguistic System:** * **Pronouns:** The distinction between "thou/thee" and "ye/you" shifted from number to social dynamics (familiarity, status, politeness) [71](#page=71). * **Great Vowel Shift:** The most significant phonological change, affecting all long vowels of Middle English, causing them to be raised or diphthongized. This was a chain reaction that fundamentally altered English vowel pronunciation [71](#page=71). * **Semantic Change:** * **Widening (extension):** Meaning expands to cover more contexts (e.g., "dog," "salary," "bird") [71](#page=71) [72](#page=72). * **Narrowing (specialization):** Meaning becomes more restricted (e.g., "fowl," "girl," "starve") [72](#page=72). * **Amelioration (elevation):** Word meaning takes on a more positive evaluation (e.g., "pretty") [72](#page=72). * **Pejoration (degeneration):** Word meaning takes on a more negative evaluation (e.g., "spinster," "silly") [72](#page=72). * **Semantic bleaching:** Meaning fades or bleaches out (e.g., "gay," "going to") [72](#page=72). * **Metaphorization:** Concrete meanings are used to express abstract or metaphorical ideas [72](#page=72). #### 6.2.5 Syntactic and Analogical Change * **Grammaticalization:** A morphosyntactic change where lexical items (nouns, verbs, adjectives) evolve into grammatical categories (prepositions, auxiliaries, affixes) or less grammatical to more grammatical elements. Characteristics include bleaching, loss of independence, bondedness, and obligatorification. Examples include "back" (noun to preposition), "cunnian" (verb to auxiliary "can"), "while" (noun to adverb), and verbs of movement to future markers ("going-to") [73](#page=73). * **Analogical Change:** A process where an earlier structure is restructured to match an existing one. Proportional analogy (a:b = c:x) is common, leading to regularization of irregular forms (e.g., "ride:rode = dive:dove," "fox:foxes = cactus:cactuses"). Overgeneralization (e.g., "oxes," "goed") is a common type in first and second language acquisition. Hypercorrection occurs when speakers overcorrect to conform to a perceived prestigious variety [74](#page=74). #### 6.2.6 Reasons for Language Change Reasons for language change can be internal or external [75](#page=75). * **Internal Tendencies:** * **Ease of effort/articulation:** Psychological motivations drive linguistic developments towards simplification and ease (e.g., phonetic erosion, monophthongisation, loss of inflections, assimilation like t-dropping) [75](#page=75). * **Analogical thinking/Economy (cognitive motivation):** A drive for economy and symmetry by eliminating irregularities and simplifying paradigms (e.g., regularizing irregular forms) [75](#page=75). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |---|---| | Linguistics | The scientific study of human language, focusing on its structure, meaning, and use. | | Phonetics | The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds, their physical properties, articulation, and perception. | | Phonology | The study of the sound systems of languages, including how sounds are organized into abstract patterns and the rules that govern their use. | | Morphology | The study of the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation and modification. | | Morpheme | The smallest meaningful unit of language, which cannot be further divided without losing its meaning or grammatical function. | | Syntax | The study of the rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences in a language, including word order and the combination of words into phrases and clauses. | | Semantics | The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of meaning in language, including the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. | | Pragmatics | The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in language, focusing on the meaning intended by the speaker in a particular situation. | | Synchronic | Pertaining to the study of language at a particular point in time, without considering its historical development. | | Diachronic | Pertaining to the study of language as it changes over time, examining its historical development and evolution. | | Descriptive linguistics | An approach to linguistics that aims to describe how language is actually used by its speakers, without making judgments about correctness. | | Prescriptive linguistics | An approach to linguistics that aims to establish rules for the correct or proper use of language, often based on authority or tradition. | | Langue | In Saussurean linguistics, the abstract, social system of language shared by a community, representing the underlying competence. | | Parole | In Saussurean linguistics, the actual act of speaking or writing, representing the concrete, individual performance of language. | | Signifier | In Saussurean linguistics, the form of a linguistic sign, such as the sound or written representation of a word. | | Signified | In Saussurean linguistics, the concept or meaning associated with a signifier. | | Icon | A type of sign where the form of the sign resembles or imitates the concept it represents. | | Index | A type of sign where the form of the sign has a direct causal or physical connection to the concept it represents. | | Symbol | A type of sign where the relationship between the form and the concept is arbitrary and conventional, learned through social agreement. | | Lexicon | The vocabulary of a language, or the mental store of words and their meanings in an individual's mind. | | Allomorphy | The phenomenon where a single morpheme can have different phonetic or written forms (allomorphs) depending on the surrounding sounds or grammatical context. | | Compounding | A word formation process where two or more words are combined to create a new word with a new meaning. | | Affixation | A word formation process involving the addition of prefixes or suffixes to a base word to create a new word. | | Conversion | A word formation process where a word is changed from one word class to another without any overt marking, also known as zero-derivation. | | Clipping | A word formation process where a word is shortened by removing one or more syllables, often from the beginning or end. | | Blends | Words formed by combining parts of two or more words, such as "smog" from "smoke" and "fog." | | Abbreviation | A shortened form of a word or phrase, often formed from initial letters or sounds. | | Acronym | An abbreviation formed from the initial letters of words that is pronounced as a single word (e.g., NASA). | | Initialism | An abbreviation formed from initial letters that is pronounced letter by letter (e.g., FBI). | | Back-formation | A word formation process where a new word is created by removing a supposed suffix from an existing word, often leading to a change in word class. | | Polysemy | The phenomenon where a single word has multiple related meanings. | | Homonymy | The phenomenon where two or more unrelated words have the same spelling or pronunciation. | | Homophones | Words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings (e.g., "to," "too," "two"). | | Homographs | Words that have the same spelling but different pronunciations and meanings (e.g., "lead" (metal) vs. "lead" (to guide)). | | Heteronyms | Homographs that have different pronunciations. | | Synonymy | The relationship between words that have similar meanings. | | Antonymy | The relationship between words that have opposite meanings. | | Hyponymy | A hierarchical relationship between words where one word (the hyponym) is a type of another word (the hyperonym). | | Meronymy | A part-whole relationship, where one word represents a part of a larger whole. | | Syntagmatic relation | The relationship between words that occur sequentially in a sentence or text, forming a linear chain of association. | | Paradigmatic relation | The relationship between words that can substitute for each other in a particular position within a sentence structure, forming a vertical set of options. | | Collocation | The tendency for certain words to co-occur regularly with other words, forming common "word partnerships." | | Idiom | An expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its individual words; its meaning is figurative or conventional. | | Semantic compositionality | The principle that the meaning of a sentence or phrase is determined by the meanings of its component words and the grammatical rules that combine them. | | Grammaticalization | A process of linguistic change whereby lexical items or constructions develop into grammatical forms or functions. | | Language Typology | The study and classification of languages based on their structural and functional features, rather than their genetic relationships. | | Linguistic Universal | A feature or pattern that is found in all human languages. | | Diachronic linguistics | The study of language change over time. | | Morphology (historical context) | Refers to the changes in the inflectional system of a language over time, such as the loss of cases in English. | | Syntax (historical context) | Refers to changes in word order and sentence structure over time, influenced by morphological changes. | | Lexicon (historical context) | Refers to the addition of loanwords and the evolution of word meanings throughout the history of a language. | | Great Vowel Shift | A series of changes in the pronunciation of long vowels in English that occurred between the 14th and 18th centuries. | | Semantic Change | Alterations in the meaning of words over time, including widening, narrowing, amelioration, pejoration, and metaphorization. | | Syntactic Change | Alterations in the grammatical structure of a language over time, such as changes in word order or the development of new grammatical constructions. | | Analogy (linguistic change) | A process of linguistic change where one form or pattern is restructured to match an existing, often more regular, pattern. | | Ease of effort | A proposed motivation for language change, suggesting that speakers tend to simplify or shorten linguistic forms to reduce articulatory or cognitive effort. | | Lexical Semantics | The study of the meaning of individual words and morphemes. | | Sentential/Phrasal Semantics | The study of the meaning of syntactic units larger than words, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. | | Discourse Semantics | The study of meaning created in context, closely related to pragmatics. | | Semiotic Triangle | A model representing the relationship between a word (linguistic form), a thought or concept, and the object or referent in reality. | | Sense | The conceptual meaning of a word or phrase, referring to something existing in the language itself, belonging to langue. | | Referent/Reference | The actual object or entity in the real world that a word or phrase refers to, occurring in parole. | | Denotation | The primary, literal, or dictionary meaning of a word. | | Connotation | The secondary, associative, emotional, or cultural meanings of a word. | | Intension | The set of semantic features or properties that define a concept; what an object must be like to fall within a word's denotation. | | Extension | The set of actual entities in the real world that satisfy the intension of a word or concept. | | Prototype Theory | A theory of categorization that suggests categories are organized around a typical or prototypical example, with other members varying in their degree of typicality. | | Family Resemblance | Wittgenstein's concept suggesting that members of a category are linked by a network of overlapping similarities rather than a single set of defining features. | | Constituent | A group of words that functions as a single unit within the hierarchical structure of a sentence. | | Phrase Structure Rules | Rules that describe the possible combinations of constituents and their order within different types of phrases and sentences. | | Head | The most important element of a phrase, which determines its category and often its main meaning. | | Dependents | Elements within a phrase that modify or complete the meaning of the head. | | Complement | A constituent that is semantically or grammatically necessary for a predicate (like a verb) to form a complete clause; an obligatory argument. | | Adjunct | An optional constituent that provides additional information about the clause or phrase, but is not required for grammatical completeness. | | Transitivity | A property of verbs that describes whether they take direct objects. | | Agent | The entity that performs an action, typically with volition. | | Experiencer | The entity that receives a sensory or emotional input or undergoes a mental state. | | Patient/Theme | The entity that undergoes a process or is affected by an action, without necessarily changing its state. | | Goal | The end point or destination of an action or movement. | | Source | The starting point of an action or movement. | | Location | The place where an action occurs. | | Instrument | The entity used to carry out an action. | | Pronominalization/Substitution | A constituent test where a string of words is replaced by a pronoun or pro-form to determine if it functions as a unit. | | Movement | A constituent test where a string of words is moved to a different position in the sentence to see if it remains grammatically sound. | | Coordination | A constituent test where a string of words is joined with another similar string using a coordinating conjunction (like "and") to see if it forms a constituent. | | Gapping | A test where a gap is left in a tag question or a coordinated clause to see if a constituent can be inferred. | | Sentence Fragments/Question Tests | A constituent test where a string of words is used as an answer to a question, indicating it functions as a unit. | | Hierarchy (syntactic) | The layered structure of constituents within a sentence, where smaller constituents are embedded within larger ones. | | Recursivity | The property of a grammar that allows for the embedding of linguistic structures within themselves, leading to potentially infinite sentence generation. | | Ambiguity (syntactic) | The property of a sentence having more than one possible interpretation due to its syntactic structure. | | Syntactic form | The internal properties of a linguistic unit, such as its word class or phrase type. | | Syntactic function | The role that a linguistic unit plays within a larger grammatical context, such as subject, predicate, or object. | | Subject | The constituent in a sentence that typically performs the action or is described; often precedes the verb in English. | | Predicate | The part of a sentence that contains the verb and states something about the subject. | | Direct Object | A constituent that directly receives the action of a transitive verb. | | Indirect Object | A constituent that indirectly receives the action of a ditransitive verb, often indicating the recipient. | | Subject Complement | A constituent that follows a copular verb and provides information about the subject. | | Object Complement | A constituent that follows a direct object and provides information about it. | | Prepositional Object | A constituent that follows a preposition and forms a prepositional phrase, often functioning as an argument of the verb. | | Adverbial | A constituent that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb, providing information about manner, time, place, etc. | | Modifier | A word or phrase that describes or qualifies another word or phrase. | | Complementation Patterns | The set of arguments and complements that a verb typically requires or can take. | | Intransitive Verb | A verb that does not take a direct object. | | Monotransitive Verb | A verb that takes one direct object. | | Ditransitive Verb | A verb that takes both a direct object and an indirect object. | | PP-complement Verb | A verb that requires a prepositional phrase as a complement. | | Copular Verb | A verb (like "be" or "become") that links the subject to a subject complement. | | Old English (OE) | The earliest recorded stage of the English language, spoken from roughly the 5th to the 11th century. | | Middle English (ME) | The stage of the English language spoken from roughly the 12th to the 15th century, significantly influenced by Norman French. | | Early Modern English (EME) | The stage of the English language spoken from roughly the 15th to the 17th century, marked by the Great Vowel Shift and the works of Shakespeare. | | Modern English (ModE) | The stage of the English language spoken from roughly the 17th century to the present day. | | Phonological Reduction | The simplification or loss of sounds in pronunciation, often leading to changes in word forms and the erosion of inflections. | | Morphological Case Marking | A system where the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun is indicated by its form (ending). | | Loanword | A word adopted from one language into another. | | Norman Conquest | The invasion of England in 1066 by William the Conqueror, which had a profound impact on the English language and culture. | | Statute of Pleading | A law passed in England in 1362 that mandated the use of English in legal proceedings. | | The Canterbury Tales | A collection of stories by Geoffrey Chaucer, written in Middle English, considered a seminal work of English literature. | | Word Formation Processes | Methods by which new words are created in a language (e.g., compounding, affixation, conversion). | | Semantic Bleaching | The process where a word loses some of its original semantic content over time, becoming more general or abstract. | | Metaphorization | The use of a word or phrase with a concrete meaning to express a more abstract or figurative idea. | | Semantic Role (Theta Role) | The underlying relationship that a semantic argument (e.g., noun phrase) has with the predicate (verb) in a clause, such as Agent, Patient, or Experiencer. | | Predicate | In semantics, the element (usually a verb) that describes an action, state, or relation and selects semantic arguments. | | Semantic Argument | A noun phrase or pronoun that fills a semantic role required by the predicate. | | Animate | Having the quality of being alive. | | Inanimate | Lacking the quality of being alive. | | Amelioration (Semantic Change) | A process where the meaning of a word gains a more positive evaluation over time. | | Pejoration (Semantic Change) | A process where the meaning of a word gains a more negative evaluation over time. | | Narrowing (Semantic Change) | A process where the meaning of a word becomes more specific, reducing the number of contexts in which it can be used. | | Widening (Semantic Change) | A process where the meaning of a word becomes more general, increasing the number of contexts in which it can be used. | | Syntactic Change | Alterations in the grammatical structure of a language over time, such as changes in word order or the development of new grammatical constructions. | | Grammaticalization | A process where lexical items or constructions develop into grammatical forms or functions. | | Analogical Change | A mechanism of linguistic change where one form or pattern is restructured to match an existing one. | | Overgeneralization | In language acquisition, the application of a regular grammatical rule to an irregular form, such as "goed" instead of "went." | | Hypercorrection | An attempt to avoid a non-standard pronunciation or usage that leads to an incorrect or exaggerated correction. | | Ease of Articulation | A proposed psychological motivation for language change, suggesting that speakers simplify sounds or structures to make them easier to produce. | | Economy (cognitive motivation) | A proposed motivation for language change, suggesting a tendency towards simplification and regularity in language. | | Fixed Form | A word or phrase that maintains a consistent spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. | | Natural Relation | A connection that is inherent or logical, as opposed to arbitrary or conventional. | | Conventionalized Sign | A sign whose meaning is established by social agreement and common usage. | | Arbitrary | Lacking a necessary or inherent connection; based on convention or chance. | | Productivity (language) | The ability of a language to generate an infinite number of novel utterances from a finite set of elements. | | Cultural Transmission | The process by which language is learned from one generation to the next through social interaction and teaching. | | Duality / Double Articulation | The property of human language that allows for the combination of meaningless sounds or morphemes into meaningful words and sentences. | | Recursion | The ability to embed linguistic structures within themselves, allowing for the creation of complex and potentially infinite sentences. | | Displacement (language) | The ability of language to refer to things, events, or ideas that are not present in the immediate time or space. | | Reflexivity (language) | The ability of language to refer to itself, allowing speakers to talk about language itself. |

# Academic English: cohesion and coherence This section explores how sentences and clauses are structured and connected using relative pronouns and conjunctions to create clear and flowing academic writing. ### 1.1 Sentences and clauses A fundamental aspect of constructing coherent academic English is understanding the difference between a sentence and a clause. * **Clause:** A clause is the basic unit of a sentence, comprising a subject and a predicate. The basic structure is `Subject + Verb (+ Object)`. * **Sentence:** In simple sentences, a clause and a sentence are the same. For example, "John is in Antwerp" is both a clause and a sentence. * **Independent clause:** This type of clause can stand alone grammatically and forms a complete sentence. * **Dependent (or subordinate) clause:** This clause cannot stand alone meaningfully and requires additional information from an independent clause to form a complete sentence. For instance, "Although it was cold" is a dependent clause that needs "she went swimming" to become a complete sentence. ### 1.2 Relative pronouns Relative pronouns are crucial for connecting relative clauses to nouns or pronouns (antecedents) in other clauses, thereby enhancing sentence complexity and flow. * **Function:** They introduce relative clauses, providing additional information about a noun or pronoun. * **Examples:** * "He’s got a new girlfriend **who** works in a supermarket." (Here, "who" is the relative pronoun, "a new girlfriend" is the antecedent, and "who works in a supermarket" is the relative clause.) * **Usage of `who` and `whom`:** * `who` can be used as a subject or object. * `whom` is more formal and is typically used as an object, especially when preceded by a preposition. * **Example:** "The man **whom** she marries will have to be pretty rich." * **Prepositional usage:** "To **whom** it may concern." or "Dr Johnston is a surgeon on **whom** we can always rely." * **Omitting relative pronouns:** * In **defining relative clauses**, object pronouns (like `whom` or `that`) can often be omitted, especially in informal writing. * **Example:** "The man **she marries** will have to be pretty rich." * In **non-defining clauses**, omitting the object pronoun is not permissible. * **`whose`:** * This is a possessive relative word used as a determiner before a noun, replacing possessive pronouns like `his`, `her`, or `its`. * **Example:** "I saw a man **whose** hair came down to his waist." * **`which`:** * `Which` can refer to a specific noun or to an entire preceding clause. * **Example:** "He married at the age of 60, **which** surprised everybody." * **`of whom`, `of which`, `of whose`:** * These can be used in non-defining clauses with quantifying determiners. * **Example:** "They picked up five boatloads of refugees, some **of whom** had been at sea for several months." ### 1.3 Conjunctions Conjunctions are essential for linking words, phrases, and clauses, establishing relationships between different parts of a sentence or text. There are three main types: * **Coordinating conjunctions:** * These connect elements of equal grammatical rank (words, phrases, or clauses). * The common coordinating conjunctions are: `for`, `and`, `nor`, `but`, `or`, `yet`, `so` (often remembered by the acronym FANBOYS). * **Subordinating conjunctions:** * These connect two clauses of unequal rank, where one clause is dependent on the other. * They typically introduce dependent clauses and indicate the relationship between the clauses (e.g., cause, time, condition). * Common examples include: `if`, `because`, `after`, `since`, `when`, `while`, `until`, `unless`, `although`. * **Correlative conjunctions:** * These function similarly to other conjunctions but appear in pairs, connecting elements within a sentence. * Common pairs include: `both . . . and`, `not only . . . but also`, `not . . . but`, `either . . . or`, `neither . . . nor`, `whether . . . or`, `as . . . as`. ### 1.4 Differences in linking word usage The position and function of linking words can vary, impacting sentence and text structure. * **Within a sentence:** Words like `and`, `but`, `so`, `because`, `then`, `until`, and `such as` typically link clauses within a single sentence. * **Between sentences:** Words such as `furthermore`, `moreover`, `nevertheless`, and `in conclusion` are commonly used to create links between separate sentences. * **Versatile linking words:** Many linking words can be used to start a sentence or to connect sentences, offering writers flexibility in their style. ### 1.5 Common errors in academic english Careless use of certain words can lead to confusion or reduce the formality of academic writing. * **`Also` or `already`:** These words should not typically begin a sentence in formal academic writing. * **Instead of:** "Also the language is a big barrier." * **Use:** "The language, too, is a big barrier." * **`Hence` or `thus`:** These are formal words indicating a necessary deduction from preceding information. * **Example:** "The trade imbalance is likely to rise again in 2011. Hence, a new set of policy actions will be required soon." * **`Beside` vs. `besides`:** * `Beside` is a preposition meaning "next to" or "very close to." * **Example:** "The boy was sitting **beside** the bus driver." * `Besides` means "in addition to." * **Example:** "She has many good qualities **besides** being very beautiful." ### 1.6 Causal connectives These linkers establish a cause-and-effect relationship. * **`So`:** This is the most general and informal causal connective. * **Formal alternatives:** In written English, more formal alternatives are recommended for causal connections, such as `accordingly`, `consequently`, `hence`, `therefore`, `so that`, and `with the result that`. * **Informal Example:** "I heard a noise **so** I got out of bed and turned on the light." * **Formal Example:** "Tax revenues were low. **Consequently**, the government ended up with a budget deficit." ### 1.7 `Though`, `although`, `even though` These are used to introduce contrasting ideas. * **Usage:** They are followed by a clause. * **Example:** "She was arrested, **although** she had claimed her innocence." * **Position:** `Although` can start a sentence or appear in the middle. * **Example:** "**Although** it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday." * **Informality:** `Though` is generally more informal than `although` and can also be used at the end of a sentence. * **Example:** "The house isn’t very nice. I like the garden **though**." * **Emphasis:** `Even though` is a stronger form of `although`, indicating a greater degree of contrast. ### 1.8 Contrastive connectives These linkers highlight differences or opposing ideas. * **`Whereas` and `while`:** * Used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast but do not contradict each other. They are suitable when there is no element of surprise. * **Example:** "**Whereas** Conservatives voted in favour of the bill, Labour and the Liberals voted against." * **`But`:** * Used to contrast clauses within a single sentence. * **Example:** "I like going to the beach, **but** I never go at midday." * **`However`:** * Has the same function as `but` but is typically used to show contrast *between* sentences and is more formal. * **Example:** "I’ve always enjoyed going to the beach. **However**, I never go there at midday." ### 1.9 `For` or `since` These prepositions relate to time. * **`For`:** * Focuses on a duration of time and can be used in most tenses. It is followed by a period of time. * **Example:** "They stayed in Barcelona **for** two weeks." * **`Since`:** * Used only with perfect tenses and must be followed by a specific point in time. * **Example:** "They’ve been in Barcelona **since** last Friday." (This implies they are still in Barcelona.) ### 1.10 Exercises and examples The provided document includes exercises to practice combining sentences using appropriate linking words and relative pronouns, reinforcing the concepts of cohesion and coherence. > **Example (Combining Sentences):** > "Men must wear a tie at this Law firm. Women must wear a dress." > **Combined:** "Men must wear a tie, **while** women must wear a dress." > **Example (Using Relative Pronouns):** > "This is Mr Rogers. You met him last year." > **Combined:** "This is Mr Rogers, **whom** you met last year." > **Example (Causal Connectives):** > "Malnutrition is a serious problem. Government should recognise its responsibility." > **Combined:** "Malnutrition is a serious problem. **Consequently**, Government should recognise its responsibility." ### 1.11 Legal english: public international law and human rights (case examples) While the primary focus is academic English, the document includes case examples from Public International Law that illustrate the application of precise language and logical argumentation, essential for academic discourse. These cases demonstrate how legal principles are articulated and debated, requiring clear and coherent expression. > **Tip:** Pay attention to how legal opinions are structured. They typically present the issue, the arguments, the court's findings, and the ruling, all of which rely heavily on cohesive and coherent writing. ### 1.12 UK society: from referendum to referendum – britain's political crossroads (examples of complex arguments) This section, while thematic, also showcases the importance of connecting various points to form a comprehensive argument. The analysis of austerity, for instance, requires linking economic policies to social and cultural effects, demanding a high degree of cohesion and coherence in presenting the evidence and conclusions. > **Tip:** When analyzing complex socio-political topics, break down your argument into smaller, interconnected points. Use linking words and phrases to guide the reader through the chain of reasoning. ### 1.13 Table of relative pronoun usage The following table summarizes the usage of relative pronouns in defining and non-defining clauses: | Antecedent | Defining | Non-Defining | | :--------- | :-------------------------------------- | :---------------------------- | | **Person** | `who / that` (subject) | `, who` (subject) | | | `who / whom / that` (object) | `, who(m)` (object) | | | `whose` (possessive) | `, whose` (possessive) | | **Object** | `which / that` | `, which` | | | `whose / of which` (possessive) | `, whose / , of which` (possessive) | --- # Legal English: public international law and human rights This section examines two pivotal case studies within public international law, focusing on critical issues such as self-determination, decolonization, the prohibition of the use of force, and international intervention. ### 2.1 Case study 1: Decolonisation and self-determination This case study concerns the detachment of the Chagos Islands from Mauritius before its independence by the United Kingdom. The primary island, Diego Garcia, is now home to a significant United States military base. The United Nations General Assembly sought an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) regarding the legality of this separation and the subsequent steps. #### 2.1.1 Key issues and legal questions The central legal questions raised in this case included: * Did the detachment of the Chagos Islands violate the right to self-determination during the decolonization process? * If the detachment was found to be unlawful, what were the legal consequences for the United Kingdom and all other states? * What is the obligation of states concerning the completion of decolonization? #### 2.1.2 The ICJ's ruling and consequences The ICJ delivered a significant ruling, concluding that the detachment of the Chagos Islands was unlawful. The Court affirmed the principle that "States have an obligation to cooperate to complete decolonisation." Consequently, the ICJ mandated that: * The United Kingdom must end its administration of Chagos "as rapidly as possible." * All states are obligated to cooperate with the United Nations to facilitate the full completion of the decolonization process. The Court's finding was based on the breach of the right to self-determination, underscoring the importance of this principle in international law. ### 2.2 Case study 2: Use of force and intervention This case study analyzes the conflict between Nicaragua and the United States in the 1980s, focusing on allegations of unlawful use of force and intervention. Nicaragua brought its claim to the ICJ after the US supported Contra rebels, including by mining Nicaraguan harbours. The US challenged the Court's jurisdiction and subsequently withdrew from the merits phase of the proceedings. #### 2.2.1 Key issues and legal questions The core legal issues examined in this case were: * Did the US's actions, including funding, training, and mining, constitute an unlawful use of force under Article 2(4) of the UN Charter or an unlawful intervention in Nicaragua's internal affairs? * Could the US actions be justified as self-defence, and did they meet the tests of necessity and proportionality? * How are the rules concerning the use of force and intervention reflected in customary international law, particularly through state practice and *opinio juris* (a belief that an action is carried out due to a legal obligation)? * Were the actions of the Contra rebels attributable to the US under the "effective control" test? #### 2.2.2 The ICJ's ruling and consequences The ICJ found that the United States had breached fundamental principles of international law. Its ruling included the following key findings: * Certain US conduct amounted to an "unlawful use of force." * The claim of self-defence was not upheld, as the Court determined there was no "armed attack" against the US. * The "effective control test" for attributing the actions of non-state actors (the Contras) to the US "was not met." * The US had violated the prohibition on the use of force and the principle of non-intervention, and had infringed upon Nicaragua's sovereignty (e.g., through harbour mining). * Claims of collective self-defence by the US failed. Following these findings, the ICJ ordered the cessation of the unlawful conduct and mandated reparations for the damages caused to Nicaragua. --- # UK society: from referendum to referendum This topic examines the significant socio-political shifts in the United Kingdom from the Scottish independence referendum in 2014 to the Brexit referendum in 2016, exploring the impacts of austerity measures, the London riots, and the subsequent political realignments. ### 3.1 Austerity Austerity refers to a fiscal policy aimed at deficit reduction through sustained reductions in public spending and tax increases. Adopted following the Great Recession by the Coalition and Conservative governments, it was implemented from 2010 to 2019 and resumed in 2021. The stated goal was to reduce the role of the welfare state, though services like the National Health Service and education were initially intended to be protected, significant spending reductions were enacted. #### 3.1.1 The Age of Austerity The term "Age of Austerity" was popularized by David Cameron, who campaigned on a "Big Society" program, advocating for diminished government intervention and increased roles for grass-roots organizations, charities, and private companies in delivering public services more efficiently. #### 3.1.2 Effects of austerity * **Economy:** * Wages stagnated, declining to 2005 levels by 2023 when adjusted for inflation. * While the minimum wage increased, leading to 10% of people working minimum wage jobs by 2018, the gender pay gap narrowed from 22% in 2009 to 14.3% in 2023, largely due to a decline in wages for low-paid men. * UK economic productivity remained stagnant, underperforming other advanced economies, and declined again in early 2022, contributing to a recession in 2023. * **Arts and Culture:** * Local government funding for arts and culture saw a 20% decline between 2010 and 2020. * Over 800 public libraries closed since 2010, leading to a decrease in visitor numbers. * 64 museums closed between 2010 and 2019, with a 13% reduction in funding resulting in privatization and a halving of visitor numbers between 2010 and 2015. * **Housing:** * Investment in new affordable homes was cut by 60% in 2010, and social rent schemes declined significantly. * "Affordable rent" schemes were introduced, with rents set at up to 80% of market rent, often unaffordable compared to social rents. By 2018, most new social housing was built for affordable rent. * In London, 10,000 existing properties were repurposed. * Homelessness rapidly increased, with rough sleeping doubling between 2010 and 2016. * By 2018, 50,000 families were living in temporary accommodation (Bed and Breakfasts), with a rising number of people in temporary accommodation since 2010 (79,000 households), over 33,000 of whom were working. * **Poverty:** * Over one-fifth of the population was in poverty in 2021/2022. * Child poverty rose from 3.5 million in 2010 to 4.1 million in 2019. * The number of children receiving food from food banks tripled, and the overall use of food banks doubled between 2013 and 2017. * Working-age social security payments were reduced, with increases limited to 1% despite inflation. * A four-year freeze on benefits was implemented by 2016. * **Health:** * In 2012, 45% of those in debt reported mental health problems. * By 2015, austerity was linked to depression and other mental health conditions. * In 2016, 40% of mental health trusts faced budget cuts, leading to a rise in suicide attempts and deaths. * Decreased funding in health and social care by 2017 led to an increasing number of preventable deaths, with estimates suggesting up to 120,000 according to University College London. * The mortality rate rose by 0.87% annually, and life expectancy growth slowed, particularly in poorer socio-economic groups, with the slowdown being the highest among G20 countries. ### 3.2 London riots #### 3.2.1 Causes of the London riots The London riots of 2011 were attributed to a combination of factors: * **Austerity:** Economic and social policies, including cuts to youth services (up to 73% by 2020), contributed to riots occurring in deprived areas. * **Policing Policies:** Areas with higher rates of stop and search were more prone to riots. Although overall numbers declined, they were rising and disproportionately affected Black individuals. #### 3.2.2 Effects of the London riots The government initially claimed the riots had no political content, with then-Prime Minister David Cameron characterizing them as "criminality pure and simple." However, the events represented the greatest outbreak of disorder in London since the 18th century. The underlying circumstances that contributed to the riots persist: austerity measures continue, stop and search remains prevalent, police tactics have become more aggressive, and courts have established precedents against protestors. This punitive and authoritarian approach was further hardened during the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020. ### 3.3 Scottish independence referendum #### 3.3.1 Causes of the referendum The push for a Scottish independence referendum gained momentum after the Scottish National Party (SNP) became the largest party in the Scottish Parliament in 2007. Leader Alex Salmond promised a referendum if re-elected. * **National Conversation (2007-2009):** A consultation exercise led to a draft referendum bill outlining four scenarios: no change, devolution with fiscal reform, further devolution (excluding defence and foreign affairs), and full independence. * **Limited Support for Referendum:** Initial proposals for a referendum faced limited support in the Scottish Parliament, leading to the bill's withdrawal in 2010. * **SNP's Commitment and Scotland Act 2012:** In 2011, the SNP reiterated its commitment to a referendum, intending to secure more powers first through the Scotland Act of 2012, which granted fiscal powers. The SNP's success in winning 69 seats reinforced this agenda. #### 3.3.2 Case for YES The "Yes" campaign argued for the right of Scotland's residents to decide how their wealth was spent. Key arguments included: * **Economic Potential:** Scotland's oil reserves were seen as a valuable asset, capable of supporting welfare spending, pension debt, and childcare plans. * **"Bairns not Bombs" Policy:** A flagship policy was to scrap spending on nuclear weapons, forcing the UK to relocate its Trident weapons and allowing Scotland to pursue its own foreign policy. * **Democratic Deficit:** Scotland consistently voted for left-leaning governments but was often governed by Conservative-led coalitions at Westminster. Independence would allow Scotland to have governments it voted for, free from perceived disillusionment with Westminster and anger at austerity measures. * **Social Justice:** A belief in a more socially democratic, equitable, and progressive Scottish society, committed to addressing child poverty and healthcare. #### 3.3.3 Case for NO The "No" campaign highlighted the risks of independence: * **Economic Risks:** Uncertainties surrounding currency, oil reserves, public service funding, and potential business departures. * **EU Membership:** Concerns about Scotland's future membership in the European Union. * **Cynical Promises:** Accusations that the Scottish government made unsubstantiated promises and presented independence as a simplistic solution. * **Lack of Detail:** The "white paper" relied on unknowable future circumstances and policies on taxation that conflicted with social democratic ambitions. * **Scare Tactics:** While criticized for relying on fear, the campaign also sought to emphasize the achievements of devolution and guarantee further powers if Scotland voted to remain. #### 3.3.4 Campaigns and results * **Strategies:** The "Yes" campaign developed into a broad grassroots movement beyond the official "Yes Scotland" organization and the SNP, characterized by enthusiastic volunteers and community engagement. The "No" campaign, though less public, employed more forensic methods to target undecided voters and solidify its base. * **Rhetoric:** The debate was marked by a lack of objective facts, with evidence often used to support particular interests. Print media largely supported the union, with many "scaremongering" headlines. * **Engagement:** Social media played a significant role due to uncertainty and biased representation, becoming a key source of information, especially for younger proponents. The campaign evolved into a social movement addressing broader issues like austerity, poverty, corporate greed, and war. * **Public Opinion:** Leading up to the final weeks, a majority favoured "No" (around 60:40). However, by early September, support had shifted to 51% "No" and 49% "Yes." The narrow lead for "Yes" in the final days sparked panic in Westminster, resulting in a "maximum devolution" promise from the three major UK party leaders. #### 3.3.5 Aftermath of the referendum * **UK Politics:** The SNP became the dominant force in Scottish elections and the third-largest party in the UK, altering voting behavior. * **House of Commons Reform:** Scottish MPs could no longer overrule English MPs on English-only matters. * **Scotland Act 2016:** Resulting from the Smith Commission, this act devolved additional powers to the Scottish Parliament. * **EU Membership:** Cameron's promise of an EU referendum in 2015, partly in response to Scottish concerns about EU membership, paved the way for Brexit. ### 3.4 Brexit #### 3.4.1 Causes of the referendum * **European Integration:** The UK's journey with European integration, from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951 to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957, was marked by initial hesitations and later accession in 1973. * **Euroscepticism:** Euroscepticism emerged within the Labour Party in the 1970s and 1980s. The 1975 referendum saw a majority vote to remain in the EC. The 1993 Maastricht Treaty, which formed the EU, created a rift in the Conservative Party and led to the formation of Eurosceptic parties like the UK Independence Party (UKIP). * **Political Pressure:** By 2015, pressure from UKIP and Conservative Eurosceptics led Prime Minister David Cameron to promise an EU referendum if re-elected. * **Renegotiation and Referendum:** Following the 2015 election, Cameron renegotiated the terms of EU membership, focusing on protecting the single market, reducing red tape, exempting the UK from an "ever-closer union," and restricting immigration. The referendum was set for 23 June 2016. #### 3.4.2 The referendum * **Leave Campaign:** Key messages included saving £350 million a week for the NHS, regaining control of borders and immigration, and freedom to trade globally. The slogan "Vote Leave, Take Control" was central. * **Remain Campaign:** "Britain Stronger in Europe" focused on the uncertainty of change and regional differences, often perceived as a "project fear" by the Leave campaign, failing to articulate a positive vision for remaining in the EU. * **The Result:** On 23 June 2016, Britain voted to leave the European Union. #### 3.4.3 Brexit negotiations * **Theresa May's Premiership:** Following Cameron's resignation, Theresa May invoked Article 50 on 29 March 2017, initiating a two-year negotiation period. Her attempt to shore up support with a general election in June 2017 resulted in a loss of the Conservative majority. * **Chequers Plan:** The "soft Brexit" Chequers Plan, proposed in July 2018, included a "common rulebook" and a "facilitated" customs arrangement but led to resignations from hardliners like Boris Johnson. * **Deal Defeats:** Despite EU approval of the deal in November 2018, it was overwhelmingly defeated in the House of Commons three times in early 2019. * **Extensions and Resignation:** The Brexit deadline was extended, first to April 2019 and then to 31 October. May resigned in June 2019. * **Boris Johnson's Premiership:** Boris Johnson became Prime Minister in July 2019. He suspended Parliament in August to prevent opposition to a no-deal Brexit, a move later ruled unlawful by the Supreme Court. A deal on Northern Ireland was agreed in October, and Johnson secured a decisive general election victory in December 2019, enabling him to push through Brexit legislation. * **Official Departure:** The UK officially left the EU on 31 January 2020, entering an 11-month transition period. A deal was concluded in December 2020, and the split was complete on 1 January 2021. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Clause | A group of words containing a subject and a predicate; it can be independent (forming a complete sentence) or dependent (requiring additional information to form a complete sentence). | | Independent Clause | A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. | | Dependent Clause | A clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and relies on an independent clause for its full meaning; it often begins with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. | | Relative Pronoun | Words such as who, whom, whose, which, and that, used to introduce relative clauses and connect them to a noun or pronoun (antecedent) in another clause. | | Antecedent | The noun or pronoun to which a relative pronoun refers. | | Defining Relative Clause | A relative clause that is essential to identify the noun it modifies; it provides necessary information and is not set off by commas. | | Non-Defining Relative Clause | A relative clause that provides additional, non-essential information about a noun; it is set off by commas and can be omitted without changing the core meaning of the sentence. | | Possessive Relative Word | A relative pronoun, such as "whose," used to indicate possession in a relative clause, replacing possessive determiners like "his," "her," or "its." | | Coordinating Conjunctions | Words like "and," "but," "or," "yet," "for," "nor," and "so" that connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical rank. | | Subordinating Conjunctions | Words like "if," "because," "after," "since," "when," "while," "until," "unless," and "although" that connect clauses of unequal rank, often introducing a dependent clause. | | Correlative Conjunctions | Pairs of conjunctions, such as "both...and," "not only...but also," and "either...or," that connect elements of equal grammatical rank within a sentence. | | Causal Connectives | Words and phrases that indicate a cause-and-effect relationship, such as "consequently," "therefore," "hence," and "so." | | Public International Law | The body of law that governs the relationships between sovereign states and international organizations, including issues of treaties, war, and diplomacy. | | Human Rights | Fundamental rights and freedoms to which all human beings are entitled, regardless of their race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. | | Self-determination | The right of a people to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development. | | Use of Force (UN Charter art. 2(4)) | A principle of international law prohibiting states from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state. | | Intervention (International Law) | The act by one state of interfering in the domestic affairs of another state. | | Armed Attack | A significant use of force by one state against another, which can trigger the right to self-defense under international law. | | Customary International Law | International law that arises from the consistent and general practice of states, accompanied by a belief that such practice is legally obligatory (opinio juris). | | Attribution (International Law) | The process of determining which acts are attributable to a state under international law, often involving tests like "effective control." | | Austerity | A set of policies involving cuts to public spending and increases in taxes, typically implemented by governments to reduce budget deficits and national debt. | | London Riots | A series of riots and civil disorder that occurred in London and other parts of England in August 2011, triggered by a combination of social and economic factors. | | Scottish Independence Referendum | A referendum held in Scotland on 18 September 2014, in which voters were asked whether Scotland should be an independent country. | | Brexit | The withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, following a referendum held in June 2016. | | European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) | An organization established in 1951 by six European countries to pool coal and steel resources, considered a precursor to the European Union. | | European Economic Community (EEC) | An organization formed in 1957 by six European countries to establish a common market and promote economic cooperation, a key step towards the EU. | | Euroscepticism | A political viewpoint that is critical of or opposed to the European Union. | | Maastricht Treaty | A treaty signed in 1992 that established the European Union (EU) and laid the groundwork for a common currency and political union. | | Article 50 | The provision of the Treaty on European Union that sets out the procedure for a member state to withdraw from the EU. | | Chequers Plan | A proposed plan by Theresa May's government in 2018 for the UK's future relationship with the EU after Brexit, aiming for a "soft Brexit." |

# Foundations of linguistics and language study This section introduces the core concepts of linguistics and the various approaches to language study, including its fundamental branches and key theoretical distinctions. ## 1. Foundations of linguistics and language study ### 1.1 What is language and linguistics? Language is understood as the sounds we associate with meanings, and it is not confined to spoken forms but is present everywhere. Linguistics is the scientific study of language or particular languages, examining the forms language can take and the ways it is used. Linguists ask various questions about language, leading to different subfields such as evolutionary linguistics (how and why language developed), historical/diachronic linguistics (language change over time), first and second language acquisition, multilingualism, psycholinguistics (language storage), cognitive linguistics (language interaction with cognition), sociolinguistics (language use shaped by society), functional linguistics (communicative functions), typology (language differences), and foreign language teaching [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Core areas of linguistic study Linguistics is often divided into six core areas that examine language at different levels: * **Phonetics:** The study of speech sounds [1](#page=1). * **Phonology:** The study of the sound systems of individual languages [1](#page=1). * **Morphology:** The study of the creation and structure of words and morphemes (affixes, word forms) [1](#page=1). * **Syntax:** The study of structural units larger than words, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences [1](#page=1). * **Semantics:** The study of word and sentence meaning, focusing on the general meaning of words [1](#page=1). * **Pragmatics:** The study of meaning in context and discourse [1](#page=1). These branches can be combined to narrow down research questions, for example, studying phonetics in the context of first language acquisition [1](#page=1). Ferdinand de Saussure is considered the father of "modern linguistics" for his significant contributions in the 20th century [1](#page=1). ### 1.3 Key linguistic concepts #### 1.3.1 Synchronic vs. Diachronic approaches * **Synchronic approach:** Studies language at a specific point in time. This is an abstraction, as language is always changing. For example, analyzing Old English in 1000 AD [1](#page=1). * **Diachronic approach:** Studies language over time, examining changes throughout its history. For instance, comparing Old English to Present-day English [1](#page=1). Understanding a synchronic state is a prerequisite for good diachronic studies. Language can be viewed as an evolutionary "Complex Adaptive System," where new variants spread successfully, leading to competition, layering, or loss of older variants [1](#page=1). #### 1.3.2 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive approaches * **Descriptive approach:** Neutrally describes how people actually speak or write, without judgment. Linguists primarily adopt this approach [2](#page=2). * **Prescriptive approach:** Dictates how people *should* speak or write correctly, often using terms like "right/wrong" or "good/bad". Teachers and writers of guides and dictionaries often use this approach. The term "grammatical" can be used in both contexts: descriptively to describe actual or perceived normal speech, and prescriptively to denote adherence to authoritative rules [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.3 Langue vs. Parole * **Langue (competence):** Refers to the abstract system of language, the mental knowledge stored in the brain, encompassing all elements like sounds, words, and sentences. This explains our ability to understand novel sentences [2](#page=2). * **Parole (performance):** Refers to the concrete use of language, the actual utterances spoken or written by a specific person at a specific time, constituting a speech event [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.4 Signifier vs. Signified In semiotics, a sign consists of two parts: * **Signifier:** The physical form of the sign, which can be a word or an image [2](#page=2). * **Signified:** The mental concept or idea evoked by the signifier [2](#page=2). Semiotics is the study of signs, and language is considered a system of signs, with linguistic signs being a particular type. Humans are described as symbolic species [2](#page=2). ### 1.4 Types of signs Signs are anything that signifies something else, and their meaning is learned, not innate. Understanding a sign is an unconscious process. There are three types of signs based on their form-meaning relationship [2](#page=2): * **Icon:** Based on resemblance [2](#page=2). * **Index:** Based on a causal link, where the form implies the concept indirectly [2](#page=2). * **Symbol:** Arbitrary, with no inherent connection between form and meaning [2](#page=2). For example, a road sign is a physical object (icon), while the word "meow" can be an icon (representing the sound a cat makes) or an index (representing the cat itself, especially to a child) [2](#page=2). ### 1.5 The linguistic sign Linguistic signs are primarily **symbols** because their connection between the signifier (form) and the signified (concept) is **arbitrary** and **conventionalized**. An exception is onomatopoeia (e.g., "buzz," "pang"), which imitates the sound they represent and are often classified as icons, though they can contain some arbitrariness. Some written signs can also be iconic, based on resemblance. A word, therefore, is an arbitrary, conventionalized symbol with a form-meaning pairing, stored in the mental lexicon (langue) and produced in speech (parole) [3](#page=3). ### 1.6 Animal communication vs. human language While animals possess communication systems, they differ significantly from human language. Animal communication often relies on indexical signs (e.g., a dog by the door indicating a desire to go out) and body language. Some animal systems can convey messages like danger signals and even exhibit dialectical differences. However, animal systems are qualitatively different from human language due to several unique properties of human language [3](#page=3). ### 1.7 Properties distinguishing human language There are seven key properties that make human language unique, although some animal systems may exhibit one or two of these: * **Reflexivity:** The ability to use language to talk about language itself [3](#page=3). * **Displacement:** The ability to refer to past, future, or non-existent things, unlike animals that communicate primarily in the present moment [3](#page=3). * **Arbitrariness:** The lack of a straightforward connection between the linguistic signifier and the signified [3](#page=3). * **Productivity/Open-endedness/Creativity:** The capacity to produce an infinite number of new sentences from a limited set of elements. Animal systems are usually very restricted [3](#page=3). * **Cultural transmission:** Language is learned and copied across generations and within social/local communities, rather than being purely instinctive [3](#page=3). * **Duality/Double articulation:** Language has two levels of structure: meaningless sounds/gestures combined to form meaningful units (words), which are then combined into larger meaningful structures. Animals typically use sequences with fixed meanings that cannot be rearranged [3](#page=3). * **Recursion/Embedding:** The ability to embed clauses within other clauses, allowing for potentially endless sentence structures [4](#page=4). While not one property alone defines human language, their combination is unique. For example, bottlenose dolphins exhibit some properties like signature whistles (arbitrariness, limited productivity, duality) [4](#page=4). ### 1.8 Origins of language The exact time, manner, and reasons for the development of language remain unknown. Hypotheses suggest a spoken proto-language may have developed between 200,000 and 50,000 years ago, but physical evidence is lacking. Written language developed much later, around 5000 years ago [4](#page=4). Speculative theories for the origin of language include divine origin, natural sounds, social interaction, physical adaptation, tool-making, genetic factors, and musical origins. The genetic source theory suggests a species-specific genetic mutation, leading to the innateness hypothesis or linguistic nativism, which posits an innate "Language Acquisition Device" or "Universal Grammar" (proposed by Noam Chomsky). The "single-mutation" view is challenged, with research suggesting many genes affect linguistic ability, such as FOXP2. The evolutionary history is complex, with debates on whether only anatomically modern humans had language or if extinct relatives like Neanderthals also possessed it [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). ### 1.9 Morphology: The structure of words Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and the rules governing them. The smallest meaningful unit in language is the **morpheme**, which consists of both meaning and form (morph). Words can be monomorphemic (one morpheme, e.g., "apple") or polymorphemic (multiple morphemes, e.g., "apple+s") [5](#page=5). Morphemes can be classified by: * **Autonomy:** * **Free morphemes (lexemes):** Can stand alone (e.g., "man," "cat") [5](#page=5). * **Bound morphemes (affixes):** Must combine with other morphemes (e.g., "un-", "-ness", "-s") [5](#page=5). * **Function/Meaning:** * **Lexical morphemes:** Content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) that establish a relation to the world and can be easily added or created (open classes). Derivational affixes are also lexical [6](#page=6). * **Grammatical morphemes:** Function words (prepositions, articles, pronouns) that establish relations within the sentence and are difficult to add (closed classes). Inflectional affixes are grammatical [6](#page=6). * **Position:** * **Prefix:** An affix before a base (e.g., "re-") [6](#page=6). * **Suffix:** An affix after a base (e.g., "-tion") [6](#page=6). ### 1.10 Inflection vs. Derivation Bound morphemes are either grammatical (inflectional) or lexical (derivational) [6](#page=6). * **Inflection:** Expresses grammatical information and categories, never changes word class, and does not significantly alter meaning. Inflections are typically suffixes that attach to all possible bases. English has a limited inflectional system today (e.g., plural "-s," past tense "-ed") compared to Old English [6](#page=6). * **Derivation:** Creates new lexemes by adding an affix to a lexical base. Derivation can change word class and alter meaning. Both suffixes and prefixes are used, attaching to a subset of bases [6](#page=6). A single word can undergo both derivation and inflection (e.g., "speak"+"er" (derivation) +"s" (inflection)) [7](#page=7). ### 1.11 Unique morphemes and allomorphy * **Unique morphemes ("cranberry morphemes"):** Bound morphemes that have neither meaning nor grammatical function but serve to distinguish a word from others (e.g., the "-berry" in "cranberry" vs. "strawberry") [7](#page=7). * **Allomorphy:** The phenomenon where a single morpheme can have multiple forms, known as allomorphs. The form can be determined by phonological (neighboring sounds), morphological (preceding/following morpheme), or lexical (the word itself) conditioning. For example, the plural morpheme {PLURAL} has allomorphs like "-s", "-es" [7](#page=7). ### 1.12 Word-formation processes New words are added to a language through various processes: * **Productive processes:** * **Compounding:** Putting two words together to form a new one (e.g., "handout," "word-class"). The head element (right-hand) carries the main meaning and determines word class and inflection [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). * **Affixation (derivation):** Adding an affix to a lexical base to create a new word, sometimes changing word class. Derivational suffixes often change word class, while prefixes rarely do. "Blocking" occurs when a synonymous word already exists, preventing affixation (e.g., "*stealer" is blocked by "thief") [8](#page=8). * **Less productive processes:** * **Conversion (zero-derivation):** Using a word in a different word class without any overt change in form (e.g., "to gesture" from "a gesture") [8](#page=8). * **Shortening:** Removing linguistic material. * **Clipping (truncation):** Retaining the first or stressed syllable (e.g., "doctor" → "doc") [8](#page=8). * **Blends:** Combining parts of two words (e.g., "smoke" + "fog" = "smog") [8](#page=8). * **Abbreviations:** Initial letters or sounds of words [9](#page=9). * **Acronyms:** Pronounced as a word (e.g., "UNESCO") [9](#page=9). * **Initialisms:** Each letter pronounced individually (e.g., "USA") [9](#page=9). * **Back-formation:** Creating a new word by deleting a seeming suffix from an older, complex word, often resulting in a word class change (e.g., "editor" → "edit") [9](#page=9). Other ways words are formed include coinage (inventing from scratch, e.g., "Google") and borrowing from other languages. Semantic change also contributes to new word meanings [7](#page=7). ### 1.13 Semantics and Lexicon Semantics is the study of meaning in language, exploring its nature and structure. It is distinguished from pragmatics, which focuses on meaning intended by the speaker in a specific context. Lexical semantics deals with word meanings, sentential semantics with larger syntactic units, and discourse semantics with meaning in context [9](#page=9). Key questions in semantics include how word meaning is defined, organized in the mind, learned by children, affected by sentence structure, expressed differently across languages, and how meaning changes over time [9](#page=9). ### 1.14 The semiotic triangle and dimensions of meaning The semiotic triangle illustrates the relationship between a word (linguistic expression), its form, and the mental concept it evokes. While words can refer to objects, this is mediated through mental concepts, and not all concepts correspond to physical objects. Meaning is also understood as a word's use in language, encompassing associations beyond just concepts [10](#page=10) [9](#page=9). Dimensions of word meaning contrast language-internal (intralinguistic) aspects with language-external (extralinguistic) ones: * **Sense (Intension):** The language-internal meaning, referring to the semantic properties or conditions an object must meet to be classified by the word. It describes the semantic features. Example: "bird" features include [+animate, [-human, [+wings, [+feathers [10](#page=10). * **Referent/Reference (Extension):** The real-world object or entity to which the word refers when used. Reference belongs to parole, whereas sense belongs to langue. Example: "birds" refers to doves, parrots, penguins [10](#page=10). * **Denotation:** The primary, dictionary meaning that refers to a stable relationship between an expression and the concrete entities it refers to [10](#page=10). * **Connotation:** All associations, ideas, and emotions related to a linguistic expression, which can differ among individuals [10](#page=10). ### 1.15 Word meaning and categorization Understanding word use requires understanding mental concepts and categories [11](#page=11). * **Semantic Feature Analysis (Aristotle):** Defines concepts by a set of semantic features. While useful for relationships, it struggles with atomic features, fuzzy boundaries, and cases where different concepts share the same features (e.g., "bachelor" and "pope") [11](#page=11). * **Family Resemblance Theory (Wittgenstein):** Argues that members of a category share overlapping resemblances, not necessarily a single set of common features, like members of a family. This allows for fuzzy boundaries but doesn't grade members' typicality [11](#page=11). * **Prototype Theory:** Suggests that category members are graded based on their typicality, with central members sharing more features with the prototype. This accounts for non-typical members and gradience, and includes associative meaning [11](#page=11). ### 1.16 The lexicon and word forms The lexicon is the set of words in a language, stored in a vast mental lexicon. Word processing is efficient, allowing recognition before full pronunciation. The lexicon is organized in a network where related words are connected, influencing word meaning [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). * **Polysemy:** One form with related meanings (e.g., "head" of a person, a nail, an institution) [12](#page=12). * **Homonymy:** One form with unrelated meanings (e.g., "bat" the animal and "bat" the wooden stick) [12](#page=12). * **Homophony:** Two forms with the same sound but different spellings and meanings (e.g., "knight" / "night") [12](#page=12). * **Homography:** One spelling with different pronunciations and meanings (e.g., "tear" (drop) / "tear" (apart)) [12](#page=12). ### 1.17 Semantic relations among words These are paradigmatic relations, where words can substitute for each other in a structure: * **Synonymy:** Different words with approximately the same meaning. True synonymy is rare; near-synonymy is more common, with words often differing in stylistic level or context suitability [12](#page=12). * **Antonymy:** Words with opposite meanings. Types include gradable (hot/cold), complementary (dead/alive), reversive (enter/exit), and converse (buy/sell) antonyms [13](#page=13). * **Hyponymy:** A hierarchical relationship where one word is a kind of another (e.g., "red" is a hyponym of "colour") [13](#page=13). * **Meronymy:** A part-whole relationship (e.g., "branch" is part of a "tree") [14](#page=14). ### 1.18 Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic relations * **Syntagmatic relations:** Describe how words co-occur in a sequence (horizontally) [14](#page=14). * **Collocations:** Words that tend to co-occur frequently, forming word partnerships. Knowledge of collocations is a substantial part of language competence [14](#page=14). * **Colligation:** The occurrence of a lexical item in a specific grammatical structure [14](#page=14). * **Highly fixed collocations:** Formulaic phrases learned as a whole unit, like "good morning" [15](#page=15). * **Idioms:** Highly fixed, non-compositional expressions where the meaning cannot be deduced from the individual words [15](#page=15). * **Paradigmatic relations:** Describe words that can substitute for each other in a given structure (vertically) [14](#page=14). ### 1.19 Phrasal and sentential semantics The Principle of Semantic Compositionality states that the meaning of a phrase or sentence is determined by the meaning of its parts and how they are structurally combined. Ambiguities (lexical and structural) are typically resolved by co-text and syntagmatic relations. Semantics focuses on objective, coded meaning, while pragmatics considers implied meaning in context [16](#page=16). ### 1.20 Meaning relations among sentences * **Truth conditions:** The conditions under which a sentence is true [16](#page=16). * **Propositional content:** The part of meaning that can be true or false, representing a possible state of the world [16](#page=16). * **Truth value:** Whether the propositional content is true or false [16](#page=16). * **Paraphrase:** Two sentences with roughly the same meaning, where the truth of one implies the truth of the other (symmetrical entailment) [16](#page=16). * **Entailment:** The truth of one sentence implies the truth of another, but not vice versa (asymmetrical) [16](#page=16). * **Contradiction:** If one sentence is true, the other must be false [17](#page=17). ### 1.21 Semantic roles Semantic roles describe the function a noun plays in the event described by a clause, such as Agent, Experiencer, Theme, Instrument, Location, etc.. Verbs act as predicates that select obligatory arguments, and predication links these arguments to the predicate [17](#page=17). ### 1.22 Syntax and Grammar Grammar, in a broad sense, refers to the rules governing sounds, words, sentences, and their interpretation; it's a feature of the mind that enables communication. Syntax specifically refers to the set of rules and principles that govern sentence structure, including word order, and explains why sentences are grammatically correct even with nonsense words [17](#page=17). A grammar must generate a finite set of rules to produce an infinite number of well-formed sentences. Syntax involves identifying and classifying elements (categories, phrases, constituents), their ordering, hierarchy, recursivity, ambiguity, and functions. The hierarchical structure of sentences moves from Sentence > Clause > Phrase > Word [18](#page=18). * **Sentence:** An abstract entity, typically starting with a capital letter and ending with punctuation, that can be derived from the meaning of its parts [18](#page=18). * **Clause:** A grammatical term, containing at least one verb, and can be dependent or independent [18](#page=18). * **Phrase:** A syntactic unit above the word level, with internal structure determined by a head and dependents. Types include Noun Phrase (NP), Verb Phrase (VP), Adjectival Phrase (AdjP), Prepositional Phrase (PP), and Adverbial Phrase (AdvP) [18](#page=18) [20](#page=20). ### 1.23 Word classes (parts of speech) Words are classified into classes based on semantic, morphological, and syntactic (distributional) criteria [19](#page=19). * **Open classes:** Feature many words and are easy to add new ones (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) [19](#page=19). * **Closed classes:** Hard to add new elements (determiners, coordinators, subordinators, prepositions) [19](#page=19). Each classification criterion has limitations, and usually, a combination of all three is needed for accurate classification. A prototype approach can also be applied, where some members of a class are more typical than others [20](#page=20). ### 1.24 Constituents and features of grammar **Constituents** are structural units or building blocks that make up larger units, functioning as a single unit. Constituency tests (pronominalization, movement, coordination, gapping, sentence fragments) help identify them [21](#page=21). Key features of grammar include: * **Hierarchy of constituents:** Language structures have layers, representable by tree diagrams or brackets [21](#page=21). * **Recursivity:** The ability to embed the same syntactic patterns repeatedly, allowing for self-similar structures [21](#page=21). * **Ambiguity:** Human grammar allows for sentences to have multiple structural interpretations [21](#page=21). ### 1.25 Syntactic form vs. syntactic function * **Syntactic form:** Refers to word classes and phrases, defined by semantic, morphological, and syntactic criteria [22](#page=22). * **Syntactic function:** Describes the role an element plays in its grammatical context (e.g., subject, predicate, complement, adjunct) [22](#page=22). Common syntactic functions include Subject, Predicate, Complement (Direct Object, Indirect Object, Subject Complement, Object Complement, Prepositional Object), and Adjunct. Notably, one form can have multiple functions, and one function can be expressed by multiple forms (many-to-one and one-to-many relationships) [22](#page=22) [23](#page=23). ### 1.26 Complementation patterns Complementation patterns, determined by verb classes, describe the number of complements a verb requires in a clause. These include [23](#page=23): * **Intransitive:** (S V) - no complements [23](#page=23). * **Monotransitive:** (S V Od) - one direct object [23](#page=23). * **Ditransitive:** (S V Oi Od) or (S V Od Oi) - one indirect and one direct object [23](#page=23). * **Complex-transitive:** Involves PP-complement or object complement [23](#page=23). * **Copulative:** (S V Cs) - uses copular verbs with a subject complement [24](#page=24). ### 1.27 Linguistic typology Linguistic typology is the study and classification of languages based on structural and functional features, aiming to identify universals and patterns of variation. It differs from etymology, which groups languages by historical relations [24](#page=24). * **Classification based on Morphology:** * **Analytic/Isolating languages:** Each word is a single morpheme with one meaning (e.g., Mandarin) [24](#page=24). * **Synthetic languages:** Words can be polymorphemic. * **Fusional/Inflectional:** Morphemes carry multiple meanings (e.g., Latin, Spanish) [25](#page=25). * **Non-fusional/Agglutinating:** Each morpheme has a single meaning (e.g., Turkish, Basque) [25](#page=25). Most languages are mixed, with a dominant type. English is predominantly analytic but has synthetic elements [25](#page=25). * **Classification based on Word Order (Syntax):** * **Sentential level:** Analytic languages rely on strict word order (e.g., SVO), while synthetic languages have freer word order due to inflections. The most common orders are SVO and SOV [25](#page=25). * **Phrase level:** Languages can be head-initial (head first, e.g., "flower yellow") or head-final (head last, e.g., "yellow flower"). English has a mixed system [26](#page=26). ### 1.28 Linguistic universals These are features common to all or most languages [26](#page=26). * **Absolute universals:** True for all languages (e.g., all languages have consonants and vowels) [26](#page=26). * **Non-absolute/Probabilistic universals:** True for most languages or with high probability (e.g., most languages have adjectives) [26](#page=26). * **Implicational universals:** If a language has feature A, it also has feature B (e.g., if a language has inflection, it also has derivation) [26](#page=26). ### 1.29 Diachronic and Historical Linguistics Diachronic linguistics studies language change over time, contrasting with the synchronic study of language at a single point. Historical linguistics reconstructs language history using written evidence and comparative methods. Understanding language change is crucial because synchronic systems are not static or homogenous but are consequences of historical processes, explaining irregularities and variations [1](#page=1) [26](#page=26). Language is viewed as an evolutionary "complex adaptive system" where innovation, diffusion, implementation, and standardization occur. Changes can be observed in lexicon, grammar, form, and meaning. Language change can be driven by internal factors (e.g., child language acquisition rules) or external factors [27](#page=27). --- # Morphology and word formation processes This topic explores the internal structure of words, identifying their fundamental meaningful units and the processes by which new words are formed [5](#page=5). ### 2.1 The building blocks of language: Morphemes Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and the rules that govern them, drawing an analogy to the biological study of organism structure. The fundamental unit in morphology is the **morpheme**, which is the smallest meaningful unit in a language, composed of both meaning and form [5](#page=5). Words can be: * **Monomorphemic (simplex):** Consisting of a single morpheme, such as "apple" [5](#page=5). * **Polymorphemic (complex):** Consisting of two or more morphemes, such as "apple + s" [5](#page=5). Morphemes are categorized based on several criteria: #### 2.1.1 Morphemes by autonomy * **Free morphemes (lexemes):** These can stand alone as independent words (e.g., "man," "cat," "these") [5](#page=5). * **Bound morphemes (affixes):** These cannot stand alone and must be attached to other morphemes (e.g., "un-," "-ness," "-s") [5](#page=5). #### 2.1.2 Morphemes by function/meaning * **Lexical morphemes:** These carry the main content and establish a relation to the world. They include content words (free morphemes like nouns, verbs, adjectives, which form open classes and are easily added to) and derivational affixes (bound morphemes) [6](#page=6). * **Grammatical morphemes:** These establish relations between other parts of the sentence. They include function words (free morphemes like prepositions, articles, pronouns, which form closed classes and are not spontaneously added to) and inflectional affixes (bound morphemes) that express grammatical information like plurals, cases, etc. [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.3 Morphemes by position * **Prefix:** An affix that comes before a base (e.g., "un-" in "unhappy") [6](#page=6). * **Suffix:** An affix that comes after a base (e.g., "-s" in "cats") [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** The terms "stem" and "root" are related. A **base** is what other morphemes attach to. If a bound grammatical morpheme is added to a base, it becomes a **stem**. Simplex bases are also called **roots** [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.4 Inflection vs. Derivation Bound morphemes can be either grammatical (inflectional) or lexical (derivational) [6](#page=6). * **Inflection:** * Expresses grammatical information and categories. * Never changes the word class. * Meaning remains stable. * Consists only of suffixes that attach to all possible bases. * English has a limited inflectional system today (e.g., noun plural "-s," past tense "-ed") compared to Old English or modern German [6](#page=6). * **Derivation:** * Creates new lexemes by adding an affix to a lexical base. * Can change the word class. * Meaning changes, leading to a variable form-meaning relationship. * Uses both prefixes and suffixes, which attach to a subset of bases. * Examples include suffixes like "-ity," "-ness," and prefixes like "re-," "dis-" [6](#page=6). > **Example:** The word "speakers" is formed by a base ("speak") + a derivational suffix ("-er") + an inflectional suffix ("-s") [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.5 Unique and Allomorphic Morphemes * **Unique morphemes ("cranberry morphemes"):** These are bound morphemes that have neither meaning nor grammatical function but serve to distinguish one word from another (e.g., the "cran-" in "cranberry") [7](#page=7). * **Allomorphy:** This refers to a morpheme having multiple forms (allomorphs) that realize a single meaning. * **Phonological conditioning:** The form of an allomorph depends on neighboring sounds. For example, the indefinite article has allomorphs "a" and "an". The regular plural suffix has allomorphs [7](#page=7): * `-s` after voiceless consonants (e.g., "cats") [7](#page=7). * `-z` after voiced consonants (e.g., "dogs") [7](#page=7). * `-Əs` after sibilants (e.g., "horses") [7](#page=7). * **Morphological conditioning:** The form depends on the preceding or following morpheme, often seen in bases changing shape with affixes (e.g., "agile" $\rightarrow$ "agility," "exclaim" $\rightarrow$ "exclamation") [7](#page=7). * **Lexical conditioning:** The form depends on the word as a whole, as seen in irregular plurals (e.g., "child" $\rightarrow$ "children") and irregular comparative/superlative forms (e.g., "good" $\rightarrow$ "better" $\rightarrow$ "best") [7](#page=7). ### 2.2 Word-formation processes Languages acquire new words through various processes, including coinage, borrowing, semantic change, and word formation using existing elements [7](#page=7). #### 2.2.1 Productive word-formation processes These processes are currently active and commonly used in language creation [7](#page=7). * **Compounding:** This involves joining two words together to create a new one. * Compounds can have three alternative spellings: as one word, as a hyphenated word, or as two separate words (e.g., "handout," "word-class") [8](#page=8). * Stress is typically on the left-hand member, which can distinguish meaning (e.g., "English STUdents" vs. "ENGlish students") [8](#page=8). * **Compound types:** Modifier (left) + Head (right). The head carries the main meaning, determines the word class, and receives inflection (e.g., "Newspaper," "colour-blind," "to housekeep") [8](#page=8). * **Constituency:** Compounds can have complex hierarchical structures, where parts function as single units (e.g., "wild-life sanctuary" can be analyzed as "wild + life sanctuary" or "wildlife + sanctuary") [8](#page=8). * **Affixation (Derivation):** This process creates a new word by adding an affix to a base [8](#page=8). * **Prefixes** rarely change the word class (e.g., "un-," "mal-") [8](#page=8). * **Suffixes** often change the word class and can have different meanings (e.g., "-er" can denote an agent or an instrument: "teacher" vs. "toaster") [8](#page=8). * **Blocking:** If a synonymous word already exists, affixation might be blocked (e.g., "*stealer" is not used because "thief" exists) [8](#page=8). #### 2.2.2 Less productive word-formation processes These processes are less active or occur in more specialized contexts [8](#page=8). * **Conversion (Zero-derivation):** A word is used in a different word class without any overt marking of change. * Examples include using a noun as a verb (e.g., "a gesture" $\rightarrow$ "to gesture," "Google" $\rightarrow$ "to google") [8](#page=8). * **Shortening:** Linguistic material (sounds or letters) is removed from a word. * Generally, there is no change in word class or meaning, except in back-formation [8](#page=8). * **Clipping (truncation):** The first or stressed syllable is retained (e.g., "doctor" $\rightarrow$ "doc," "Elizabeth" $\rightarrow$ "Liz") [8](#page=8). * **Blends:** Parts of two words are combined (e.g., "smoke" + "fog" = "smog," "hungry" + "angry" = "hangry") [8](#page=8). * **Abbreviations:** Initial letters or sounds of several words are used. * **Acronyms:** Pronounced as a word (e.g., "UNESCO," "OPEC") [9](#page=9). * **Initialisms:** Each letter is pronounced individually (e.g., "TV," "USA") [9](#page=9). * Some abbreviations have entered general vocabulary (e.g., "Laser," "Radar," "FOMO") [9](#page=9). * **Back-formation:** An older, complex word is perceived as having a suffix, and this perceived suffix is deleted to create a new word. This often results in a change of word class, making it appear as if the original word was derived from the new one (e.g., "editor" $\rightarrow$ "edit," "enthusiasm" $\rightarrow$ "enthuse") [9](#page=9). --- # Semantics and the nature of meaning Semantics is the study of meaning in language, encompassing how meaning is encoded in words and sentences and how it is organized in the mind. ## 3 Semantics and the nature of meaning Semantics investigates the nature and structure of meaning in language. It is distinct from pragmatics, which focuses on the meaning intended by a speaker in a specific context, as semantics deals solely with meaning encoded within language itself. Key questions in semantics include how word meanings are defined and organized, the relationship between language and thought, and how meaning changes across languages and over time. Since meaning cannot be directly observed, it is inferred, and its understanding is contingent on knowing the language [9](#page=9). ### 3.1 Branches of semantics * **Lexical semantics:** Focuses on the meanings of individual words and morphemes [9](#page=9). * **Sentential semantics:** Deals with the meaning of syntactic units larger than words, such as phrases and sentences [9](#page=9). * **Discourse semantics:** Examines meaning created within a broader linguistic context, closely related to pragmatics [9](#page=9). ### 3.2 The semiotic triangle The semiotic triangle illustrates the relationship between a word (linguistic expression), a concept (mental category), and the real-world object or referent. Early views proposed that words directly refer to objects, but this is limited as not all words refer to tangible objects, and multiple words can refer to the same object. A more comprehensive view posits that meaning is the relationship between a linguistic expression and a mental category used for classification, with the mental concept acting as a crucial intermediary. The meaning of a word can also be understood as its use in language, encompassing not just concepts but also associations [10](#page=10) [9](#page=9). ### 3.3 Dimensions of word meaning Word meaning can be analyzed through several paired dimensions, contrasting language-internal (intra-linguistic) and language-external (extra-linguistic) aspects [10](#page=10): * **Sense vs. Referent/Reference:** * **Sense:** The language-internal, conceptual meaning of a word, referring to a stable relationship between an expression and the concrete entities it denotes. It is considered part of *langue* (the language system) and is the same for all speakers. For example, the sense of "President of the US" refers to the office itself [10](#page=10). * **Referent:** The actual object or entity in the real world that a word picks out when used in a specific utterance. It belongs to *parole* (language use) and is restricted by sense. For example, "George Washington," "Bill Clinton," and "Barack Obama" are referents for "President of the US" [10](#page=10). * **Reference:** The relationship between a linguistic expression (in the mind) and its referent [10](#page=10). * **Denotation vs. Connotation:** * **Denotation:** The primary, dictionary meaning of a word, referring to the set of semantic properties or features that an object must meet to qualify for the word's application. It represents the stable, objective meaning shared by all speakers. For example, the denotation of "bird" includes features like [+animate, [-human, [+wings, [+feathers [10](#page=10). * **Connotation:** All the associations, ideas, emotions, and subjective implications that a word evokes for an individual speaker. It can differ significantly from person to person. For example, connotations of "tree" might include relaxation, nature, or shade [10](#page=10). * **Intension vs. Extension:** * **Intension:** The description of semantic properties that define a word's meaning. It refers to the conceptual characteristics that an entity must possess to be classified under a given word. For example, the intension of "bird" involves being animate, non-human, having wings, and having feathers [10](#page=10). * **Extension:** The set of actual real entities that satisfy the intension of a word. These are the concrete examples that fall under the word's meaning. For example, the extension of "bird" includes doves, parrots, and penguins [10](#page=10). ### 3.4 Theories of word meaning Understanding how meanings are categorized in the mind is crucial for comprehending word usage. Three prominent approaches exist: #### 3.4.1 Semantic feature analysis (Aristotle) This approach defines word meaning by a set of semantic features, similar to intension [11](#page=11). * **Concept:** Words are characterized by a list of binary features (e.g., [+human, [-male, [+adult]) [11](#page=11). * **Advantages:** Easy to understand and apply, and it can automatically define relationships between words (e.g., similarity between "woman" and "girl") [11](#page=11). * **Problems:** * Features are themselves concepts and not necessarily atomic [11](#page=11). * It does not account for our intuition that some members of a category are better examples than others (e.g., a robin is a better example of a "bird" than a penguin) [11](#page=11). * Different words can have the same features but distinct meanings (e.g., "bachelor" and "pope" could share features like [+human, [+adult, [+male, [-married]) [11](#page=11). * It is unclear which features are essential for defining a word's meaning [11](#page=11). #### 3.4.2 Family resemblance theory (Wittgenstein) Wittgenstein proposed that categories are not defined by a single set of essential features but by overlapping similarities, much like members of a family share resemblances without all having identical features [11](#page=11). * **Concept:** Members of a category are related through a network of overlapping similarities. Not every member possesses all features, but each shares some features with others [11](#page=11). * **Application:** Wittgenstein used the example of "game," which can involve entertainment, competition, skill, luck, and require multiple players, yet no single game embodies all these features [11](#page=11). * **Advantage:** This theory acknowledges fuzzy boundaries and the lack of strict definitions for many categories [11](#page=11). #### 3.4.3 Prototype theory This theory posits that members of a category are graded according to their typicality, with a "prototype" representing the most central example [11](#page=11). * **Concept:** A prototype is a mental representation of the most typical instance of a category. Central members of the category share the most features with the prototype [11](#page=11). * **Advantages:** * Accounts for non-typical or peripheral members of a category [11](#page=11). * Allows for gradience and fuzzy boundaries within categories [11](#page=11). * Incorporates associative meaning [11](#page=11). * Explains linguistic expressions used to denote degrees of belonging (e.g., "typically," "sort of") [11](#page=11). * **Comparison:** Unlike family resemblance, prototype theory identifies a core or central member, while both theories allow for gradience and associative meaning [11](#page=11). ### 3.5 Lexicon and word meaning organization The lexicon is the set of words in a language, stored in a mental lexicon which is vast and highly organized. Words are not isolated but are interconnected in a network, as evidenced by word-association tests where people often show similar associative patterns for given words. This interconnectedness influences word meaning [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). ### 3.6 Word forms and senses * **Polysemy:** A single word form has multiple related meanings. These meanings are often listed together in a dictionary (e.g., "head" of a person, a nail, or an institution) [12](#page=12). * **Homonymy:** Different word forms that happen to have the same pronunciation or spelling but unrelated meanings. They are treated as separate entries in a dictionary (e.g., "bat" – animal vs. wooden stick) [12](#page=12). * **Homophony:** Two different forms with the same sound (e.g., "knight" and "night") [12](#page=12). * **Homography:** Two different meanings with the same spelling but potentially different pronunciations (e.g., "tear" (a drop) vs. "tear" (to rip)) [12](#page=12). * **Heteronyms:** Homographs that are pronounced differently [12](#page=12). * **Lexical ambiguity:** A word's meaning is unclear and depends on its context [12](#page=12). ### 3.7 Semantic relations among words These relations describe how words are connected in meaning within the lexicon. * **Synonymy:** Different words with approximately the same meaning. While they can often substitute for each other, perfect synonymy is rare, as words may differ in stylistic level, connotation, or context-appropriateness (e.g., "eat" vs. "consume"). Near-synonymy is common [12](#page=12). * **Euphemism:** Using a less offensive or more pleasant expression to replace a taboo or sensitive word (e.g., "pass away" for "die"). Euphemisms can lose their distinctiveness over time [13](#page=13). * **Antonymy:** Words with opposite meanings, requiring them to share most semantic components except for one oppositional feature [13](#page=13). * **Gradable antonyms:** Represent polarity on a scale and have comparatives (e.g., "hot," "warm," "cool," "cold") [13](#page=13). * **Complementary pairs:** Binary opposites with no middle ground (e.g., "dead" vs. "alive") [13](#page=13). * **Reversives:** Indicate opposite directions or actions (e.g., "enter" vs. "exit") [13](#page=13). * **Converses:** Relational opposites viewed from different perspectives (e.g., "buy" vs. "sell") [13](#page=13). * Complications arise as words can have different opposites in different contexts (e.g., "light" bag vs. "light" wind) [13](#page=13). * **Hyponymy:** A hierarchical relationship where one word is a kind of another (e.g., "terrier" is a hyponym of "dog," and "dog" is a hyponym of "animal"). The more general term is the hyperonym, and the more specific term is the hyponym [13](#page=13). * **Meronymy:** A part-whole relationship, where one word denotes a part of a larger object (e.g., "branch" is part of a "tree") [14](#page=14). ### 3.8 Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic Relations These describe how words relate to each other in language. * **Syntagmatic Relations:** Refer to words that can occur together in a linear sequence, forming phrases and sentences. These are "horizontal" relationships [14](#page=14). * **Collocations:** Statistical tendencies for words to co-occur, forming word partnerships. Knowledge of collocations is a significant part of language proficiency, and using incorrect collocations can sound unnatural. They can be highly predictable (e.g., "rancid butter") or less so [14](#page=14). * **Colligation:** The occurrence of a lexical item within a specific grammatical structure (e.g., "look forward to + -ing") [14](#page=14). * **Collocational bounds:** The connections between words can extend beyond immediate adjacency, even across changes in word class or syntactic structure (e.g., "strong argument" to "the strength of her argument") [14](#page=14). * **Highly fixed collocations:** These are learned as whole combinations and are not flexible (e.g., "good morning" as a greeting) [15](#page=15). * **Paradigmatic Relations:** Refer to linguistic forms that can substitute for each other within a given structure, forming a "vertical" relationship [14](#page=14). ### 3.9 Idioms and compositionality * **Idioms:** Expressions where the meaning is non-compositional, meaning it cannot be deduced from the individual meanings of its constituent words. They must be learned as a whole [15](#page=15). * **Compositional (transparent):** The meaning can be understood from the parts (e.g., "cook some beans") [15](#page=15). * **Semi-compositional:** There is a connection to the literal meaning, but it's metaphorical (e.g., "spill the beans") [15](#page=15). * **Non-compositional:** The meaning is entirely divorced from the literal meaning of the words (e.g., "kick the bucket") [15](#page=15). * **Principle of Semantic Compositionality:** The meaning of a phrase or sentence is determined by the meanings of its component parts and how they are structurally combined. This principle is fundamental to understanding how an infinite number of sentences can be generated from a finite lexicon [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). ### 3.10 Ambiguity and sentence meaning * **Lexical ambiguity:** A single word has multiple meanings, usually resolved by co-text or context [16](#page=16). * **Structural ambiguity:** A sentence or phrase can be interpreted in more than one way due to its grammatical structure (e.g., "Mary had a little lamb" could refer to a live animal or a meal) [16](#page=16). * Semantics deals with objective, coded meaning, while pragmatics addresses implied meaning in context [16](#page=16). ### 3.11 Meaning relations among sentences * **Truth conditions:** The circumstances under which a sentence is true [16](#page=16). * **Propositional content:** The part of a sentence's meaning that can be true or false; it represents a possible state of the world [16](#page=16). * **Truth value:** Whether the propositional content is true or false [16](#page=16). * **Paraphrase:** Two sentences with roughly the same meaning; if one is true, the other must also be true (symmetric entailment). This is analogous to synonymy at the lexical level [16](#page=16). * **Entailment:** The truth of one sentence guarantees the truth of another, but not vice versa (asymmetric). This is analogous to hyponymy at the lexical level [16](#page=16). --- # Syntax and grammatical structure Syntax and grammatical structure define the rules that govern how words are combined to form meaningful sentences, exploring their internal organization, functions, and various analytical approaches. ### 4.1 The nature of grammar and syntax Grammar, in a broad sense, encompasses the rules governing the sounds, words, sentences, and their combination and interpretation, forming a complete system of phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic information. It represents a feature of the mind, a set of rules stored in the brain that enables understanding and communication [17](#page=17). Syntax specifically refers to the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences, typically including word order. It explains why a sentence might sound correct even with nonsense words, demonstrating that a structure exists for forming sentences independent of semantics [17](#page=17). A key goal of syntax is to account for all grammatically correct phrases and sentences, and only those, through a finite set of rules that can generate an infinite number of well-formed sentences [18](#page=18). #### 4.1.1 Levels of grammatical organization Grammar operates on different levels, identifying and classifying elements into categories, phrases, and clauses, and analyzing their ordering, hierarchy, recursivity, and potential for ambiguity. The hierarchical structure of linguistic units can be visualized as [18](#page=18): Sentence > Clause > Phrase > Word/Lexeme Morphemes and phonemes fall outside the scope of syntax [18](#page=18). * **Sentence:** An abstract entity formed by grammatical rules, typically starting with a capital letter and ending with punctuation, consisting of a minimum of one verb and potentially subjects, objects, and adjuncts. A sentence can comprise one or more clauses organized around a main verb, and can be dependent or independent [18](#page=18). * **Clause:** A grammatical term that can be finite (inflected) or non-finite (no tense) [18](#page=18). * **Phrase:** A syntactic unit formed by words, above the word level [20](#page=20). The terms "Competence" (langue) and "Performance" (parole) are also relevant, with competence referring to the abstract linguistic knowledge and parole referring to the actual use of language in a specific context [18](#page=18). > **Tip:** Linguists analyze both spoken and written language, and analyzing larger structures is generally easier when they are more complete [18](#page=18). #### 4.1.2 Approaches to grammar Grammar can be approached in several ways: * **Prescriptive vs. Descriptive:** Prescriptive grammar focuses on researching particular rules, while descriptive grammar aims to write a grammar book [19](#page=19). * **Theoretical:** Aims for a unified model of the organization, acquisition, and development of languages in general [19](#page=19). ### 4.2 Word classes (parts of speech) Word classes, also known as parts of speech, are categories of words based on criteria like meaning, form, and distribution [19](#page=19). * **Open Word Classes:** These include nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, and allow for the addition of new words [19](#page=19). * **Closed Word Classes:** These include determiners, coordinators, subordinators, and prepositions, and it is difficult to add new words to these categories [19](#page=19). #### 4.2.1 Criteria for classification * **Semantic Criteria:** Classifying words based on their meaning. For example, nouns denote persons and objects, verbs denote actions or states, and adjectives denote qualities [19](#page=19). * **Problems:** Some categories are difficult to name, and classification can be problematic as words can fit multiple semantic categories (e.g., nouns denoting events, qualities, places, or times) [19](#page=19). * **Morphological Criteria:** Classifying words based on their form and inflections or derivations. * **Nouns:** Inflection (plural endings), derivational suffixes (-er, -ion, -ment) [19](#page=19). * **Verbs:** Inflection (past tense endings), derivational affixes (re-, dis-, -fy) [19](#page=19). * **Adjectives:** Inflection (comparative, superlative), derivational affixes (un-, -al, -ful) [19](#page=19). * **Adverbs:** Suffixes like -ly, -wise [19](#page=19). * **Problems:** Some words (e.g., prepositions, determiners, conjunctions) cannot be easily derived. Suffixes can be misleading (e.g., "goodly" is an adjective, "building" is a noun). One suffix can attach to multiple word classes (e.g., "walks" - verb, "streets" - noun). Productive morphemes do not apply to all members of a class (e.g., mass nouns lack plurals) [19](#page=19). * **Syntactic Criteria (Distribution):** Classifying words based on their position and what precedes or follows them in a sentence. * Examples: Adjectives precede nouns (red shoes), determiners precede adjectives (the red shoes), adverbs modifying adjectives precede them (extremely cheap), clausal conjunctions are clause-initial (because I was tired), and prepositions precede noun phrases (on the table) [20](#page=20). * **Problems:** Adjectives can also follow nouns, and this criterion is not always conclusive on its own [20](#page=20). > **Conclusion:** No single criterion is usually conclusive; therefore, all criteria should be applied. A prototype approach can also be used, where some members of a class are more typical than others. Determining word class can be challenging (e.g., "my" can be a determiner or pronoun) [20](#page=20). ### 4.3 Phrases Phrases are syntactic units formed by words, existing at a level above individual words [20](#page=20). #### 4.3.1 Internal structure of phrases * **Head:** The most important element in a phrase, which determines its syntactic behavior and indicates what is being described by the phrase [20](#page=20). * **Dependents:** Elements that modify or complete the head. These can be pre-head (e.g., determiners, modifiers) or post-head (e.g., complements, modifiers, peripheral dependents) [20](#page=20). #### 4.3.2 Types of phrases and their structure * **Noun Phrase (NP):** Headed by a noun. Structure: (Det) (Adj) N (PP) (Clause) [e.g., "the end of the story"] [20](#page=20). * **(Extended) Verb Phrase (VP):** Headed by a verb. Structure: (Aux) V (NP) (PP) [e.g., "gave my sister a present"] [20](#page=20). * **Adjectival Phrase (AdjP):** Headed by an adjective. Structure: (Adv) A [e.g., "smaller than that"] [20](#page=20). * **Prepositional Phrase (PP):** Headed by a preposition. Structure: P NP [e.g., "with a knife"] [20](#page=20). * **Adverbial Phrase (AdvP):** Headed by an adverb. Structure: Adv [e.g., "as quickly as possible"] [20](#page=20). A clause is typically composed of an NP and a VP [20](#page=20). ### 4.4 Constituents Constituents are structural units or building blocks that make up larger linguistic units. A single word is always a constituent. A sequence of words functions as a unit if it is a constituent [21](#page=21). #### 4.4.1 Constituency tests These tests help identify if a sequence of words functions as a unit: * **Pronominalization:** Replacing the sequence with a single pronoun or pro-form [e.g., "The dog ate some bones" → "It ate them" or "The dog did so"] [21](#page=21). * **Movement:** Moving the constituent to a different position in the sentence [e.g., "Some bones were eaten by the dog"] [21](#page=21). * **Coordination:** Conjoining the sequence with a similar constituent using a coordinating conjunction like "and" [e.g., "The dog ate some bones and some cookies"] [21](#page=21). * **Gapping:** Creating a tag question that leaves a gap for the constituent [e.g., "The dog has eaten all the bones, hasn't it?"] [21](#page=21). * **Sentence Fragments:** Using the constituent to answer a formulated question [e.g., "Who ate some bones?" – "The dog"] [21](#page=21). > **Tip:** If one test doesn't work, try another, as not all tests are always applicable even if the sequence is a constituent [21](#page=21). ### 4.5 Features of grammar * **Hierarchy of constituents:** Grammatical structures have different layers, which can be represented using tree diagrams or brackets. Constituency tests aid in determining this hierarchical structure [21](#page=21). * **Recursivity:** The ability to repeat items in a self-similar way, allowing for embedding and the repetition of syntactic patterns [e.g., NP PP NP PP NP. An example of recursion is: "The dog [that bit the cat [that chased the mouse [that ate the cheese [that we got from a friend [who owns a farm [that belonged to an uncle]]]]]]" [21](#page=21). * **Ambiguity:** Human grammar allows for sentences that can be analyzed in multiple ways. For example, "The soldiers saw the men with binoculars" can be interpreted as soldiers seeing men who possessed binoculars or soldiers seeing men through binoculars. Visualizing structures with trees or brackets helps, and constituency tests can yield different results based on the interpretation [21](#page=21). ### 4.6 Syntactic form vs. syntactic function * **Syntactic form:** Refers to word classes (N, V, P, etc.) and phrases (NP, VP, etc.), defined by semantic, morphological, and syntactic criteria. It is an internal property of a constituent [22](#page=22). * **Syntactic function:** Describes the role an element plays in its grammatical context, such as subject, predicate, or complement. It is an external role that the constituent plays [22](#page=22). #### 4.6.1 Syntactic functions * **Subject:** Controls agreement with the verb, influences case, and typically precedes the verb. Subjects are often NPs, but can also be clauses or PPs [22](#page=22). * **Predicate:** In traditional grammar, everything that is not the subject. Some linguists define it solely as the verb (predicator) [22](#page=22). * **Complement:** A non-subject argument that is obligatory to the sentence structure [22](#page=22). * **Direct Object (Od):** Follows the verb, often in an oblique form (me, him). Typically NPs or clauses [e.g., "He likes me"] [22](#page=22). * **Indirect Object (Oi):** Represents the recipient and occurs only with a direct object, preceding it. It has an oblique case and can be transformed into a "to-PP" [e.g., "He gave me the present" or "He gave the present to me"] [22](#page=22). * **Subject Complement (Cs):** Specifies features of the subject and follows a copular verb (be, seem, appear, etc.). Can be an NP or AdjP [e.g., "My sister is nice"] [22](#page=22). * **Object Complement (Co):** Provides information about the direct object, following it. Can be an NP or AdjP [e.g., "He finds her attractive"] [22](#page=22). * **Prepositional Object (Op):** Follows the verb or direct object, fulfilling a semantic role (e.g., goal), and is realized only by PPs [e.g., "We returned to London". Not all PPs are OPs; many are adjuncts [23](#page=23). * **Adjunct (Adverbials/Modifiers):** Non-obligatory elements that provide additional information. These can be modifiers (e.g., "little sister") or adverbials (e.g., "last week," "under the table," "always") [23](#page=23). > **Note:** There is no one-to-one relationship between form and function. An NP can have various functions (subject, Od, Oi, Cs, Co, Adjunct), and one function can be expressed by different forms (subject can be NP, Clause, or PP) [23](#page=23). ### 4.7 Complementation patterns The verb is the most powerful element in a clause, and its complementation pattern (the number of complements it requires) varies based on verb classes. Adjuncts are not counted in these patterns [23](#page=23). * **Intransitive:** Verbs that require no complements (Schema: S V) [e.g., "The girl cried". Examples: laugh, snore, fall, die [23](#page=23). * **Monotransitive:** Verbs that require one complement (Schema: S V Od) [e.g., "Alex bought a guitar". Examples: buy, build, kill [23](#page=23). * **Ditransitive:** Verbs that require two complements (Schema: S V Oi Od or S V Od to-PP) [e.g., "The boy gave the dog a bone" or "The boy gave a bone to the dog". Examples: give, donate, send [23](#page=23). * **Complex-transitive:** * **PP-complement:** Involves a prepositional phrase complement (Schema: S V Op or S V Od Op) [e.g., "The dog hides in the garden" or "The dog knocked the bone off the table". Examples: venture, put, subtract [23](#page=23). * **Object complement:** Involves an object complement providing information about the direct object (Schema: S V Od Co) [e.g., "He made me angry"] [23](#page=23). --- # Linguistic typology and language change Linguistic typology classifies languages by structural and functional features, while diachronic linguistics examines their evolution over time. ## 5. Linguistic typology and language change ### 5.1 Linguistic typology Linguistic typology is the study and classification of languages based on their structural and functional features, grouping them by shared characteristics. This is distinct from etymology, which groups languages by historical relationships. The primary goals of typology are to identify linguistic universals, establish the potential range of variation across languages, and uncover cross-linguistic patterns and correlations. It involves examining formal features, conducting cross-linguistic comparisons, and classifying language components [24](#page=24). #### 5.1.1 Historical perspectives in typology Early typologists like Schlegel and Humboldt were interested in "exotic" languages, often influenced by colonial perspectives and a belief in linguistic hierarchy, where languages closer to Latin were considered "superior". They focused on morphological classification, categorizing languages as affixal, inflectional, or lacking structure. Modern typology, pioneered by Greenberg, shifted to a neutral and comparative approach, studying linguistic universals based on a large number of languages and features. Greenberg conceptualized "implicational universals," viewing all languages as equal entities [24](#page=24). #### 5.1.2 Classification based on morphology Languages can be classified morphologically based on how words are constructed: * **Analytic/Isolating languages:** Characterized by one word equaling one morpheme and one meaning, resulting in semantically transparent words. Mandarin Chinese is a prime example [24](#page=24). * **Synthetic languages:** Involve poly-morphemic words where a single morpheme can carry multiple meanings, leading to semantically non-transparent structures [25](#page=25). * **Fusional/Inflectional:** Morphemes are fused, and one morpheme conveys multiple grammatical meanings simultaneously. Latin, Spanish, and Russian exemplify this, where a single ending like '-ué' in "llegué" can indicate past tense and first-person singular [25](#page=25). * **Non-fusional/Agglutinating:** Each morpheme generally corresponds to a single meaning, and morphemes are strung together transparently. Turkish, Quechua, and Basque are examples [25](#page=25). > **Tip:** Most languages exhibit a mixed morphological typology, but they usually have a dominant type. English, for instance, is largely analytic but retains some synthetic (fusional) inflections, having lost many from its Old English stage [25](#page=25). #### 5.1.3 Classification based on word order (syntax) Word order is another crucial typological parameter, examined at both the sentential and phrase levels. * **Sentential level:** * **Isolating languages** rely heavily on strict word order due to their lack of inflection, making meaning dependent on sequence (e.g., "The dog bit the cat" differs from "The cat bit the dog") [25](#page=25). * **Synthetic languages**, with their rich inflectional systems, can afford more flexible word order, as grammatical roles are marked morphologically (e.g., "Der Hund biss die Katze" can be rearranged without altering meaning) [25](#page=25). Globally, Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) and Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) are the most common word orders, with others like VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV being less frequent. Cross-linguistic tendencies include the adjacency of verbs and objects (VO or OV) and the tendency for subjects to precede objects. English, being SVO, adheres to these tendencies [25](#page=25). * **Phrase level:** * **Head-initial languages** place the head of a phrase before its complements or modifiers. Examples include noun-adjective order ("flower yellow" in Spanish and French) and preposition-noun order ("under the tree" in English and German) [26](#page=26). * **Head-final languages** place the head last. Examples include adjective-noun order ("yellow flower" in English and German) and noun-postposition order ("the tree under" in Hungarian and Japanese) [26](#page=26). > **Tip:** English exhibits a mixed system: its clause structure is largely SVO, but its noun phrases and adjective phrases can show variation, while prepositional and verb phrases tend to be head-initial [26](#page=26). #### 5.1.4 Linguistic universals Linguistic universals are features found in all or most languages. They can be categorized as [26](#page=26): * **Absolute universals:** True for all languages, such as the presence of consonants and vowels, a distinction between nouns and verbs, and mechanisms for forming questions [26](#page=26). * **Non-absolute/probabilistic universals:** Occur in most languages with high probability, like the presence of adjectives or the use of rising intonation for Yes/No questions [26](#page=26). * **Implicational universals:** State that if a language possesses feature A, it must also possess feature B. An example is the implication that if a language has inflection, it also has derivation [26](#page=26). ### 5.2 Language change (Diachronic Linguistics) Diachronic linguistics studies how languages evolve over time, contrasting with synchronic linguistics, which examines language at a single point in time. Historical linguistics specifically reconstructs the history of a language using written evidence, though for older languages, comparisons between related languages are necessary to trace development. The field investigates variation within languages (dialects, social factors) and seeks to identify universal mechanisms, tendencies, and reasons for linguistic change [26](#page=26). #### 5.2.1 Reasons for studying linguistic change Understanding linguistic change is crucial because: * Synchronic language systems, often perceived as static, are actually the result of historical processes and are not always systematic or homogenous [26](#page=26). * Irregularities found in modern languages are frequently remnants of older language stages [26](#page=26). * Natural language is not perfectly logical; many linguistic forms are inexplicable in synchronic terms alone and are products of historical transmission [26](#page=26). * Awareness of variation and change enhances social navigation, particularly regarding register and formality [26](#page=26). * It helps in understanding whether language changes are internally or externally driven and in identifying various universal mechanisms and phenomena of change [26](#page=26). > **Tip:** While prescriptivists often lament language change, linguists adopt a descriptive stance, viewing change as a neutral phenomenon [26](#page=26). #### 5.2.2 Observable changes The most apparent changes occur in the lexicon. However, change also affects various other linguistic levels, including grammar [27](#page=27). * **Changes in form:** For instance, the shift from "fOde" to "food" [27](#page=27). * **Changes in meaning/function:** The word "silly" has evolved from meaning "happy" to "stupid" [27](#page=27). Recent morpho-syntactic changes, such as "I am loving it," "Come quick," "He kinda lost it," and "I'm gonna," suggest potential long-term grammatical shifts in progress [27](#page=27). #### 5.2.3 Models of linguistic change Language is viewed as an evolutionary, "complex adaptive system" from a diachronic perspective, involving the introduction of new variants, their successful spread, competition with existing forms, and subsequent layering or loss [27](#page=27). A general model of linguistic change includes the following stages: 1. **Actuation/Innovation:** A new linguistic variant emerges. 2. **Gradual diffusion:** The new variant spreads through the speech community. 3. **Implementation:** The variant becomes established. 4. **Standardization/Codification:** The variant may be formally recognized and standardized. The diffusion process is often described as an "S-spread," starting slowly, accelerating during a phase of widespread adoption, and eventually plateauing without necessarily reaching 100% adoption [27](#page=27). Disagreements in the study of language change exist regarding the modes of change, particularly concerning whether it primarily occurs during adult variation or child language acquisition [27](#page=27). * One perspective suggests change happens during a child's acquisition process, where children may apply their own rules to the input they receive [27](#page=27). * Another views change as originating from variation among adult speakers, with new forms adopted by groups and gradually spreading until a majority uses them, while some speakers lag behind [27](#page=27). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |---|---| | Linguistics | The scientific study of language or of particular languages, examining the forms language can take and the ways it is used. | | Phonetics | The study of speech sounds produced by humans, focusing on their physical properties and production. | | Phonology | The study of the sound systems of individual languages, analyzing how sounds are organized and used to create meaning. | | Morphology | The study of the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation and modification, including the study of morphemes. | | Syntax | The study of the structural units larger than words, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences, and the rules that govern their arrangement. | | Semantics | The study of word and sentence meaning, focusing on the general meaning of words and how meaning is conveyed. | | Pragmatics | The study of meaning in context, examining how meaning is influenced by the situation, speaker's intention, and discourse. | | Synchronic | The study of language at a particular point in time, examining its state without considering its historical development. | | Diachronic | The study of language over time, examining changes and developments that occur in the history of a language. | | Descriptive | An approach to linguistics that describes how people actually speak and write neutrally, without making judgments. | | Prescriptive | An approach to linguistics that dictates how people should speak or write correctly, often based on established rules or authorities. | | Langue | The abstract system of language, representing the mental knowledge stored in the brain, including all its elements like sounds, words, and sentences. | | Parole | The concrete use of language, referring to specific utterances made by a specific person at a specific point in time, essentially a speech event. | | Signifier | The physical form of a sign, such as a word or an image, which represents a concept. | | Signified | The mental concept or idea that is evoked in the mind by a signifier. | | Semiotics | The study of signs and symbols and their interpretation, considering language as a system of signs. | | Icon | A type of sign that signifies by resemblance, where the form of the sign looks like the thing it represents. | | Index | A type of sign that signifies through a causal link or physical connection, where the form implies the concept indirectly. | | Symbol | A type of sign where the connection between the form and the meaning is arbitrary and conventionalized, requiring learned association. | | Morpheme | The smallest meaningful unit of language, consisting of both a meaning and a form (morph). | | Lexeme | A free morpheme that can stand on its own and carries lexical meaning. | | Affix | A bound morpheme that must be attached to a base or stem to form a word, such as prefixes and suffixes. | | Inflection | The process of adding grammatical information or categories to a word by using affixes, which does not change the word class or stable meaning. | | Derivation | The process of creating new lexemes by adding an affix to a lexical base, which can change the word class and meaning. | | Allomorphy | The phenomenon where a single morpheme can have multiple forms, called allomorphs, which vary based on phonological, morphological, or lexical conditioning. | | Compounding | A word-formation process where two or more words are combined to create a new word with a new meaning. | | Conversion (Zero-derivation) | A word-formation process where a word is used in a different word class without any overt marking or change in its form. | | Clipping (Truncation) | A shortening process where part of a word, typically the beginning or a stressed syllable, is removed, such as "doctor" becoming "doc". | | Blends | A shortening process where parts of two words are combined to form a new word, such as "smoke" + "fog" = "smog". | | Acronyms | Abbreviations formed from the initial letters of a series of words that are pronounced as a single word, like UNESCO. | | Initialisms | Abbreviations formed from the initial letters of a series of words that are pronounced individually, like USA. | | Back-formation | A word-formation process where a shorter word is created by removing a supposed suffix from a longer word, often changing the word class. | | Lexical Semantics | The study of the meanings of individual words and morphemes. | | Sentential Semantics | The study of the meaning of syntactical units larger than words, such as phrases and sentences. | | Semiotic Triangle | A model illustrating the relationship between a word (signifier), the concept it represents (signified), and the real-world object or referent. | | Sense | The language-internal meaning of a word, representing the mental concept or the set of semantic properties associated with it. | | Denotation | The primary, dictionary meaning of a word, referring to the stable relation between an expression and the concrete entities it represents. | | Connotation | All the associations, ideas, emotions, or feelings that come to mind in relation to a linguistic expression, which can differ among individuals. | | Intension | The description of semantic properties that an object must meet to be classified under a particular word; it defines the set of semantic features. | | Extension | The actual real entities that fulfill the intension of a word; it is the set of all referents that satisfy the word's meaning. | | Semantic Feature Analysis | An approach to word meaning that breaks down meanings into a set of semantic features or components, like (+ human, + male, + adult). | | Family Resemblance Theory | A theory proposed by Wittgenstein suggesting that members of a category share a network of overlapping similarities, rather than a single defining set of features. | | Prototype Theory | A theory of word meaning that posits that members of a category are organized around a central prototype, with other members being graded according to their typicality. | | Lexicon | The set of all words existing in a language, often conceptualized as a mental storage device. | | Polysemy | A situation where one word has multiple related meanings, often listed together in a dictionary. | | Homonymy | A situation where different words happen to have the same form but unrelated meanings, usually appearing as separate entries in a dictionary. | | Homophony | A type of homonymy where words have the same sound (pronunciation) but different spellings and meanings (e.g., knight and night). | | Homography | A type of homonymy where words have the same spelling but different pronunciations and meanings (e.g., tear (a drop) vs. tear (apart)). | | Synonymy | The relationship between words that have the same or very similar meanings and can often be interchanged in a sentence, though perfect synonymy is rare. | | Antonymy | The relationship between words that have opposite meanings, existing in various types such as gradable, complementary, reversive, and converse antonyms. | | Hyponymy | A hierarchical relationship between words where one word (hyponym) is a kind of another word (hyperonym), forming a "is a" relationship (e.g., red is a hyponym of colour). | | Meronymy | A part-whole relationship between words, describing the relationship of a part to a whole object (e.g., a branch is a meronym of a tree). | | Syntagmatic Relations | Associations between words that can stand together in a sentence, forming horizontal relationships in a linear sequence. | | Paradigmatic Relations | "Vertical" relationships of linguistic forms that can replace each other within a structure, representing choices from a set of options. | | Collocations | Patterns of co-occurrence where certain words tend to appear together frequently, forming word partnerships that are important for natural language use. | | Idioms | Non-compositional expressions where the meaning of the phrase cannot be determined by the literal meanings of its individual words and must be learned as a whole unit. | | Principle of Semantic Compositionality | The principle that the meaning of a phrase or sentence is determined by the meaning of its component parts and the way they are structurally combined. | | Entailment | A relationship between two sentences where the truth of one sentence logically implies the truth of the other sentence. | | Contradiction | A relationship between two sentences where if one sentence is true, the other must be false, and vice versa. | | Semantic Roles | The role that a noun or noun phrase plays in the event or state described by a clause, such as Agent, Experiencer, or Patient. | | Predicate | The word in a sentence that indicates a relationship and selects a number of obligatory arguments to form a complete thought. | | Grammar | The complete system of phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic information and rules that govern a language. | | Clause | A grammatical unit that typically contains a subject and a predicate, organized around a main verb, and can be dependent or independent. | | Phrase | A syntactic unit composed of words that forms a constituent above the word level, such as a Noun Phrase (NP) or Verb Phrase (VP). | | Constituent | A structural unit, which can be a single word or a sequence of words, that functions as a single unit within a larger grammatical structure. | | Recursivity | The feature of grammar that allows for the embedding of syntactic patterns within themselves, enabling the creation of infinitely long sentences. | | Ambiguity | The property of language where a sentence or phrase can have more than one possible interpretation or analysis. | | Syntactic Form | The word class (e.g., Noun, Verb) or phrase type (e.g., NP, VP) of a constituent, determined by semantic, morphological, and syntactic criteria. | | Syntactic Function | The role an element plays in its grammatical context within a sentence, such as subject, predicate, complement, or adjunct. | | Subject | The syntactic function that often controls agreement with the verb, determines case, and typically precedes the verb in English. | | Predicate | In traditional grammar, everything in a sentence that is not the subject; in some linguistic analyses, it refers specifically to the verb. | | Complement | A non-subject argument that is an obligatory part of a sentence and is required by the verb, noun, or adjective. | | Adjunct | A non-obligatory element in a clause that provides additional information, functioning as a modifier or adverbial. | | Complementation Pattern | The number and type of complements required by a verb to form a complete clause, categorizing verbs as intransitive, monotransitive, ditransitive, etc. | | Linguistic Typology | The study and classification of languages based on their structural and functional features, grouping them by shared characteristics. | | Analytic Languages | Languages where each word typically consists of a single morpheme, and word order is crucial for conveying meaning (e.g., Mandarin). | | Synthetic Languages | Languages where words can be poly-morphemic, and morphemes can carry multiple meanings; they are further divided into fusional/inflectional and non-fusional/agglutinating types. | | Fusional / Inflectional Languages | Synthetic languages where words are poly-morphemic and morphemes often carry multiple meanings simultaneously, making them semantically non-transparent. | | Agglutinating Languages | Synthetic languages where words are poly-morphemic, but each morpheme typically carries a single, transparent meaning. | | Head-Initial Languages | Languages where the head of a phrase typically appears first (e.g., preposition before noun phrase in English). | | Head-Final Languages | Languages where the head of a phrase typically appears last (e.g., noun before postposition in Japanese). | | Linguistic Universals | Features that are present in all or most languages, categorized as absolute (true for all languages) or non-absolute/probabilistic (true for most languages). | | Diachronic Linguistics | The study of language change over time, examining how languages evolve historically. | | Lexical Change | Changes that occur in the vocabulary of a language, involving the addition, loss, or modification of words. | | Morpho-syntactic Change | Changes that occur in the grammatical structure of a language, affecting morphology (word formation) and syntax (sentence structure). | | Actuation / Innovation | The initial stage of linguistic change, where a new variant or linguistic form is introduced. | | Diffusion | The process by which a linguistic innovation spreads through a speech community. | | Standardization / Codification | The stage of linguistic change where a variant becomes established and is codified in dictionaries, grammars, or other authoritative sources. |

# Compréhension écrite professionnelle Cette section vise à développer les compétences nécessaires pour comprendre divers documents écrits professionnels, notamment les emails, les notes internes et les annonces, en mettant l'accent sur l'identification des idées générales, des informations spécifiques, et la compréhension du ton et de l'intention de l'auteur. ### 1.1 Objectifs pédagogiques Les objectifs principaux de cette partie sont : * **Identifier l'idée générale d'un texte professionnel :** Comprendre rapidement le sens global d'un document en repérant le thème principal et l'objectif du message. * **Repérer des informations spécifiques :** Extraire des données précises du texte. * **Comprendre le ton, l'intention et le registre :** Identifier le niveau de formalité et le but de l'auteur (informer, demander, refuser, proposer) afin d'adapter sa propre réponse. * **Déduire le sens d'un mot inconnu par le contexte :** Développer l'autonomie en lecture en utilisant le contexte, la structure de la phrase et les mots-clés pour comprendre le vocabulaire inconnu sans recourir systématiquement au dictionnaire. ### 1.2 Types de documents étudiés Les documents couramment rencontrés dans un contexte professionnel et étudiés dans cette section incluent : * Emails professionnels * Annonces internes et externes * Offres d'emploi * Notes de service * Comptes rendus courts * Articles professionnels simplifiés * Messages sur les plateformes professionnelles comme LinkedIn ou l'intranet ### 1.3 Méthodologie de lecture professionnelle Pour lire plus rapidement et identifier les informations essentielles dans les écrits professionnels, une méthodologie en trois étapes est proposée : #### 1.3.1 Skimming : lecture rapide * **Objectif :** Obtenir une compréhension globale du document. * **Méthode :** Repérer l'idée générale en lisant l'objet (si applicable), la première phrase et la dernière phrase du document. * **Questions clés :** Qui écrit ? À qui ? Pourquoi ? Quel est le sujet principal ? #### 1.3.2 Scanning : repérage des informations clés * **Objectif :** Trouver des informations précises et spécifiques. * **Méthode :** Rechercher des éléments clés tels que des chiffres, des dates, des noms propres ou des mots techniques. * **Informations recherchées :** Dates, actions demandées, responsables, lieux/délais. #### 1.3.3 Close reading : compréhension détaillée * **Objectif :** Analyser le texte en profondeur. * **Méthode :** Examiner la structure du texte, identifier les mots de liaison et analyser le ton employé. #### 1.3.4 Lecture approfondie Cette étape consiste à aller au-delà de la compréhension littérale pour saisir les nuances du message. ##### 1.3.4.1 Comprendre les nuances (ton, degré d’urgence, politesse, insistance) Il est crucial de déchiffrer le ton de l'auteur. Les clés de lecture incluent : * **Friendly (Amical) :** Langage simple, positif, avec peu de pression (ex. "could you, please"). * **Neutral (Neutre) :** Information factuelle, sans émotion forte. * **Formal (Formel) :** Utilisation de tournures longues, diplomatiques, souvent avec des clients ou la hiérarchie (ex. "would you mind", "I'm afraid"). * **Urgent (Urgent) :** Indication claire d'une pression temporelle (ex. "ASAP", "strongly"). * **Annoyed (Agacé) :** Indication d'urgence combinée à un manque de politesse ou une répétition implicite. ##### 1.3.4.2 Identifier les implicites Cela concerne ce qui n'est pas dit explicitement mais est sous-entendu par l'auteur. * **Méthode :** Poser des questions guidées comme "Qu'est-ce que l'auteur attend de moi ?", "Que pourrait-il se passer si je ne le fais pas ?", "Est-ce une requête ou un ordre ?". * **Stratégie :** Reformuler l'idée implicite pour la rendre claire ("So, in other words..."). ##### 1.3.4.3 Repérer les connecteurs logiques Les connecteurs logiques structurent le discours et indiquent les relations entre les idées. * **Fonctions courantes :** * **Cause :** because, since * **Conséquence :** so, therefore * **Contraste :** however, although, but * **Addition :** also, in addition * **Objectif :** to, in order to ##### 1.3.4.4 Vocabulaire de compréhension Certains mots-clés sont fréquemment rencontrés dans les écrits professionnels : * **Purpose :** objectif * **Requirement :** exigence * **Deadline :** date limite * **Further information :** informations complémentaires * **Please note :** Veuillez noter / Merci de noter * **As mentioned above :** Comme mentionné ci-dessus * **According to :** Selon / Conformément à * **In order to :** Afin de / Dans le but de ### 1.4 Vocabulaire de compréhension Le tableau ci-dessous liste des expressions et leurs fonctions courantes dans la compréhension d'écrits professionnels : | Fonction | Expression | | :----------------------- | :--------------------------------------- | | Annoncer une intention | I am writing to inform you… | | Demander | I would like to request… | | Proposer | I would be happy to… | | Joindre un document | Please find attached… | | Relancer | I am following up on my previous email. | > **Tip:** La capacité à identifier rapidement les connecteurs logiques est essentielle pour suivre le raisonnement de l'auteur et comprendre la structure du message. ### 1.5 Conseils pour la déduction du sens * **Contexte :** Examinez les mots qui entourent le mot inconnu. Quel est le sujet général du paragraphe ou de la phrase ? * **Structure de la phrase :** La position du mot et sa fonction grammaticale (nom, verbe, adjectif) peuvent donner des indices. * **Mots-clés :** Identifiez les mots qui sont clairement compris et qui pourraient être liés sémantiquement au mot inconnu. * **Préfixes et suffixes :** Certains éléments de mots peuvent indiquer leur sens (ex. "un-", "-able"). > **Tip:** N'ayez pas peur de deviner le sens d'un mot inconnu si le contexte le permet. Il est souvent possible de continuer la lecture et de confirmer ou infirmer votre hypothèse plus tard. Le recours systématique au dictionnaire peut ralentir considérablement votre lecture. --- # Bases de la grammaire anglaise écrite professionnelle Ce module se concentre sur les temps verbaux fondamentaux et les auxiliaires de tendance en anglais, essentiels pour une communication écrite professionnelle claire, en mettant l'accent sur les erreurs courantes à éviter. ### 2.1 Les temps fondamentaux #### 2.1.1 Le présent simple (Present Simple) * **Usage :** * Faits généraux ou vérités universelles. * Habitudes et routines. * Descriptions de postes ou de situations professionnelles. * **Structure :** Sujet + verbe (forme de base) + 's' à la 3ème personne du singulier (he, she, it). * **Exemples :** * `I work in customer service.` * `The company provides high-quality products.` * **Erreur fréquente :** Oublier le 's' à la 3ème personne du singulier. * ✔ `He works` * ❌ `He work` #### 2.1.2 Le présent continu (Present Continuous) * **Usage :** * Actions en cours au moment où l'on parle. * Projets temporaires. * **Structure :** `am / is / are` + verbe en `-ing`. * **Exemples :** * `I am writing the report right now.` * `We are currently improving our website.` #### 2.1.3 Le passé simple (Past Simple) * **Usage :** * Actions terminées dans le passé. * Expériences professionnelles passées ponctuelles. * **Structure :** Verbe régulier + `-ed` ou forme irrégulière du verbe. * **Exemples :** * `I finished the task yesterday.` * `They went to London last year.` #### 2.1.4 Le présent perfect (Present Perfect) * **Usage professionnel :** * Donner un bilan d'activités. * Parler de quelque chose déjà réalisé. * Mentionner une expérience passée sans préciser le moment exact. * **Structure :** `have / has` + participe passé du verbe. * **Exemples :** * `I have completed the form.` * `She has worked here for two years.` #### 2.1.5 Le futur (Future : will / going to) * **Usage :** * `will` pour les décisions spontanées, les promesses. * `going to` pour les plans et les intentions prédéterminées. * **Exemples :** * `We will contact you shortly.` * `We are going to launch a new product.` ### 2.2 Les auxiliaires tendances (Modaux) Bien que non détaillés en profondeur dans les pages spécifiées, les auxiliaires de tendance (modaux) jouent un rôle crucial dans l'expression de la capacité, de la permission, de l'obligation et du conseil dans un contexte professionnel. Les formes couramment utilisées dans les écrits professionnels incluent : * `Can` : Capacité ou demande simple. * `Could` : Demande polie. * `May` : Permission formelle. * `Must` : Obligation interne forte. * `Have to` : Obligation externe ou nécessité. * `Should` : Conseil ou recommandation. > **Tip :** Dans un contexte professionnel, privilégiez `could` et `would` pour les demandes afin d'assurer une politesse adéquate. ### 2.3 Structures grammaticales clés Certaines structures sont particulièrement importantes pour la clarté et la précision dans la communication écrite professionnelle : * **`There is / There are` :** Utilisé pour introduire l'existence de quelque chose. * **`If / when` clauses :** Essentielles pour exprimer des conditions et des événements futurs. * **La voix passive (Passive Voice) :** Très courante et importante dans le contexte professionnel pour mettre l'accent sur l'action ou le résultat plutôt que sur l'agent. * **Exemple :** `The report was sent yesterday.` (Le rapport a été envoyé hier.) ### 2.4 Erreurs grammaticales courantes à éviter * **Majuscules :** Ne pas oublier les majuscules aux noms propres. * **3ème personne du singulier :** Ne pas oublier le `-s` à la 3ème personne du singulier au présent simple. * **Accord :** * ❌ `I am agree` → ✔️ `I agree` * **Prépositions avec certains verbes :** * ❌ `I wait your answer` → ✔️ `I am waiting for your answer` > **Tip :** La voix passive est souvent utilisée dans les rapports et les communications officielles pour maintenir un ton objectif. Maîtrisez-la pour améliorer votre crédibilité. --- # Vocabulaire général et professionnel Cette section vise à enrichir le vocabulaire des apprenants avec des termes professionnels transversaux, des collocations essentielles, des faux amis et des phrasal verbs, afin de faciliter la description de poste et la communication par email. ### 3.1 Vocabulaire professionnel transversal Ce vocabulaire est essentiel pour la communication dans divers contextes professionnels, couvrant des aspects tels que la collaboration, l'organisation et les relations au sein d'une entreprise. * **Communication :** * Meeting : Réunion * Feedback : Retour / retour d’information * Update : Mise à jour / information récente * Request : Demande * Clarification : Clarification / Précision * **Organisation / travail :** * Workload : Charge de travail * Schedule : Planning / emploi du temps * Task : Tâche * Responsibility : Responsabilité * Priority : Priorité * **Entreprise :** * Department : Service / département * Manager : Responsable / Manager * Colleague : Collègue * Client : Client * Supplier : Fournisseur ### 3.2 Collocations essentielles Les collocations sont des combinaisons de mots qui apparaissent fréquemment ensemble, rendant le discours plus naturel et précis. * Make a decision : Prendre une décision * Meet a deadline : Respecter un délai / une échéance * Take responsibility : Assumer une responsabilité / prendre ses responsabilités * Give feedback : Donner un retour / faire un retour (professionnel) * Handle a situation : Gérer une situation ### 3.3 Enrichissement lexical L'enrichissement lexical inclut l'utilisation de synonymes professionnels, la compréhension des faux amis et la maîtrise des phrasal verbs. #### 3.3.1 Synonymes professionnels Voici des exemples de synonymes pour un anglais courant dans un contexte professionnel : * Help : assist, support * Start : begin, launch * Finish : complete * Ask : request * Buy : purchase * Use : implement * Check : verify * Fix : resolve * Problem : issue #### 3.3.2 Faux amis courants en anglais professionnel Les faux amis sont des mots qui ressemblent à des mots français mais ont un sens différent. * Actually (anglais) signifie "en réalité", et non "actuellement". * Eventually (anglais) signifie "finalement", et non "éventuellement". * Assist (anglais) signifie "aider", et non "assister" au sens de présence. * Resume (anglais) peut signifier "reprendre" ou faire référence à un "CV", et non "résumé". * Library (anglais) signifie "bibliothèque", et non "librairie". * Control (anglais) signifie "maîtriser" ou "vérifier", et non "contrôler" au sens strict français. * Demand (anglais) peut signifier "exiger", et non simplement "demander". * Sensible (anglais) signifie "raisonnable", et non "sensible". #### 3.3.3 Phrasal verbs professionnels Un phrasal verb est une combinaison d'un verbe et d'une particule (préposition ou adverbe) qui modifie le sens du verbe seul. Ils sont très utilisés dans la langue anglaise, à l'oral comme à l'écrit, et peuvent être moins formels que les verbes d'origine latine. * **Définition :** Un phrasal verb est un verbe auquel est ajoutée une préposition ou un adverbe, changeant ainsi son sens. * **Exemples professionnels courants :** * Set up : Mettre en place / organiser (comparé à "set" qui signifie mettre/poser) * Carry out : Réaliser * Follow up : Relancer / faire un suivi * Look for : Chercher * Deal with : Gérer > **Tip :** Maîtriser les phrasal verbs est une clé pour comprendre et utiliser un "vrai" anglais, souvent plus nuancé et naturel. ### 3.4 Présenter son poste Il existe des formules types pour décrire son rôle et ses responsabilités professionnelles. * I am in charge of… : Je suis responsable de… * I work as a… : Je travaille en tant que… / Je suis… * My responsibilities include… : Mes responsabilités incluent… * I collaborate with… : Je collabore avec… > **Exemple :** "I work as a sales assistant. I am in charge of customer inquiries and product management." ### 3.5 Vocabulaire pour les emails Le vocabulaire spécifique aux emails facilite une communication écrite claire et appropriée. * **Formules d'ouverture :** * Dear Mr/Ms [Nom], * Dear Sir or Madam, (lorsque le nom n'est pas connu) * To whom it may concern, (formule plus administrative) * **Formules de clôture :** * Kind regards, * Best regards, * Sincerely, ### 3.6 Vocabulaire quotidien utile Certains thèmes de vocabulaire sont fréquemment rencontrés dans la vie professionnelle quotidienne. * **Opinions :** I think, I believe, in my opinion * **Sentiments :** relieved, confident, stressed * **Organisation :** deadline, schedule, task, meeting * **Communication :** reply, confirm, update, report ### 3.7 Vocabulaire pour des fonctions spécifiques dans les emails Ce vocabulaire permet d'exprimer clairement l'intention de l'email. * **Annoncer une intention :** I am writing to inform you… * **Demander :** I would like to request… * **Proposer :** I would be happy to… * **Joindre un document :** Please find attached… * **Relancer :** I am following up on my previous email. ### 3.8 Connecteurs logiques pour organiser ses idées Les connecteurs rendent le texte plus fluide, cohérent et professionnel. * **Ajouter :** also, in addition (Ex: In addition, the results improved.) * **Contraster :** however, although (Ex: However, the test failed.) * **Expliquer la cause :** because, due to (Ex: The delay occurred because of the storm.) * **Donner la conséquence :** so, therefore (Ex: We had no time, therefore we canceled the meeting.) * **Donner un exemple :** for example, such as (Ex: We used several tools, such as Excel.) * **Conclure :** to sum up, in conclusion (Ex: To sum up, the project was successful.) --- # Expression écrite professionnelle La section sur l'expression écrite professionnelle vise à développer la capacité à rédiger des messages clairs, structurés, précis et adaptés au contexte, en maîtrisant les codes de la communication écrite dans un environnement professionnel. ### 4.1 Objectifs de l'expression écrite L'objectif principal est de permettre à l'apprenant de communiquer efficacement à l'écrit dans des situations professionnelles variées. Cela se décline en plusieurs points clés : * **Rédiger clairement :** * **Définition :** Écrire de manière simple pour être facilement compris. * **Méthode :** Utiliser des phrases courtes, un vocabulaire simple et professionnel, et éviter les tournures trop longues ou complexes. * **Objectif :** Permettre au lecteur de comprendre le message sans avoir à le relire plusieurs fois. * **Structurer un message :** * **Définition :** Organiser les idées de manière logique pour faciliter la compréhension. * **Méthode :** Commencer par énoncer clairement l'objectif du message, séparer les idées en paragraphes distincts et utiliser des connecteurs logiques simples (par exemple, *first*, *then*, *finally*). * **Objectif :** Permettre au lecteur d'identifier rapidement les informations importantes. * **Adapter le ton :** * **Définition :** Choisir le niveau de politesse et de formalité approprié à la situation et à l'interlocuteur. * **Méthode :** Adopter un ton formel avec un client ou un supérieur hiérarchique, et un ton neutre ou amical avec un collègue. Il est important d'éviter un ton trop direct ou trop familier. * **Objectif :** Assurer une communication professionnelle et appropriée. * **Être précis et concis :** * **Définition :** Communiquer l'essentiel en évitant les informations superflues. * **Méthode :** Aller droit au but, fournir des informations concrètes (dates, actions, délais) et supprimer les répétitions. * **Objectif :** Faire gagner du temps au lecteur et prévenir les malentendus. ### 4.2 Types d'écrits professionnels et leur structure La formation aborde la rédaction de divers types d'écrits professionnels, avec un focus particulier sur l'email : * **Email professionnel :** * **Structure :** * **Objet clair :** Doit refléter le contenu du message. * **Formule d'ouverture :** Adaptée au destinataire (par exemple, *Dear Ms Brown*). * **Message structuré :** Introduction énonçant le but, corps du texte avec informations et actions à réaliser, et conclusion. * **Action attendue :** Si nécessaire, préciser ce qui est attendu du destinataire. * **Formule de clôture :** Professionnelle (par exemple, *Kind regards*). * **Message court (interne) :** * Doit être simple, direct et poli. * **Compte rendu / Note courte :** * Structure généralement en trois parties : * Introduction * Points clés * Conclusion ou actions à entreprendre #### 4.2.1 La structure universelle d'un paragraphe (méthode S.T.A.R.) Cette méthode aide à améliorer la clarté des écrits, notamment dans les emails : * **S** = **Statement** (Phrase principale) : Énonce l'idée centrale du paragraphe. * **T** = **Transition** (Lien logique) : Crée un pont vers les détails ou exemples. * **A** = **Addition** (Détails, exemples) : Fournit des informations supplémentaires pour étayer l'idée principale. * **R** = **Result** (Petite conclusion) : Synthétise ou conclut l'idée du paragraphe. > **Tip:** L'application de la méthode S.T.A.R. aide significativement à améliorer la clarté des emails. #### 4.2.2 Modèle d'email simple Un exemple d'email simple pour une demande d'information : ``` Subject: Request for information Dear Ms Brown, I am writing to ask for more information about the training program you mentioned. Could you please provide details about the schedule and the price? Thank you in advance for your help. Kind regards, Your Name ``` ### 4.3 Connecteurs logiques pour organiser les idées Les connecteurs logiques sont essentiels pour fluidifier le texte et lui donner une structure professionnelle. | Fonction | Connecteurs | Exemples | | :---------------------- | :---------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Ajouter | *also, in addition* | *In addition, the results improved.* | | Contraster | *however, although* | *However, the test failed.* | | Expliquer la cause | *because, due to* | *The delay occurred because of the storm.* | | Donner la conséquence | *so, therefore* | *We had no time, therefore we canceled the meeting.* | | Donner un exemple | *for example, such as* | *We used several tools, such as Excel.* | | Conclure | *to sum up, in conclusion* | *To sum up, the project was successful.* | ### 4.4 Expressions pour adapter le ton et la demande Le choix des expressions permet d'ajuster le ton, le degré d'urgence, la politesse et l'insistance. | Expression | Ton | Degré d’urgence | Politesse | Insistance | | :-------------------- | :------------------- | :-------------- | :-------- | :--------- | | *could you* | Neutre à formel | Faible | Élevée | Faible | | *would you mind* | Formel | Faible | Très élevée | Très faible | | *please* | Neutre | Faible à moyen | Élevée | Faible | | *ASAP* | Direct | Très élevé | Faible | Très élevée | | *unfortunately* | Formel | Faible | Neutre | Faible | | *I’m afraid* | Formel, diplomatique | Faible | Élevée | Faible | | *we strongly recommend* | Formel, professionnel | Moyen | Moyenne | Élevée | ### 4.5 Modalités et expressions professionnelles * **Auxiliaires tendances (modaux) :** | Modal | Fonction | Exemple | | :------ | :---------------------------- | :---------------------------- | | *Can* | Capacité / demande simple | *Can you help me?* | | *Could* | Demande polie | *Could you send me the file?* | | *May* | Permission formelle | *You may enter.* | | *Must* | Obligation interne | *You must wear a badge.* | | *Have to* | Obligation externe | *I have to submit this today.* | | *Should*| Conseil | *You should update your CV.* | * **Adapter les demandes (informel vs professionnel) :** | Français | Anglais informel | Anglais professionnel | | :------- | :--------------- | :--------------------------- | | Demander | *Can you…?* | *Could you please…?* | | Refuser | *I can’t* | *I’m afraid I won’t be able to…* | * **Vocabulaire professionnel important (Synonymes) :** | Mot / expression | Synonyme professionnel important | | :--------------- | :------------------------------- | | *help* | *assist / support* | | *start* | *begin / launch* | | *finish* | *complete* | | *ask* | *request* | | *buy* | *purchase* | | *use* | *implement* | | *check* | *verify* | | *fix* | *resolve* | | *problem* | *issue* | * **Faux amis courants en anglais professionnel :** | Mot anglais | Traduction correcte | Faux sens à éviter | | :---------- | :------------------ | :----------------- | | *actually* | en réalité | actuellement | | *eventually*| finalement | éventuellement | | *assist* | aider | assister | | *resume* | reprendre / CV | résumé | | *library* | bibliothèque | librairie | | *control* | maîtriser / vérifier | contrôler (strict) | | *demand* | exiger | demander | | *sensible* | raisonnable | sensible | * **Phrasal verbs professionnels :** Un phrasal verb est une combinaison d'un verbe et d'une particule (préposition ou adverbe) qui crée un nouveau sens. Ils sont très utilisés, souvent moins formels que les verbes d'origine latine. | Verbe seul | Verbe seul | Phrasal verb | Sens | | :--------- | :--------- | :----------- | :----------------------- | | *set* | *set* | *set up* | mettre en place, organiser | | *carry* | *carry* | *carry out* | réaliser | | *follow* | *follow* | *follow up* | relancer, faire un suivi | | *look* | *look* | *look for* | chercher | | *deal* | *deal* | *deal with* | gérer | > **Tip:** Comprendre les phrasal verbs est crucial pour saisir l'anglais authentique, à l'oral comme à l'écrit. * **Expressions pour annoncer une intention, demander, proposer, etc. :** | Fonction | Expression | | :------------------ | :------------------------------------------ | | Annoncer une intention | *I am writing to inform you…* | | Demander | *I would like to request…* | | Proposer | *I would be happy to…* | | Joindre un document | *Please find attached…* | | Relancer | *I am following up on my previous email.* | ### 4.6 Erreurs fréquentes à éviter Il est important de prêter attention aux erreurs courantes pour garantir la crédibilité de ses écrits : * Ne pas mettre de majuscule aux noms propres. * Oublier le « -s » à la troisième personne du singulier au présent simple. * Utiliser « I am agree » au lieu de « I agree ». * Utiliser « I wait your answer » au lieu de « I am waiting for your answer ». > **Tip:** La relecture attentive de ses écrits est une étape indispensable pour corriger les erreurs et s'assurer de la clarté du message. --- ## Erreurs courantes à éviter - Révisez tous les sujets en profondeur avant les examens - Portez attention aux formules et définitions clés - Pratiquez avec les exemples fournis dans chaque section - Ne mémorisez pas sans comprendre les concepts sous-jacents

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Compréhension écrite | La capacité de lire et d'interpréter des textes écrits, en identifiant l'idée générale, les informations spécifiques, le ton et le registre de langue. Cela inclut la compréhension des nuances et des implicites présents dans le message. | | Registre de langue | Le niveau de formalité utilisé dans la communication écrite ou orale, qui peut varier de formel à informel en fonction du contexte, de l'interlocuteur et de l'objectif du message. | | Grammaire fonctionnelle | L'application des règles grammaticales d'une langue de manière pratique et efficace pour produire des énoncés corrects et compréhensibles dans des contextes spécifiques, comme la communication professionnelle. | | Vocabulaire général et professionnel | L'ensemble des mots et expressions utilisés dans la vie courante (général) et dans un domaine d'activité particulier (professionnel), permettant une communication précise et adaptée. | | Skimming (Lecture rapide) | Une technique de lecture qui consiste à parcourir rapidement un texte pour en saisir l'idée générale et le sujet principal, sans s'attarder sur les détails. | | Scanning (Repérage) | Une technique de lecture qui vise à trouver des informations spécifiques et précises dans un texte, telles que des dates, des noms, des chiffres ou des mots-clés. | | Compréhension détaillée (Close reading) | Une analyse approfondie d'un texte pour en comprendre toutes les subtilités, y compris les nuances de sens, la structure argumentative et les liens logiques. | | Connecteurs logiques | Mots ou expressions qui servent à relier des idées, des phrases ou des paragraphes, indiquant la relation entre eux (cause, conséquence, contraste, addition, etc.). | | Phrasal verb | Une expression verbale composée d'un verbe suivi d'une particule (préposition ou adverbe), dont le sens global diffère de celui du verbe seul et qui est très courante en anglais. | | Collocations | Des combinaisons de mots qui apparaissent fréquemment ensemble dans une langue, formant des expressions idiomatiques ou naturelles qui renforcent la fluidité et la précision du langage. | | Structure d'un email | L'organisation typique d'un courrier électronique, comprenant un objet clair, une salutation appropriée, une introduction, un corps de message structuré, une conclusion et une formule de clôture. | | Clarté à l'écrit | La qualité d'un texte qui permet au lecteur de comprendre le message facilement et rapidement, en utilisant un langage simple, des phrases courtes et une organisation logique des idées. | | Précision et concision | La capacité à exprimer une idée de manière exacte et directe, en allant droit au but et en évitant les informations superflues, les répétitions ou les formulations ambiguës. | | Implicites | Les significations qui ne sont pas explicitement énoncées dans un texte mais qui peuvent être déduites par le lecteur grâce au contexte, aux connaissances partagées ou à l'analyse des sous-entendus. | | Ton (dans un écrit) | L'attitude de l'auteur envers son sujet et son lecteur, qui se manifeste par le choix des mots, la structure des phrases et le registre de langue utilisé (amical, formel, urgent, etc.). | | Passé simple (Past Simple) | Un temps verbal utilisé en anglais pour décrire des actions achevées dans le passé, souvent à un moment spécifique. Sa structure est généralement le verbe à la forme passée (-ed pour les réguliers). | | Présent parfait (Present Perfect) | Un temps verbal en anglais qui relie le passé au présent, utilisé pour parler d'expériences passées, d'actions dont le résultat est encore pertinent, ou d'actions commencées dans le passé et se poursuivant dans le présent. Sa structure est "have/has + participe passé". |

# Kennismaking met een nieuwe baan en introductie op de werkplek Dit onderwerp behandelt de initiële stappen en benodigdheden bij het starten van een nieuwe baan, inclusief de rol van introductieprogramma's en hoe nieuwe medewerkers zich welkom kunnen voelen. ### 1.1 Belangrijke begrippen bij de start van een nieuwe baan Bij het starten van een nieuwe baan komen diverse termen kijken die de rol en status van de nieuwe medewerker aanduiden. * **Graduate trainee**: Een afgestudeerde die nog opleiding krijgt [2](#page=2). * **New recruit**: Een nieuwe aanwerving [2](#page=2). * **Employee**: Een medewerker [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). * **Employer**: De werkgever [2](#page=2). * **Staff**: Personeel [3](#page=3). * **Colleagues**: Collega's [3](#page=3). * **Boss**: Baas [3](#page=3). #### 1.1.1 Woordcombinaties en hun betekenis Een *collocation* is een veelgebruikte woordcombinatie, waarbij de keuze van woorden vaak conventioneel is. Er wordt een onderscheid gemaakt tussen uitgangen op "-ee" en "-er" [2](#page=2): * **-ee**: Geeft aan 'degene die wordt...'-d [2](#page=2). * Voorbeelden: *interviewee* (degene die geïnterviewd wordt), *payee* (begunstigde van een betaling) [2](#page=2). * **-er**: Geeft aan 'degene die...'-t [2](#page=2). * Voorbeelden: *interviewer* (degene die interviewt), *payer* (betaler) [2](#page=2). ### 1.2 De introductie van nieuwe medewerkers Een effectieve introductie op de werkplek is cruciaal voor het welzijn en de productiviteit van nieuwe medewerkers. #### 1.2.1 Ondersteuning door de werkgever Een bedrijf kan nieuwe medewerkers op de eerste dag helpen door: * Iemand te regelen die de nieuwe medewerker rondleidt in het bedrijf [3](#page=3). * Een inwijdingsprogramma (induction programme) op te zetten [3](#page=3). * Een ervaren medewerker aan te wijzen om te helpen bij eventuele problemen [3](#page=3). * Een informatiepakket (information pack) te verstrekken [4](#page=4). * Een kennismakingsspel (acquaintance game) te organiseren [4](#page=4). * Lunch of versnaperingen aan te bieden [4](#page=4). #### 1.2.2 De belangrijke elementen van een introductie Een goede introductie omvat meer dan alleen de basis: * **Rondleiding**: Een rondleiding (guided tour) door het gebouw kan helpen om de weg te vinden. Belangrijke locaties kunnen zijn: een parkeerterrein (car park), een magazijn (warehouse), een kantine (canteen), een productieruimte (production area), het kantoor van de financieel directeur (finance manager’s office), en de afdelingen verkoop en marketing (sales and marketing) [3](#page=3) [5](#page=5). * **Routebeschrijvingen**: Het is handig om de nieuwe medewerker wegwijs te maken met basisroutebeschrijvingen zoals: 'on the left' (links), 'turn right' (rechtsaf slaan), 'go straight on/ahead' (rechtdoor gaan), 'on the right' (rechts), 'opposite' (tegenover), 'next door to/next to' (naast), 'between' (tussen), 'past' (voorbij), 'behind' (achter) [3](#page=3). * **Verdere navigatie-termen**: Bijvoorbeeld: 'down the corridor' (door de gang), 'third door on the left' (derde deur links), 'on the third floor' (op de derde verdieping), 'out (of) the door' (buiten de deur), 'into the lift' (in de lift), 'out of the lift' (uit de lift), 'on your left' (aan je linkerkant), 'on the door' (op de deur), 'back here' (terug hier) [4](#page=4). #### 1.2.3 Het belang van een goed inwijdingsprogramma Een goed inwijdingsprogramma is essentieel omdat nieuwe medewerkers moeten weten wat ze moeten doen om zich gelukkig en nuttig te voelen en hun interesse niet te verliezen [4](#page=4). #### 1.2.4 Verschillen tussen kleine en grote bedrijven * **Grote bedrijven**: Hebben doorgaans meer formele inwijdingsprogramma's [4](#page=4). * **Kleine bedrijven**: Hebben minder formele programma's, maar zijn vaak gastvrijer [4](#page=4). ### 1.3 Potentiële problemen en oplossingen bij introductie Er kunnen diverse problemen optreden tijdens de introductie van een nieuwe medewerker, waarvoor oplossingen bestaan. #### 1.3.1 Problemen en mogelijke oplossingen * **Probleem**: De nieuwe medewerker is niet geïntroduceerd aan collega's en leidinggevenden. * **Oplossing**: De werkgever had een feest kunnen organiseren en een medewerker kunnen vragen om voor de nieuwe aanwinst te zorgen. De nieuwe medewerker had ook de baas kunnen vragen om hem/haar mee uit lunchen te nemen. Er hadden foto's en namen van medewerkers op het mededelingenbord moeten staan [5](#page=5). * **Probleem**: Gebrek aan informatie en oriëntatie. * **Oplossing**: De werkgever had de nieuwe medewerker op een rondleiding kunnen meenemen. Het informatiepakket had een kaart moeten bevatten [5](#page=5). * **Probleem**: Onvoldoende voorbereiding door de werkgever. * **Oplossing**: Werkgevers moeten, voordat nieuwe medewerkers arriveren, ruimte en een werkplek regelen en het personeel informeren over hun komst [5](#page=5). * **Probleem**: Gebrek aan verantwoordelijkheid en toekomstperspectief. * **Oplossing**: Werkgevers moeten nieuwe medewerkers vanaf het begin enige verantwoordelijkheid geven en een loopbaanplan voor de toekomst opstellen, zodat zij weten wanneer zij training zullen ontvangen en aan moeilijkere taken zullen beginnen [5](#page=5). ### 1.4 Het belang van de eerste indruk De eerste indruk is zeer belangrijk, omdat men nooit een tweede kans krijgt. Een slechte indruk kan zelden worden hersteld, en het is wenselijk om professioneel over te komen [6](#page=6). #### 1.4.1 Informatie vergaren over het bedrijf Om meer te weten te komen over een bedrijf, collega's, enz., kan men: * De website raadplegen [6](#page=6). * Praten met mensen die het bedrijf kennen [6](#page=6). * Brochures bekijken [6](#page=6). * Sociale media zoals Facebook en LinkedIn gebruiken [6](#page=6). * Referenties bellen (andere bedrijven die producten of diensten van het bedrijf hebben gebruikt en positief kunnen spreken) [6](#page=6). #### 1.4.2 Online profiel Het is belangrijk om ervoor te zorgen dat het online profiel een positief en waarheidsgetrouw beeld promoot [6](#page=6). --- # Communicatievaardigheden voor de werkomgeving Dit onderdeel introduceert essentiële communicatievaardigheden voor de werkomgeving, waaronder zelfintroductie, het voeren van gesprekken over iemands beroep en persoonlijke achtergrond, en de basisprincipes van e-mailcommunicatie [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16) [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). ### 2.1 Zelfintroductie en gesprekken voeren Het correct introduceren van jezelf en het voeren van gesprekken over je achtergrond en beroep zijn fundamentele vaardigheden in de werkomgeving [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.1 Groeten en jezelf voorstellen * **Begroetingen:** Gebruik gepaste begroetingen zoals "Good morning/ evening/ afternoon". Andere veelgebruikte uitingen zijn "How do you do", "Hi", en "Welcome" [7](#page=7). * **Naam noemen:** Je kunt je naam op verschillende manieren introduceren: "I am [naam]", "My name is [naam]" [7](#page=7). * **Voornaam vs. achternaam:** Wees je bewust van de context bij het gebruik van een voornaam of achternaam [7](#page=7). * **Andermans naam vragen:** Vraag naar iemands naam met "And what’s your name?", "And you are Mr...?", of "And you must be Ms...?" [7](#page=7). * **Uitingen van plezier:** Toon je genoegen om iemand te ontmoeten met zinnen als "I’m pleased to have met you", "Nice/ pleased to meet you", "It is/ was nice to meet you", of "It’s a pleasure to meet you" [7](#page=7). * **Afscheid nemen:** Gebruik "Good afternoon", "Have a good day – you too", of "Bye/ goodbye" [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.2 Praten over leeftijd en geboortejaar * **Leeftijd uitdrukken:** Je kunt je leeftijd op diverse manieren aangeven: "I’m 24", "I’m 24 years old", "I’m 24 years of age", of "I’m 24 years" [8](#page=8). * **Geboortejaar:** Vraag naar iemands geboortejaar met "In what year were you born?" en antwoord met "I was born in [jaar]" [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.3 Nationaliteiten Het correct benoemen van nationaliteiten en de bijbehorende bijvoeglijke naamwoorden en zelfstandige naamwoorden is belangrijk [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). * **Voorbeelden van nationaliteiten:** * IJsland: Icelandic / Icelander [8](#page=8). * Verenigd Koninkrijk: Briton/ Brit/ British [8](#page=8). * Ierland: Irishman/ woman/ Irish [8](#page=8). * Frankrijk: Frenchman/ woman/ French [8](#page=8). * Spanje: Spaniard/ Spanish [8](#page=8). * Nederland: Dutchman/ woman/ Dutch [8](#page=8). * België: Belgian/ Belgian [8](#page=8). * Duitsland: German/ German [8](#page=8). * Italië: Italian / Italian [9](#page=9). * Griekenland: Greek/ Greek [9](#page=9). #### 2.1.4 Burgerlijke staat De burgerlijke staat kan op verschillende manieren worden beschreven [9](#page=9). * **In a relationship:** Als je een relatie hebt [9](#page=9). * **Married:** Als je getrouwd bent [9](#page=9). * **Widowed:** Als je echtgenoot of echtgenote is overleden [9](#page=9). * **Divorced:** Als de relatie wettelijk is beëindigd [9](#page=9). * **Separated:** Als je niet meer samenwoont met je partner [9](#page=9). * **Single:** Als je geen partner hebt [9](#page=9). * **Cohabiting:** Als je samenwoont met je partner zonder getrouwd te zijn [9](#page=9). #### 2.1.5 Praten over je beroep * **Vragen naar iemands beroep:** Gebruik vragen als "What’s your line of work?", "What do you do (for a living)?", of "What’s your work?" [10](#page=10). * **Praten over je beroep:** Zeg bijvoorbeeld "I work in the... business" of "I’m a lawyer". Je kunt ook je taken beschrijven: "My job involves..." [10](#page=10). * **Bedrijfslocatie:** Vraag naar de locatie van het bedrijf met "Where do you work exactly?" [10](#page=10). * **Verantwoordelijkheden:** Specificeer je taken met "What does your job involve?" of "I’m responsible for...". Rapporteer aan je leidinggevende met "I report to..." [10](#page=10). * **Verwijzen naar de baas:** Je kunt zeggen "I work for [naam van de baas/bedrijf]" [10](#page=10). * **Belangrijke termen:** * CEO: chief executive officer [10](#page=10). * CFO: chief financial officer [10](#page=10). * Brand: merk [10](#page=10). * PA: personal assistant [10](#page=10). * Help someone out: iemand helpen omdat diegene het druk heeft of problemen heeft [10](#page=10). * Agenda: lijst van onderwerpen om te behandelen [10](#page=10). * Intermediary: tussenpersoon [10](#page=10). * Draw up: een schriftelijk document, een contract opstellen [10](#page=10). * Be in charge of: verantwoordelijk zijn voor [10](#page=10). * To carry out: uitvoeren, doen [10](#page=10). * To keep track of: aandacht besteden aan, bijhouden [10](#page=10). * Competition: concurrentie [10](#page=10). * First and foremost: vooral [10](#page=10). * To take to heart: iets ter harte nemen, iets serieus overwegen [10](#page=10). #### 2.1.6 Voorbeelden van functieomschrijvingen * **Commercieel directeur:** Verantwoordelijk voor product- en serviceontwikkeling, bepaalt de productreclame strategie en volgt productie en marketing op [11](#page=11). * **Productmanager:** Adresseert behoeften en problemen van medewerkers, van aanwerving tot ontslag, inclusief salarisadministratie en geschillenbeheer. Regelt ook alle stages [11](#page=11). * **HR-manager:** Managet een team van bedrijfsvertegenwoordigers die verantwoordelijk zijn voor een bepaald geografisch gebied. Bezoekt soms zelf belangrijke klanten [11](#page=11). * **Salesmanager:** Verantwoordelijk voor de inkoop van goederen en grondstoffen. Onderhandelt met leveranciers en kiest ze zelf [11](#page=11). * **Inkoopmanager/ Purchasing manager/ procurement specialist:** Combineert verschillende functies: financieel, HR en juridisch manager, en is ook verantwoordelijk voor IT [11](#page=11). * **Administratief en financieel manager van een KMO:** Combineert verschillende functies [11](#page=11). #### 2.1.7 Studierichting en loopbaanperspectieven * **Studierichting noemen:** "I am studying [studierichting at [naam onderwijsinstelling in [stad]" [11](#page=11). * **Toekomstplannen:** "Later I would like to join an accounts office" of "I have just finished a degree in..." [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). * **Vooropleiding:** "Before this I went to..." of "Before this, I worked for [bedrijf]" [12](#page=12). * **Huidige functie:** "I’m joining the... department" [12](#page=12). * **Bijbaantjes:** "During the holidays/ weekends I have a student job as..." [12](#page=12). * **Diploma's/ graden:** "I hope to get a Bachelor diploma/ degree in..." [12](#page=12). * Voorbeelden van studierichtingen: Accountancy and tax law, finance, Insurance, Sports and Culture management, Global Business management [12](#page=12). * **Toekomstige loopbaandoelen:** * Een advocatenkantoor [12](#page=12). * De juridische afdeling van een multinational [12](#page=12). * Een accountantskantoor [12](#page=12). * Een verzekeringsmaatschappij [12](#page=12). * Een grote onderneming [12](#page=12). * Zelfstandig ondernemerschap [12](#page=12). * Juridisch adviseur [12](#page=12). * Werken bij de rechtbank, als griffier [12](#page=12). #### 2.1.8 Persoonlijke voorkeuren Dit onderdeel raakt ook aan persoonlijke voorkeuren, hoewel de details hiervan niet gespecificeerd zijn in het verstrekte document [12](#page=12). ### 2.2 Basisprincipes van e-mailcommunicatie E-mail is een belangrijk communicatiemiddel op de werkvloer, zowel synchroon als asynchroon [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). #### 2.2.1 E-mailvocabulaire en functionaliteit * **Gevonden e-mails:** * Verzonden e-mails: 'sent items' [13](#page=13). * Ontvangen e-mails: 'inbox' [13](#page=13). * E-mails naar derden doorsturen: 'forward command' [13](#page=13). * Contactgegevens: 'contacts' [13](#page=13). * Niet voltooide e-mails: 'concepts' (ook wel 'drafts' genoemd) [13](#page=13). * Bijlagen: 'attachment' [13](#page=13). * **Belangrijke commando's en elementen:** * Onderwerpregel: 'subject line' [13](#page=13) [15](#page=15). * Hoge prioriteit: 'high priority command' [13](#page=13). * Mappenstructuur: inbox, Outbox, Sent items, Drafts, Deleted items [13](#page=13). * Acties: Reply, Reply to all, Forward, Send/ receive [13](#page=13). * Contacten: Contacts [13](#page=13). * Bijlage: Attachment [13](#page=13). #### 2.2.2 E-mailstructuur Effectieve e-mails hebben een duidelijke, logische structuur om een snelle reactie of directe actie te bevorderen [14](#page=14). * **Onderwerpregel (Subject line):** * Moet kort, bondig en informatief zijn [15](#page=15). #### 2.2.3 Register (Formeel vs. informeel) Het register van een e-mail hangt af van het doel van de boodschap en de ontvanger [16](#page=16). * **Indicatoren van formaliteit:** * **Aanhef en afsluiting:** Formele aanheffen en afsluitingen wijzen op een formele toon [16](#page=16). * **Colloquiale uitdrukkingen:** Informele uitdrukkingen zoals "how is it going, how are you" vermijden in formele e-mails [16](#page=16). * **Woordenschat:** * Meer formeel: to receive, to inform, to assist, to contact [16](#page=16). * Minder formeel: to get, to tell, to help, to get in touch [16](#page=16). * **Afkortingen en samentrekkingen:** Informeel gebruik zoals "he’s", "I’m", "you’re" [16](#page=16). * **Emoticons:** Over het algemeen niet geschikt voor formele zakelijke e-mails [16](#page=16). * **Phrasal verbs:** Kunnen variëren in formaliteit [16](#page=16). * **Hedges (verzachters):** Gebruik van woorden als "please" en "can" kan de toon verzachten [16](#page=16). > **Tip:** Wees altijd voorzichtig met het gebruik van informele elementen in zakelijke communicatie. Het is beter om iets te formeel te zijn dan te informeel. > **Tip:** Een duidelijke en beknopte onderwerpregel is cruciaal voor de efficiëntie van e-mailcommunicatie. Het helpt de ontvanger direct de inhoud van het bericht te begrijpen. --- # Bedrijven, organisaties en e-mailopdrachten Dit onderwerp behandelt de verschillende soorten bedrijven en hun structuren, afdelingen, en de essentie van het schrijven en beantwoorden van e-mailaanvragen. ### 3.1 Bedrijven en organisaties #### 3.1.1 Kernconcepten en terminologie * **Produceren/produceren** kan ook worden omschreven als **maken** [17](#page=17). * **Leveren/aanbieden** kan ook worden omschreven als **aanbieden** [17](#page=17). * **Specialiseren** betekent zich richten op een specifiek gebied of product [17](#page=17). * Een **werknemer** is iemand die voor een bedrijf werkt [17](#page=17). * **Gebaseerd** verwijst naar de locatie van het hoofdkantoor [17](#page=17). * Een **dochteronderneming** is een bedrijf dat deel uitmaakt van een grotere groep [17](#page=17). * **Verkoop** verwijst naar situaties waarin veel producten worden verkocht [17](#page=17). * Een **concurrent/rivaal** is een ander bedrijf dat in dezelfde markt opereert [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.2 Bedrijfsprofiel Het is belangrijk om informatie over een bedrijf te kennen voordat men zaken gaat doen [18](#page=18). * Als een bedrijf in een slechte financiële situatie verkeert, kan dit negatieve gevolgen hebben voor de zakenrelatie [18](#page=18). * Als een bedrijf een slechte reputatie heeft op het gebied van ethisch zakendoen, kan dit de reputatie van uw eigen bedrijf beïnvloeden [18](#page=18). Belangrijke elementen van een bedrijfsprofiel zijn: * **Marktlijn:** Het land of de landen waar producten worden verkocht [17](#page=17). * **Unieke verkooppropositie (USP):** Iets dat een product onderscheidt van andere vergelijkbare producten. Een USP is een kenmerk van een product dat geen enkel ander soortgelijk product heeft [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). * **Oprichting:** De datum of periode waarin het bedrijf is gestart [17](#page=17). * **Vindt:** Waar het bedrijf zijn grondstoffen of producten vandaan haalt [17](#page=17). * **Impact:** Het effect dat het bedrijf of zijn producten hebben [17](#page=17). * **Groeide:** Beschrijft hoe het bedrijf groter is geworden [17](#page=17). * **Beheerd:** Hoe het bedrijf wordt geleid of bestuurd [17](#page=17). * **CEO (Chief Executive Officer):** Het hoofd van een bedrijf [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.3 Bedrijfsstructuur Verschillende onderdelen van een bedrijf hebben specifieke functies: * **Callcenter (AE: center):** Een kantoor waar mensen vragen beantwoorden en verkopen plegen via de telefoon [18](#page=18). * **Distributiecentrum:** Een gebouw van waaruit goederen of leveringen naar fabrieken, winkels of klanten worden verzonden [18](#page=18). * **Outlet:** Een plaats waar producten worden verkocht [18](#page=18). * **Servicecentrum:** Een plaats waar defecte producten worden gerepareerd [18](#page=18). * **Dochteronderneming:** Een bedrijf dat voor minstens de helft eigendom is van een ander bedrijf [18](#page=18). * **Hoofdkantoor (Headquarters):** Het hoofdgebouw of kantoor van een bedrijf [18](#page=18). * **Magazijn (Warehouse):** Een gebouw voor het opslaan van goederen in grote hoeveelheden [18](#page=18). * **Fabriek/installatie:** Een groot gebouw of groep gebouwen waar goederen worden geproduceerd [19](#page=19). #### 3.1.4 Bedrijfsafdelingen Afdelingen binnen een bedrijf hebben specifieke taken: * **Verkoop:** Verkoopt producten [19](#page=19). * **Marketing:** Doet de reclame en communicatie [19](#page=19). * **Onderzoek en ontwikkeling (R&D):** Creëert nieuwe producten [19](#page=19). * **Technische ondersteuning:** Beantwoordt technische vragen van klanten [19](#page=19). * **Klantenservice:** Beantwoordt alle andere vragen van klanten [19](#page=19). * **Juridische/pro sé afdeling:** Biedt juridische diensten en advies aan het bedrijf [19](#page=19). * **Public relations:** Geeft persberichten uit [19](#page=19). #### 3.1.5 Bedrijfscultuur Bedrijfscultuur verwijst naar de kwaliteiten van een organisatie. **Goede eigenschappen van een organisatie:** * Gedecentraliseerd [19](#page=19). * Zorgzaam [19](#page=19). * Democratisch [19](#page=19). * Marktgedreven [19](#page=19). * Dynamisch [19](#page=19). * Professioneel [19](#page=19). * Progressief [19](#page=19). **Slechte eigenschappen van een organisatie:** * Bureaucratisch [19](#page=19). * Gedecentraliseerd [19](#page=19). * Impersoonlijk [19](#page=19). * Gecentraliseerd [19](#page=19). * Conservatief [19](#page=19). * Hiërarchisch [19](#page=19). ### 3.2 E-mailopdrachten (enquêtes) #### 3.2.1 Definitie en doel Een **e-mailopdracht** (of e-mail van navraag) is een vraag bedoeld om informatie te verkrijgen [19](#page=19). Redenen waarom een bedrijf navraag doet bij een leverancier: * Een brochure aanvragen [19](#page=19). * Vragen over een product [19](#page=19). * Een prijslijst aanvragen [19](#page=19). * Een bestelling controleren, plaatsen, annuleren of een klacht indienen [19](#page=19). #### 3.2.2 Communicatie bij navraag * **Voorbeelden van objecten:** Dit zijn de items waarover informatie wordt gevraagd of aangeboden [20](#page=20). * **Samples:** Voorbeelden van producten die aan klanten getoond kunnen worden [20](#page=20). * **Keten (chain):** Winkels met dezelfde naam die dezelfde producten verkopen [20](#page=20). * **Op voorraad:** Goederen die in een winkel aanwezig zijn, klaar om te verkopen [20](#page=20). * **Productaanbod (product range):** De keuze aan artikelen die beschikbaar zijn [20](#page=20). > **Tip:** Gebruik 'could' en 'would' om verzoeken beleefder te maken. Bijvoorbeeld, in plaats van "I want to stock these items," zegt men "I would like to stock these items" [20](#page=20). **Hedges (om beleefder te formuleren):** * Can * Could * Will * Would * I’d like * I’d welcome * **Handelsbeurs:** Een grote evenement waar bedrijven hun producten tonen en verkopen en proberen hun zaken te vergroten [20](#page=20). * **Bedrijfspand (Business premises):** Het land en gebouw dat eigendom is van een bedrijf [20](#page=20). #### 3.2.3 Organisatie van een e-mailopdracht Een gestructureerde e-mailopdracht bevat doorgaans de volgende elementen: 1. Hoe u over de leverancier weet [20](#page=20). 2. Beschrijving van uw bedrijf [20](#page=20). 3. Uw specifieke vraag of verzoek [20](#page=20). 4. Verzoek om een reactie [20](#page=20). 5. Een beleefde afsluiting [20](#page=20). #### 3.2.4 Antwoorden op een e-mailopdracht Bij het beantwoorden van een e-mailopdracht is het belangrijk om de afzender correct te begroeten en snel te reageren. Een gebruikelijke openingszin is: "Many thanks for getting back to me so quickly". Het antwoord moet de vragen in de e-mail van de afzender adresseren, bijvoorbeeld "In order to your question..." [20](#page=20). --- # Nummergebruik en financiële terminologie in zakelijke contexten Dit gedeelte behandelt de correcte toepassing van kardinale en ordinale getallen, breuken, valuta's en prijsaanduidingen in een zakelijke communicatie. ### 4.1 Kardinale getallen (hoofdtelwoorden) Kardinale getallen geven een hoeveelheid aan, zoals 'één', 'twee', 'drie', 'tweehonderd'. Bij het uitspreken van grotere getallen wordt vaak het woord 'and' gebruikt in het Brits-Engels [21](#page=21): * 647 wordt uitgesproken als "six hundred **and** forty-seven" [22](#page=22). * 5.463 wordt uitgesproken als "five thousand four hundred **and** sixty-three" [22](#page=22). * 73.921 wordt uitgesproken als "seventy-three thousand nine hundred **and** twenty-one" [22](#page=22). #### 4.1.1 Decimale breuken en duizendtallen In het Brits-Engels wordt een punt gebruikt voor decimale breuken en een komma om duizendtallen aan te geven: * 3.5 wordt uitgesproken als "three point five" [22](#page=22). * 2.400 wordt uitgesproken als "two thousand four hundred" [22](#page=22). #### 4.1.2 De weergave van het cijfer nul * In het Brits-Engels wordt nul vaak "nought" genoemd [23](#page=23). * In het Amerikaans-Engels wordt nul "zero" genoemd. "Zero" wordt specifiek gebruikt bij metingen [23](#page=23). * "Nil" wordt gebruikt om een score van nul aan te geven bij sportwedstrijden, bijvoorbeeld "our team won by two goals to nil" [23](#page=23). * Het cijfer 0 wordt uitgesproken als "oh" wanneer jaartallen worden genoemd, zoals "nineteen oh nine" [23](#page=23). #### 4.1.3 Nauwkeurigheid bij aantallen * "A" is gebruikelijker dan "one" in informele contexten, terwijl "one" wordt gebruikt voor preciezere specificaties [23](#page=23). * Wanneer een exact getal wordt genoemd, wordt geen meervoud ('s') gebruikt: "we spent exactly five thousand dollars" [23](#page=23). * Voor benaderende hoeveelheden wordt wel het meervoud gebruikt: "we spent hundreds/thousands of dollars" [23](#page=23). * Afkortingen voor grote getallen zijn: * Thousand wordt afgekort als 'k' (bv. 1k) [23](#page=23). * Million wordt afgekort als 'm' (bv. 1m) [23](#page=23). * Billion wordt afgekort als 'bn' (bv. 1bn) [23](#page=23). * "Eleven hundred" kan gebruikt worden in plaats van "one thousand one hundred" voor ronde getallen tussen 1100 en 1900 [23](#page=23). #### 4.1.4 Verschil in de betekenis van 'billion' * In het Brits-Engels betekent "billion" traditioneel een miljoen maal een miljoen ($10^{12}$) [23](#page=23). * In het Amerikaans-Engels betekent "billion" duizend maal een miljoen ($10^9$) [23](#page=23). ### 4.2 Ordinale getallen (rangtelwoorden) Ordinale getallen geven een volgorde of rang aan, zoals 'eerste', 'tweede', 'derde' [21](#page=21). #### 4.2.1 Gebruik bij namen en data * Ordinale getallen worden gebruikt na namen van koningen en koninginnen, zoals "Henry the Eighth" (Henry VIII) [24](#page=24). * Bij het uitspreken van data: * 1 juni 2015 wordt uitgesproken als "the first of June" [24](#page=24). * Jaartallen worden vaak in twee delen uitgesproken: * 1042 wordt "ten forty-two" [24](#page=24). * 1682 wordt "sixteen eighty-two" [24](#page=24). * 963 wordt "nine sixty-three" [24](#page=24). * Uitzondering hierop zijn jaartallen met honderden, zoals 1000 ("one thousand") en 2009 ("twenty oh nine") [25](#page=25). #### 4.2.2 Afkortingen van ordinale getallen De afkorting wordt gevormd door het getal te combineren met de laatste twee letters van het geschreven woord: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. [25](#page=25). ### 4.3 Breuken Breuken worden in een zakelijke context op de volgende manieren uitgesproken: * 1/8: "one eighth" [25](#page=25). * 1/5: "one fifth" [25](#page=25). * 1/4: "one quarter" of "one fourth" [25](#page=25). * 3/4: "three quarters" [25](#page=25). * 1/3: "one third" [25](#page=25). * 2/3: "two thirds" [25](#page=25). * 1/2: "one half" [25](#page=25). * 8/10: "eight tenths" [25](#page=25). * 5/1000: "five thousandths" [25](#page=25). ### 4.4 Berekeningen * Kleine vermenigvuldigingen kunnen als volgt worden uitgedrukt: * 2 x 4 = 8: "two times four are eight" [25](#page=25). * 3 x 9 = 27: "three nines are twenty-seven" [25](#page=25). * Het resultaat van een vermenigvuldiging kan ook worden aangeduid met de uitgang "-fold": "threefold" (drievoudig) [26](#page=26). * Delingen kunnen als volgt worden uitgedrukt: * "3 into 9 goes 3 (times)" [26](#page=26). * Een breuk zoals 392/621 kan worden voorgelezen als "three hundred and ninety-two over six hundred and twenty one" [26](#page=26). ### 4.5 Prijsaanduidingen en gerelateerde terminologie * Prijzen worden in volle letters uitgedrukt, zonder valutatekens: * 30 dollars [26](#page=26). * 100 pounds [26](#page=26). * 4 euros [26](#page=26). * 50 cents [26](#page=26). #### 4.5.1 Woordenschat gerelateerd aan kamers en reizen * **A double room**: Een kamer met één tweepersoonsbed. Het tegenovergestelde is "a single room" (een kamer met één eenpersoonsbed) [26](#page=26). * **A twin room**: Een kamer met twee eenpersoonsbedden [26](#page=26). * **Round trip**: Een heen- en terugreis of een rondreis [26](#page=26). * **Apex fare**: Een ticket dat van tevoren moet worden gekocht tegen een gereduceerd tarief, vaak voor trein- of vliegreizen ("Advanced purchase excursion") [26](#page=26). * **Set meal**: Een vast menu. Het tegenovergestelde is "à la carte", waarbij gerechten apart worden besteld [26](#page=26). * **One-way ticket**: Een enkelt ticket. Ook wel "single ticket" genoemd. Het tegenovergestelde is "return ticket" [27](#page=27). #### 4.5.2 Woordenschat gerelateerd aan prijzen * **To overcharge**: Te veel geld vragen voor iets. Het tegenovergestelde is "undercharge" (te weinig geld vragen) [27](#page=27). ### 4.6 Britse valuta: Pound Sterling (GBP) * De officiële munteenheid van het Verenigd Koninkrijk is de pound sterling, met ISO-code GBP [27](#page=27). * De pound wordt informeel ook wel "quid" genoemd (meervoud: quid) [27](#page=27). * Er zitten 100 pence in een pound [27](#page=27). * **Voorbeelden van prijzen en notatie:** * Een munt van GBP 1: "a one-pound coin" [27](#page=27). * Een biljet van GBP 5: "a five-pound note" [27](#page=27). * 1 p: "1 penny" [27](#page=27). * 5 p: "5 pence" [27](#page=27). * GBP 2.46: "two pounds forty-six" [27](#page=27). * Het pond-symbool (GBP) wordt vóór de cijfers geplaatst [27](#page=27). * Pounds en pence worden gescheiden door een punt (GBP 2.50) [27](#page=27). ### 4.7 Amerikaanse valuta: United States Dollar (USD) * De officiële munteenheid van de Verenigde Staten is de United States dollar, met ISO-code USD [27](#page=27). * In informele spreektaal wordt "buck" vaak gebruikt in plaats van dollar [28](#page=28). * Amerikanen gebruiken het woord "bill" om papieren geld aan te duiden [28](#page=28). * De dollar is onderverdeeld in honderd cents [28](#page=28). * **Voorbeelden van prijzen en notatie:** * One dollar bill [28](#page=28). * Five dollar bill [28](#page=28). * Ten dollar bill [28](#page=28). * Twenty dollar bill [28](#page=28). * Fifty dollar bill [28](#page=28). * One hundred dollar bill [28](#page=28). * USD 5.39: "five dollars thirty-nine" [28](#page=28). * USD 200: "two hundred dollars" [28](#page=28). * 50c: "fifty cents" [28](#page=28). * USD 2.50: "two dollars fifty (cents)" [28](#page=28). --- ## Veelgemaakte fouten om te vermijden - Bestudeer alle onderwerpen grondig voor examens - Let op formules en belangrijke definities - Oefen met de voorbeelden in elke sectie - Memoriseer niet zonder de onderliggende concepten te begrijpen

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Afgestudeerde stagiaire (graduate trainee) | Een nieuwe werknemer die recentelijk is afgestudeerd en nog een opleidingsprogramma volgt om de vaardigheden voor zijn of haar functie te ontwikkelen. | | Nieuwe aanwerving (new recruit) | Een persoon die recentelijk is aangenomen door een bedrijf en deel gaat uitmaken van het personeel, vaak met een specifieke rol of in een bepaalde afdeling. | | Informatiepakket (information pack) | Een verzameling documenten of materialen die nieuwe medewerkers ontvangen om hen te informeren over het bedrijf, hun rol, beleid en procedures. | | Rondleiding (guided tour) | Een begeleide wandeling door het bedrijfspand om nieuwe medewerkers wegwijs te maken in de faciliteiten, zoals kantoren, magazijnen en kantines. | | Inwijdingsprogramma (induction programme) | Een gestructureerd programma dat nieuwe werknemers helpt integreren in de organisatie, inclusief training, introducties en informatie over de bedrijfscultuur. | | Collocatie (collocation) | Een veelvoorkomende combinatie van twee of meer woorden die van nature bij elkaar horen, zoals 'sterke koffie' of 'een beslissing nemen'. | | Personeel (staff) | De werknemers van een organisatie, inclusief zowel hoger management als operationeel personeel. | | Rekruten (recruits) | Nieuw aangenomen personen die nog niet volledig geïntegreerd zijn in het bedrijf en mogelijk nog training nodig hebben. | | Carrière (career) | Het pad dat iemand bewandelt gedurende zijn of haar werkzame leven, inclusief de verschillende banen, posities en ervaringen die men opdoet. | | Sollicitatiegesprek ((job) interview) | Een formeel gesprek tussen een kandidaat en een potentiële werkgever om te beoordelen of de kandidaat geschikt is voor een openstaande functie. | | Bedrijf (company) | Een commerciële organisatie die goederen of diensten produceert of verkoopt met als doel winst te maken. | | Uitdaging (challenge) | Een moeilijke taak of situatie die iemands vaardigheden en capaciteiten op de proef stelt en ontwikkeling stimuleert. | | Medewerker (employee) | Een persoon die in dienst is bij een bedrijf en tegen betaling arbeid verricht. | | Afgestudeerd (graduate) | Iemand die succesvol een opleiding aan een hogeschool of universiteit heeft afgerond en een diploma heeft behaald. | | Diploma (degree) | Een officieel certificaat dat wordt uitgereikt aan iemand die een studie of opleiding met succes heeft voltooid. | | Ervaring (experience) | Kennis of vaardigheid die men heeft opgedaan door iets te doen of mee te maken, met name relevant voor de werkomgeving. | | Kennismakingsspel (acquaintance game) | Een activiteit of spel ontworpen om nieuwe medewerkers met elkaar en met hun collega's te laten kennismaken op een informele manier. | | Solvabiliteit (financial situation) | De mate waarin een bedrijf in staat is om aan zijn financiële verplichtingen te voldoen. | | Reputatie (reputation) | De algemene mening of het beeld dat mensen hebben van een persoon of organisatie, gebaseerd op hun gedrag en prestaties. | | Bedrijfscultuur (company culture) | De collectieve waarden, normen, overtuigingen en gedragingen die de manier waarop medewerkers binnen een organisatie opereren, bepalen. | | Bureaucratisch (bureaucratic) | Gekenmerkt door een complex systeem van regels en procedures dat vaak leidt tot vertraging en inefficiëntie. | | Hiërarchisch (hierarchical) | Een structuur waarbij macht en verantwoordelijkheid zijn georganiseerd in opeenvolgende niveaus, van hoog naar laag. | | Emailvocabulaire (email vocabulary) | Specifieke termen en uitdrukkingen die gebruikt worden in de context van het schrijven en versturen van e-mails. | | Verzonden items (sent items) | Een map in een e-mailprogramma die een kopie bevat van alle e-mails die de gebruiker heeft verzonden. | | Concepten (drafts) | Een map waar e-mails worden opgeslagen die nog niet voltooid of verzonden zijn. | | Hoge prioriteit (high priority) | Een aanduiding voor een e-mail die als urgent wordt beschouwd en onmiddellijke aandacht vereist. | | Bijlage (attachment) | Een bestand dat samen met een e-mail wordt verzonden, zoals een document, afbeelding of spreadsheet. | | Onderwerpregel (subject line) | De korte tekst die het hoofdonderwerp van een e-mail samenvat en de ontvanger helpt te bepalen waar de e-mail over gaat. | | Register (register) | De mate van formaliteit in taalgebruik, afhankelijk van de relatie tussen de zender en de ontvanger en de context van de communicatie. | | Emoticons (emoticons) | Kleine afbeeldingen of symbolen die worden gebruikt in tekstuele communicatie om emotie of toon over te brengen, zoals :) of :(. | | Negaties (hedges) | Woorden of zinsneden die de zekerheid van een uitspraak verminderen of verzachten, vaak om beleefder te klinken. | | Kardinale getallen (cardinal numbers) | Getallen die worden gebruikt om hoeveelheden aan te duiden, zoals één, twee, drie. | | Ordinale getallen (ordinal numbers) | Getallen die een volgorde of rang aangeven, zoals eerste, tweede, derde. | | Komma (comma) | Een leesteken dat in veel talen wordt gebruikt om duizendtallen aan te geven, en in het Brits-Engels als scheidingsteken in decimale breuken. | | Punt (point) | In het Brits-Engels gebruikt als scheidingsteken in decimale breuken (bijvoorbeeld 3.5); in Amerikaans-Engels wordt dit een 'decimal point' genoemd. | | Nul (nought) | De Britse uitspraak voor het cijfer 0, vooral in decimale getallen of als score in sportwedstrijden. | | Nil | Een term die in sportuitslagen wordt gebruikt om aan te geven dat een team geen punten heeft gescoord, bijvoorbeeld 'twee tegen nil'. | | Miljoen (million) | Een getal gelijk aan duizend keer duizend, oftewel $1.000.000$. | | Miljard (billion) | In Amerikaans-Engels een getal gelijk aan duizend keer een miljoen, oftewel $1.000.000.000$. In Brits-Engels was dit traditioneel een miljoen maal een miljoen ($1.000.000.000.000$). | | Breuken (fractions) | Getallen die een deel van een geheel voorstellen, uitgedrukt als een teller boven een streep en een noemer eronder. | | Bewerkingen (calculations) | Wiskundige handelingen zoals optellen, aftrekken, vermenigvuldigen en delen. | | Prijsstelling (quoting prices) | Het proces van het aangeven van de kosten van goederen of diensten. | | Pond sterling (pound sterling) | De officiële munteenheid van het Verenigd Koninkrijk, onderverdeeld in 100 pence. | | Cent (cent) | Een honderdste deel van een dollar, de munteenheid van de Verenigde Staten en andere landen. | | Enkele reis ticket (one-way ticket) | Een vervoersbewijs dat alleen geldig is voor de reis in één richting, zonder recht op terugkeer. | | Terugreis ticket (return ticket) | Een vervoersbewijs dat geldig is voor zowel de heen- als de terugreis. | | Te veel vragen (to overcharge) | Meer geld vragen voor een product of dienst dan de werkelijke waarde of de afgesproken prijs. | | Te weinig vragen (to undercharge) | Minder geld vragen voor een product of dienst dan de werkelijke waarde of de afgesproken prijs. |

This study guide synthesizes key information on academic English, focusing on common errors, quantifiers, verb tenses, sentence construction, and legal English principles to aid in exam preparation. ## Academic English: Grammar, Spelling, and Writing This section addresses common pitfalls and nuances in academic and legal English to enhance clarity and accuracy. ### Quantifiers: Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns The distinction between countable and uncountable nouns is crucial in English, influencing the choice of determiners. * **Countable nouns:** * Have plural forms. * Can be used with "a" or "an." * Examples: a chair, chairs; a house, houses; an idea, ideas. * **Uncountable nouns:** * Do not have plural forms. * Cannot be used with "a" or "an." * Examples: air, water, sand. #### Some and Any * **Some is used:** * In affirmative sentences: "She’s got some interesting suggestions." * In requests and offers (when a positive answer is expected): "Could I make some suggestions first?" "Would you like some coffee?" * To indicate an approximate number: "Some 30 part-time workers were laid off." * **Any is used:** * In negative sentences and after words like "never," "without," "hardly": "She hasn’t got any interesting suggestions." "She never has any interesting suggestions." * In questions: "Do you have any suggestions?" * In affirmative sentences (and often in if-clauses) when the meaning is "it doesn’t matter which": "Any suggestion would be welcome." (= All suggestions.) "If you have any question, I’ll be glad to answer it." #### Much and Many * **Common Error:** Using "much" before a plural noun instead of "many." * *Incorrect:* "He has so much ideas." * *Correct:* "He has so many ideas." * **Much is used:** * With singular uncountable nouns: "He has too much money." "I haven’t got much time." * With the comparative form of adjectives: "It’s much easier that way." * With certain verbs, especially those indicating change: "He hasn’t changed much." * **Many is used:** * With plural countable nouns: "No country in the world has ever cut so many jobs before." #### A Lot Of / Lots Of These alternatives are less formal than "much" and "many" and can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. * "Can you hurry up? I don’t have a lot of time." * "We’ve got lots of things to do." #### Little, Less, Least vs. Few, Fewer, Fewest * **Little, less, least:** Used with singular uncountable nouns (e.g., less money, least effort) and with adjectives or verbs. * "I have little hope it will improve." * "But some analysts were less confident." * "She had the least amount of work of us all." * **Few, fewer, fewest:** Used with plural countable nouns (e.g., fewer consumers, fewest problems). * "Few solutions are as effective." * "The result will be higher prices and fewer choices for consumers." * "My first applicant made the fewest mistakes." * **Note:** "A few" and "a little" often suggest a positive quantity, while "few" and "little" suggest a negative or insufficient quantity. ### Homophones and Similar-Sounding Words Understanding the correct usage of words that sound alike is crucial for precision. #### There, Their, and They're * **There:** Used as an introductory subject ("there is," "there are") or as an adverb of place. * "Do you think there is a problem?" * "Japan will introduce different software into its new phones there." * **Their:** A possessive pronoun. * "Investors had to sell their shares before October 21." * "Everybody likes their own ideas." * **They're:** A contraction of "they are." * "They're living there, but it isn't their house." #### Than and Then * **Than:** Used for comparisons (after a comparative adjective/adverb). Pronounced /ðən/. * "Admiral has more than 900,000 customers." * "Debt levels were better than expected." * **Then:** Refers to time or occasion. Pronounced /ðen/. * "The proposals were first scrutinized by financial experts and then approved by the head." * "If the firm can’t pay them, then the investors can turn to the Compensation Committee." #### Of and Off * **Of:** Usually corresponds to Dutch "van." * "the Chief Executive of Coca Cola" * "20% of all managers" * "most parts of the world" * Also in expressions like "of course." * **Off:** Used in various expressions and phrasal verbs. * "have a day off" * "be better/worse off" * "10% off" * "sell off," "pay off," "be cut off," "switch off," "drop off." * "Off we go!" * "I must be off now." (= I must leave.) * "The product is really taking off." #### Remember, Remind, and Recall * **Remember:** To actively bring something back to mind or retain it in memory. * "I remember meeting her at the party last year." * **Remind:** To cause someone else to remember something; to prompt another person. * "Can you remind me to call the doctor tomorrow?" * **Recall:** To retrieve information from memory; often used in more formal or deliberate contexts. * "I can't recall his name right now." #### Assure, Ensure, and Insure * **Assure:** To remove doubt or give confidence to someone; to reassure. * "I assure you that everything will be fine." * **Ensure:** To make certain that something will happen or be the case; to guarantee an outcome. * "Please ensure that the door is locked before you leave." * **Insure:** To protect against risk, typically through financial means like an insurance policy. * "I need to insure my car against theft and accidents." #### As and Like * **As:** Used to indicate role or function, or to compare actions (often followed by a clause). * Role/Function: "He works as a teacher." * Comparison of Actions: "She sings as her mother did." * **Like:** Used to show similarity or resemblance between two things (usually followed by a noun or pronoun). * Similarity: "She sings like her mother." * Comparison: "This tastes like chicken." #### Especially and Specially * **Especially:** Used to single out something as more important or significant; to emphasize degree. * "I love all fruits, especially mangoes." * **Specially:** Refers to something done for a particular purpose or in a special manner; unique or customized. * "The cake was specially made for her birthday." #### Nouns and Verbs Ending in -ice/-ise * **Noun form:** Ends in "-ice" in both American and British English (e.g., practice, advice). * **Verb form:** * American English: Uses "-ice" (e.g., to practice, to advise). * British English: Uses "-ise" (e.g., to practise, to advise). #### Compare to / Compare with * **Compare to:** Used when highlighting similarities between two different things. * "Her voice was compared to a nightingale's." * **Compare with:** Used when examining similarities and differences between two closely related items. * "Let's compare the new model with the old one." ## Tenses in Legal Contexts Correct tense usage is vital for clarity and precision in legal writing. ### Overview of Tense Forms This section details the formation and core meaning of various English tenses. | Form | How to form (short) | Core meaning | Typical legal use / example | | :------------------------ | :--------------------------- | :----------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------- | | **Present Simple** | V / V-s | Timeless facts, rules, schedules | "‘Insurer’ means …" / "Hearing starts Monday." | | **Present Continuous** | am/is/are + V-ing | In progress; temporary plan | "I am writing to request disclosure." | | **Present Perfect** | have/has + V-ed | Past with present relevance | "The claimant has filed an appeal." (now pending) | | **Present Perfect Cont.** | have/has been + V-ing | Activity up to now | "The parties have been negotiating since June." | | **Past Simple** | V-ed / irregular | Finished past; sequence | "The court dismissed the claim." | | **Past Continuous** | was/were + V-ing | Background in progress | "The officer was patrolling when …" | | **Past Perfect** | had + V-ed | Earlier past | "Service had been effected before the hearing." | | **Past Perfect Cont.** | had been + V-ing | Ongoing earlier past | "She had been working as counsel for five years." | | Form | How to form (short) | Core meaning | Typical legal use / example | | :----------------------- | :------------------------------ | :---------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------- | | **Future Simple (will)** | will + V | Neutral future, prediction | "The court will hear the matter on 12 Oct." | | **Be going to** | am/is/are going to + V | Planned intention; evidence | "We are going to seek security for costs." | | **Present Simple (future)**| V / V-s + future time | Fixed schedule, instrument effect | "This Act enters into force on 1 Jan 2026." | | **Present Cont. (future)**| am/is/are + V-ing + time | Arranged appointment/meeting | "We are meeting opposing counsel on Friday." | | **Be to + V** | am/is/are + to + V | Official plan/instruction | "Witnesses are to attend at 9:30." | | **Be due to + V** | am/is/are due to + V | Scheduled deadline | "Disclosure is due to be exchanged by 30 Sept." | | **Be about to / on the point of + V** | am/is/are about to + V | Imminent | "The decree is about to take effect." | | **Future Continuous** | will be + V-ing | Ongoing future process | "The tribunal will be considering submissions all week." | | **Future Perfect** | will have + V-ed | Completed by a future point | "The parties will have filed skeleton arguments by 1 Oct." | | **Future Perfect Cont.** | will have been + V-ing | Duration up to a future point | "By June, they will have been overseeing this for a year." | ### Timeline Control: Anchors and Sequencing * **Anchors (Choice of Tense):** * Facts $\rightarrow$ Past * Analysis/Principle $\rightarrow$ Present * Procedural Status $\rightarrow$ Present Perfect/Present * Earlier-than-past Events $\rightarrow$ Past Perfect * **Tip:** Avoid unnecessary tense switches within a single paragraph. English is less flexible than Dutch in this regard. Choose a time anchor that aligns with the paragraph's purpose. * **Sequencing (Time Adverbials):** * Finished time (e.g., in 2022, yesterday) $\rightarrow$ Past Simple. * "Since/for" with duration up to now $\rightarrow$ Present Perfect. * Future time clauses after "when," "after," "until," "as soon as" take the present tense, not "will." * Example: "When disclosure is complete, the hearing will begin." ### Common Tense Errors * **Progressive/Continuous Aspect with Stative Verbs:** * **Why:** Dutch lacks a strict progressive, and the "-ing" form can appear "more polite," leading to overuse. * *Wrong:* "The witness is knowing the defendant." * *Right:* "The witness knows the defendant." * **Fix:** Avoid progressives with stative verbs (know, believe, own, consist, understand). Progressives are fine with activities: "We are reviewing the file." * **"Currently" + Tense Choice (State vs. Activity):** * **Why:** Dutch uses "momenteel" flexibly. * *Wrong (activity as state):* "The company is currently employing 500 staff." (Suggests a temporary campaign). * *Right (state):* "The company currently employs 500 staff." * *Wrong (state as activity):* "The licence currently is being valid." * *Right:* "The licence is currently valid." * **Fix:** Use present simple for states/ongoing validity; progressive for temporary activities. * **Present Perfect vs. Past Simple with Finished Time:** * **Why:** Dutch often uses the perfect tense with finished time (e.g., "In 2018 heeft het hof..."). * *Wrong:* "In 2022 the court has held …" * *Right:* "In 2022 the court held …" * **Fix:** Finished time (in 2022, yesterday, on 2 March 2024) $\rightarrow$ Past Simple. * **Present Perfect with Finished Time Adverbials (e.g., in 2020):** * **Why:** Calque from "heeft gedaan in 2020." * *Wrong:* "The tribunal has found in 2018 that…" * *Right:* "The tribunal found in 2018 that…" * **Fix:** Finished time $\rightarrow$ Past Simple. Use Present Perfect with up-to-now adverbs (since, recently, so far, already, yet, ever/never). * **Since / For / Ago / Over / During:** * **Why:** Translations from Dutch can be inconsistent. * *Wrong:* "She has worked here since five years." * *Right:* "She has worked here for five years / since 2020." * **Fix:** "Since" + starting point; "For" + duration; "Ago" pairs with Past Simple (e.g., "left two years ago"). * **Irregular Participles & Double Participles:** * **Why:** Dutch regularizes many past forms, but English legal verbs have traps. * *Wrong:* "The court has wrote / has plead / is fell." * *Right:* "has written; has pleaded/pled; has fallen; was filed." * **Fix:** Memorize high-frequency legal verb sets: write–wrote–written, bind–bound–bound, plead–pleaded/pled–pleaded/pled, seek–sought–sought, arise–arose–arisen, choose–chose–chosen. * **Missing Past Perfect for "Earlier than Past":** * **Why:** Dutch often relies on "toen/nadat/voor" without tense change. * *Wrong:* "The company terminated the contract before notice was served." (Ambiguous order). * *Right:* "The company terminated the contract after notice had been served." * **Fix:** If an event is earlier than another past event, use "had" + past participle (V-ed). * **Future Time Clauses (when/after/until/as soon as/once):** * **Why:** Dutch allows future morphology after these conjunctions. * *Wrong:* "After the claimant will file the appeal, the court will list a date." * *Right:* "After the claimant files the appeal, the court will list a date." * **Fix:** In the time clause, use Present Tense; use "will" in the main clause. * **Overusing "Will" Where Present is Idiomatic (Schedules & Instruments):** * **Why:** Calendars are always present tense; English legal drafting prefers present for scheduled events. * *Wrong:* "The hearing will start on Monday." * *Right:* "The hearing starts on Monday." * *Wrong:* "This Act will enter into force on 1 Jan." * *Right:* "This Act enters into force on 1 Jan." * **Fix:** If a timetable or instrument sets the future $\rightarrow$ Present Simple. * **"By + Future Point":** * **Why:** Dutch often uses simple future or present. * *Wrong:* "By 1 Oct the respondent files the skeleton." * *Right:* "By 1 Oct the respondent will have filed the skeleton." * **Fix:** Completion before a future time $\rightarrow$ "will have" + past participle (V-ed). * **Passive Tense Confusion (Worden vs. Zijn):** * **Why:** Dutch distinguishes "process" (worden + past participle) and "result" (zijn + past participle). * *Wrong (past vs. present muddle):* "Service is effected yesterday." * *Right:* "Service was effected yesterday." * *Wrong (result vs. event):* "The summons was served and still was served today." * *Better:* "The summons was served yesterday and has been served on all parties." * **Fix:** Choose tense first (past/present/perfect), then passive: * Event in past: was/were + V-ed * Present status: is/are + V-ed (rare; often "is in force") * Up-to-now result: has/have been + V-ed * **Active vs. Passive Perfect Mix-ups:** * **Why:** Dutch subjects often remain actors, but English legal prose may flip to the thing acted upon. * *Wrong:* "The claim has filed on 14 May." * *Right (active):* "The claimant filed the claim on 14 May." * *Right (passive):* "The claim has been filed on 14 May." * **Fix:** If the actor matters $\rightarrow$ Active. If the actor is generic/irrelevant $\rightarrow$ Passive with the correct tense. ### Tense by Legal Genre * **Statutes and Regulations:** * Present Simple for rules and definitions: "A person commits an offence if…" * Present Simple for future effect set by the instrument: "Section 10 comes into force on 1 July 2026." * **Contracts (without modal obligations):** * Present Simple for status and mechanics: "This agreement is governed by Belgian law." * Dates/effect: Present Simple preferred to "will" when the instrument itself effects change: "The licence terminates on 31 December." * **Judgments, Case Notes & Academic Analysis:** * Past Simple/Past Perfect for facts & procedure; keep sequencing clear. * Present Simple for holdings/principles that still apply: "The Court holds…; the case establishes…" * **Pleadings:** * Present Simple for allegations/denials: "The Defendant denies paragraph 8." * Present Perfect to link past conduct to a current claim: "The Defendant has breached clause 7." * **Witness Statements / Official Reports:** * Past Simple main narrative; Past Continuous for background; Past Perfect for earlier events. * Avoid progressive statives (know, believe, own). * **Emails & Internal Memos:** * Present Continuous for polite framing ("I am writing…"). * Present Perfect for up-to-now updates. * Future constructions for next steps. ### Exercises **1. Complete the sentences using the verb in brackets. Choose the most appropriate tense in formal, standard, present-day English.** * In 2019 the Court of Appeal \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (find) that clause 9 was void. * *Answer:* found * The disclosure list \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (exchange – deadline) on 30 Sept. * *Answer:* is to be exchanged / is due to be exchanged * After the claimant \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (file) the appeal, the court will list a date. * *Answer:* files * The Privacy Act \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (enter) into force on 1 Jan 2026. * *Answer:* enters * The parties \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (meet – arrangement) the mediator on Tuesday. * *Answer:* are meeting * By next Friday the expert \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (submit) the report. * *Answer:* will have submitted * The witness \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (know) the defendant from school. * *Answer:* knows * Proceedings \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (issue) on 14 May; service \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (effect) the next day. * *Answer:* were issued; was effected * The contract \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (terminate – instrument) on 31 December. * *Answer:* terminates * The company currently \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (employ) 500 staff. * *Answer:* employs **2. Translate the following phrases into English. Be careful when choosing the most appropriate tense.** * **In 2018 heeft de rechtbank beslist dat…** * *Translation:* In 2018 the court decided that… * **Sinds 2021 werkt zij als juridisch adviseur.** * *Translation:* She has worked as a legal advisor since 2021. * **Nadat de eiser het beroep zal indienen, zal de rechtbank…** * *Translation:* After the claimant files the appeal, the court will… * **De zitting zal starten op maandag.** * *Translation:* The hearing starts on Monday. * **De dagvaarding is gisteren betekend.** * *Translation:* The summons was served yesterday. * **De partijen hebben tot vrijdag om te betalen.** * *Translation:* The parties have until Friday to pay. * **Tegen 1 oktober heeft de verweerder zijn nota ingediend.** * *Translation:* By 1 October the respondent will have filed his brief. * **De rechtbank vernietigde de beslissing en verwees de zaak terug naar het hof van beroep.** * *Translation:* The court quashed the decision and remanded the case to the Court of Appeal. **3. Rewrite for the target genre. Use forms referring to the future.** * **Statute (effective future date):** "The amended fee schedule takes effect on 1 July." * *Rewrite:* "The amended fee schedule shall take effect on 1 July." (Or "will take effect") * **Contract mechanics (end date set by instrument):** "The Lease will end on 31 December." * *Rewrite:* "The Lease terminates on 31 December." * **Procedural diary (arranged meeting):** "The parties will meet for a CMC on Tuesday." * *Rewrite:* "The parties are meeting for a CMC on Tuesday." * **Instructional notice (formal programme):** "Witnesses must arrive by 9:30." * *Rewrite:* "Witnesses are to arrive by 9:30." **4. Micro case-notes: Write:** * **One past sentence narrating arrest & release with sequencing.** * *Example:* On 4 May, police arrested A, and A was released on bail on 6 May. * **One present perfect sentence updating the evidence with present relevance.** * *Example:* The prosecution has filed additional evidence, which is now relevant to the case. * **One future sentence stating what will have happened by the listing date (choose a date).** * *Example:* By the listing date of 1 July, the expert report will have been submitted. ### Reported Speech Reported speech (indirect speech) conveys what someone else said without quoting directly, often involving changes in pronouns, verb tenses, and expressions of time and place. #### Changes to the Tense Tenses typically shift back (backshifting), though exceptions exist for modal verbs, already past tenses, or statements that remain true. | Tense | Direct Speech | Reported Speech | | :---------------- | :------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------ | | Present Simple | "I like ice cream." | She said (that) she liked ice cream. | | Present Cont. | "I am living in London." | She said (that) she was living in London. | | Past Simple | "I bought a car." | She said (that) she had bought a car OR She said (that) she bought a car. | | Past Continuous | "I was walking along the street." | She said (that) she had been walking along the street. | | Present Perfect | "I haven't seen Julie." | She said (that) she hadn't seen Julie. | | Past Perfect* | "I had taken English lessons before." | She said (that) she had taken English lessons before. | | Will | "I'll see you later." | She said (that) she would see me later. | | Would* | "I would help, but.." | She said (that) she would help but... | | Can | "I can speak perfect English." | She said (that) she could speak perfect English. | | Could* | "I could swim when I was four." | She said (that) she could swim when she was four. | | Shall | "I shall come later." | She said (that) she would come later. | | Should* | "I should call my mother." | She said (that) she should call her mother. | | Might* | "I might be late." | She said (that) she might be late. | | Must | "I must study at the weekend." | She said (that) she must study at the weekend OR She said she had to study at the weekend. | *Tenses marked with * may not change. #### Changes to Pronouns Personal and possessive pronouns are adjusted to match the reporter's perspective. * **First-Person Pronouns:** "I," "me," "my," "mine," "we," "us," "our," "ours." * Direct: "I am tired." * Reported: She said that she was tired. ("I" changes to "she" or "he"). * **Second-Person Pronouns:** "you," "your," "yours." * Direct: "You should try this." * Reported: He told me that I should try that. ("You" changes based on context). * **Third-Person Pronouns:** "he," "him," "his," "she," "her," "they," "them," "their," "theirs." * Direct: "He is waiting for us." * Reported: She said that he was waiting for them. (Often no change, but context may require adjustments). #### Changes to Expressions of Time and Place Time and place expressions are adjusted to reflect the shift in context. * **Time:** * Today $\rightarrow$ That day * Tomorrow $\rightarrow$ The next day / The following day * Yesterday $\rightarrow$ The day before / The previous day * Now $\rightarrow$ Then / At that moment * Tonight $\rightarrow$ That night * This (morning, week, etc.) $\rightarrow$ That (morning, week, etc.) * Last night $\rightarrow$ The night before / The previous night * Last (week, month, year) $\rightarrow$ The previous (week, month, year) / The (week, month, year) before * Next (week, month, year) $\rightarrow$ The following (week, month, year) / The (week, month, year) after * Ago $\rightarrow$ Before * **Place:** * Here $\rightarrow$ There * This place $\rightarrow$ That place * These (items, places, etc.) $\rightarrow$ Those (items, places, etc.) * Come $\rightarrow$ Go #### Questions, Requests, and Orders in Reported Speech * **Questions:** The word order changes from question form to statement form, and a question word (who, what, where, etc.) or "if/whether" is used. * Direct: "What are you doing?" * Reported: She asked what I was doing. * Direct: "Do you love me?" * Reported: He asked me if I loved him. * **Requests and Orders:** Use infinitive structures ("to do," "not to do"). * Direct: "Please help me." * Reported: She asked me to help her. * Direct: "Go to bed!" * Reported: He told the child to go to bed. ### Exercises **1. Look at the direct quotes below and turn them into reported speech.** * **A. A tabloid editor: “You should have listened more closely to Twitter and Facebook.”** * *Reported Speech:* A tabloid editor said that they should have listened more closely to Twitter and Facebook. * **B. Martin Clarke: “The migrants were in the back of a van illegally and did come from somewhere via somewhere.”** * *Reported Speech:* Martin Clarke stated that the migrants had been in the back of a van illegally and had come from somewhere via somewhere. * **C. Martin Clarke: “We’ve reported people’s very legitimate fears over immigration.”** * *Reported Speech:* Martin Clarke said that they had reported people’s very legitimate fears over immigration. * **D. David Deacon: “The media has more influence in telling people what to think about than telling them what to think.”** * *Reported Speech:* David Deacon stated that the media had more influence in telling people what to think about than telling them what to think. ## Building Effective Sentences Clear, concise, and cohesive sentences are fundamental to effective academic and legal writing. ### Why Sentence Clarity Matters Unclear writing weakens arguments, frustrates readers, and can have serious legal consequences (e.g., unenforceable contracts, ambiguous laws interpreted against a client's interest). * **Consider your reader:** Professors skimming essays, judges interpreting contracts, clients needing advice. If meaning is not immediately clear, communication fails. ### Sentence Length, Structure, and Cohesion * **Balance:** English sentences can be short or complex. Variety is key, but extremes should be avoided. * *Too short:* "The trial was delayed. Evidence was missing. The witness was sick." * *Too long:* "The trial, which had already been postponed several times due to procedural delays and the unavailability of a key witness, was once again delayed when new evidence was found to be missing, meaning that the court could not proceed as scheduled." * *Balanced:* "The trial was delayed once again, this time because a key witness was unavailable and new evidence was missing." * **Tip:** Use short sentences for emphasis and longer ones to show relationships, but avoid extremes. * **Combining and Breaking Up Sentences:** * *Original (fragmented):* "The company breached the contract. The company was taken to court. The court awarded damages." * *Combined:* "The company breached the contract and was taken to court, where damages were awarded." * **Cohesion:** Sentences must connect logically. * Use connectors sparingly and appropriately to clarify relationships (e.g., "therefore," "nevertheless"). Overuse makes writing heavy. ### Conciseness: Avoiding Wordiness Concise writing communicates the same meaning in fewer words, saving the reader's time. * **Sources of Wordiness:** * **Redundant expressions:** "each and every," "null and void." * **Long phrases instead of short words:** "at this point in time" $\rightarrow$ "now"; "due to the fact that" $\rightarrow$ "because." * **Nominalisations:** Turning verbs into nouns (e.g., "to make a decision" $\rightarrow$ "decision-making"). * **Examples:** * *Wordy:* "It has been decided that all employees will be notified about the conference." * *Concise:* "All employees will be notified about the conference." * *Wordy:* "There are five people who will want to attend the conference." * *Concise:* "Five people want to attend the conference." ### Word Choice and Tone * **Formality:** Academic and legal English should be formal but modern and professional, favouring clear communication over archaic or overly complex wording. * **Legalese vs. Academic English:** * Hereinafter $\rightarrow$ From now on * Aforesaid $\rightarrow$ Mentioned above * Commence $\rightarrow$ Begin * Terminate $\rightarrow$ End * Visible to the eye $\rightarrow$ Visible * **Balanced Tone:** Formal but not old-fashioned or pompous. * *Too formal:* "Please be advised that the aforementioned documents have been dispatched under separate cover." * *Too informal:* "Here’s the stuff I sent you." * *Balanced:* "I have sent the documents you requested in a separate package." ### Correctness: Grammar and Prepositions Accurate grammar, especially correct preposition usage, is vital. Fixed combinations of verbs and prepositions (collocations) must be memorized. * **Legal Collocations:** * to accuse a person \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ arson. (of) * to be liable \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ debts. (for) * to sentence the defendant \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ punishment. (to) * to claim damages \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ mental distress. (for) * to be entitled \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ financial compensation. (to) * to bring a case \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ court. (to / before) * to be guilty \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ an offence. (of) * to fine a driver \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ speeding. (for) * to charge a suspect \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ an offence. (with) * to appeal \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ the findings of a court. (against) ### Exercises **1. Legal English Characteristics:** Identify characteristics in the definition of torture. (Requires manual identification within the text). **2. Rewrite sentences avoiding nominalizations and wordy phrases.** * **Original:** "Late delivery of the product results in cancellation of the contract." * *Rewrite:* "Late delivery of the product cancels the contract." * **Original:** "The document was sent late as a result of the sender’s illness." * *Rewrite:* "The sender’s illness caused the document to be sent late." * **Original:** "Police are concerned about the rapid increase in crime." * *Rewrite:* "Police are concerned that crime is increasing rapidly." * **Original:** "The trial was delayed for the purpose of gathering additional evidence." * *Rewrite:* "The trial was delayed to gather additional evidence." **3. Rewrite passages into clear, academic English.** * **Original:** "Hereinafter, the aforementioned defendant, having commenced actions in violation of the aforesaid contract, shall be liable for damages arising due to the fact that said actions were in contravention of the terms and conditions therein contained." * *Rewrite:* "From now on, the defendant, having acted in violation of the contract mentioned above, will be liable for damages caused by actions that contravened its terms and conditions." ## Cohesion and Coherence Linking words and relative pronouns are essential for natural and clear writing, providing cohesion and illustrating relationships between text parts. ### Sentences vs. Clauses * **Clause:** Contains a subject and a predicate (Subject + Verb + Object). * **Independent Clause:** A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence. * **Dependent (Subordinate) Clause:** Cannot stand alone meaningfully and needs additional information. ### Conjunctions * **Coordinating Conjunctions:** Connect elements of equal rank (words, phrases, clauses): *and, but, or, yet, for, nor, so*. * **Subordinating Conjunctions:** Connect clauses of unequal rank, beginning dependent clauses: *if, because, after, since, when, while, until, unless, although*. * **Correlative Conjunctions:** Pattern in pairs: *both...and, not only...but also, either...or, neither...nor, whether...or, as...as*. ### Relative Pronouns Connect relative clauses to antecedents (nouns or pronouns). * **Defining Relative Clauses:** Restrict or define the noun (e.g., "The student **who** achieves the highest score..."). * **Non-Defining Relative Clauses:** Supply additional information about a noun already identified (e.g., "Albert Einstein, **who** put forward the theory of relativity,..."). * **Usage:** * "Who" refers to people; "which" to objects/ideas. * "That" is generally used in defining clauses; avoid in non-defining clauses. * "Whom" is more formal than "who" as an object. * "Whose" is possessive. * "Which" can refer to a whole previous clause. ### Linking Words: Differences and Usage * **Position:** Some link clauses *within* a sentence (e.g., *and, but, so*); others link *between* sentences (e.g., *Furthermore, Moreover, Nevertheless*). * **Function:** Add information, contrast ideas, show cause/effect, narrate, express purpose/opinion, list examples, conclude, emphasize. * **Grammatical Difference:** Some are followed by a clause (Subject + Verb); others by a noun or "-ing" form. * *Clause:* "We went out although it was raining." * *Noun/-ing form:* "We went out in spite of the rain." * "Despite" can be used like "in spite of" in formal English. * **Common Errors:** * **Already/Also:** Do not start sentences with these in formal English (a "Dutchism"). Rephrase: "The language, too, is a big barrier." * **Hence/Thus:** Formal, indicating a deduction. * **Beside/Besides:** "Beside" means "next to"; "Besides" means "in addition to." * **To/In order to:** "In order to" is preferred for indicating purpose at the start of a sentence. * **Causal Connectives:** "So" is informal. Formal alternatives include *accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore*. * **Especially/Specially:** "Especially" = above all; "Specially" = for a particular purpose. * **Though/Although/Even though:** Followed by a clause. "Though" is more informal; "even though" is stronger. * **Contrast:** "Whereas/While" balance contrasting but not contradictory facts. "But" contrasts clauses within a sentence. "However" contrasts sentences and is more formal. * **As/Like:** "As" followed by a clause; "like" followed by a noun. * **Because/As/Since:** "Because" emphasizes explicit reason. "As/Since" are less formal and more casual. * **For/Since:** "For" focuses on duration; "since" is used with perfect tenses and a point in time. ### Exercises **1. Combine sentences using an appropriate linking word.** * **1. Men must wear a tie at this Law firm. Women must wear a dress.** * *Combined:* Men must wear a tie, while women must wear a dress. * **2. John succeeded wonderfully. The test was difficult.** * *Combined:* John succeeded wonderfully, even though the test was difficult. * **3. It’s a word I’ve often heard. I can’t find it in the dictionary.** * *Combined:* It’s a word I’ve often heard, yet I can’t find it in the dictionary. * **4. Malnutrition is a serious problem. Government should recognise its responsibility.** * *Combined:* Malnutrition is a serious problem; consequently, the government should recognise its responsibility. **2. Fill in an appropriate linking word or expression.** 1. Everybody **except** Jack is trying out for the team. 2. That is neither what I said **nor** what I meant. 3. I didn’t get the job **although** I had the right qualifications. (Or: despite having) 4. The report is expected to be critical of the industry. **Therefore**, it is likely to recommend extensive changes to production. 5. There is no doubt that lowering interest rates early prevents recession. **However**, lowering them to cure a recession that already exists doesn’t work. 6. The man was arrested **despite** claiming to have been nowhere near the scene of the crime. (Or: although he claimed) 7. As a rough rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, **whereas** civil law systems trace their history to Roman law and the Napoleonic code. 8. Margaret Thatcher has been accused of widening the gap between rich and poor. **Furthermore** (or **Moreover**), she has been blamed for ignoring environmental problems. 9. Profits were very low last year, **which led to** the subsequent cutbacks. (Or: resulting in) 10. You may face some problems **due to** the complexity of the system. (Or: because of) **3. Combine each set of sentences into one effective sentence containing only one independent clause.** * **1. This is Mr Rogers. You met him last year.** * *Combined:* This is Mr Rogers, whom you met last year. * **2. Is the offer still open? You made the offer last week.** * *Combined:* Is the offer that you made last week still open? * **3. It was a boring meeting. I didn't understand its purpose.** * *Combined:* It was a boring meeting, the purpose of which I didn't understand. (Or: ...whose purpose I didn't understand.) * **4. I would like to see the students. The students want to follow an additional course.** * *Combined:* I would like to see the students who want to follow an additional course. **4. Common Law Legal Systems vs. Civil Law Legal Systems:** Fill in the gaps with appropriate linking words or relative pronouns. Common law legal systems, **on the other hand**, place great weight on court decisions, **which** are considered "law" with the same force of law as statutes. **In contrast**, in civil law jurisdictions, judicial precedent is given less weight (**which means that** a judge **who** decides a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently, and less predictably), and scholarly literature is given more. ### Legal English Terminology This section highlights specific vocabulary and structures common in legal English. #### Legal Professions and Branches of the Law * **Legal Professions:** Roles like solicitor, barrister, advocate, attorney, prosecutor, judge. Understanding their distinct functions and jurisdictions is key. * **Branches of Law:** * **Public Law:** Constitutional, administrative, criminal, human rights, taxation. * **Private Law:** Contract, tort/delict, property, family, succession, company, employment. * **Mixed / Trans-systemic:** Evidence, procedure, EU law, Intellectual Property (IP), international law. #### Court Systems * **United Kingdom:** * **England & Wales:** Unified system based on common law. Key courts include Magistrates' Court, Crown Court, High Court, Court of Appeal, Supreme Court. * **Scotland:** Hybrid system (civil and common law). Key courts include Sheriff Courts, Sheriff Appeal Court, Court of Session, High Court of Justiciary. * **Northern Ireland:** Resembles England & Wales system. * **United States:** * **Dual Court System:** Federal courts (limited jurisdiction) and state courts (general jurisdiction). * **Federal Courts:** U.S. District Courts, U.S. Courts of Appeals, U.S. Supreme Court. * **State Courts:** Trial courts (limited/general jurisdiction), intermediate appellate courts, state supreme courts. * **Key Concepts:** Common law relies on precedent; civil law emphasizes codified legislation. #### Court Procedures and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) * **Civil Proceedings:** Involve resolving private disputes (claim form, particulars of claim, service, defence, disclosure/discovery). * **Criminal Proceedings:** Initiate with police/prosecution charges, leading to first appearances, potential bail, and trials. * **ADR:** Methods like negotiation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration offer alternatives to litigation. #### Specific Legal Terms and Concepts * **Statutes & Regulations:** Use Present Simple for rules and future effect. * **Contracts:** Present Simple for status and mechanics. * **Judgments & Analysis:** Past tenses for facts, Present Simple for current holdings. * **Pleadings:** Present Simple for allegations, Present Perfect for linking past conduct to claims. * **Witness Statements:** Past Simple/Continuous/Perfect. Avoid progressive statives. * **Emails/Memos:** Present Continuous for framing, Present Perfect for updates, Future for next steps. #### Vocabulary Lists and Exercises The document provides extensive vocabulary lists and exercises related to legal professions, court systems, procedures, and core legal concepts. Mastery of these terms and their application is crucial for legal writing and understanding. ## Common Mistakes to Avoid * **Misusing Quantifiers:** Incorrectly using "much" with countable nouns or "many" with uncountable nouns. * **Incorrect Tense Usage:** Especially the overuse of progressive tenses with stative verbs or confusion between Present Perfect and Past Simple with finished time. * **Homophone Errors:** Confusing words like "there/their/they're," "than/then," "of/off." * **Wordiness:** Employing long phrases or redundant expressions instead of concise wording. * **Lack of Cohesion:** Sentences not logically linked, leading to a fragmented text. * **Incorrect Reported Speech:** Failing to adjust tenses, pronouns, or time/place expressions correctly. * **Confusing Legal Terminology:** Misapplying terms like "assure/ensure/insure," "as/like," or using incorrect prepositions in legal collocations. * **Ignoring Genre Conventions:** Using inappropriate tenses or tones for specific legal genres (e.g., statutes, contracts, judgments). * **Overuse of Passive Voice:** While sometimes necessary in legal writing, excessive passive voice can obscure meaning. * **Ungrammatical Sentence Structure:** Errors in subject-verb agreement, clause connection, or preposition usage.

# Glossary | Term | Definition | | :------------------------ | :---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Countable nouns | Nouns that have plural forms and can be used with the indefinite article "a" or "an," indicating that they represent individual, distinct items or units. | | Uncountable nouns | Nouns that do not have plural forms and cannot be used with "a" or "an," typically referring to substances, abstract concepts, or collections that are treated as a single entity. | | Backshifting | The process of shifting verb tenses backward in time when converting direct speech into reported speech, for example, changing the present simple to the past simple. | | Cohesion | The logical connection between different parts of a text, achieved through the use of linking words, pronouns, and other grammatical devices to ensure a smooth flow of ideas. | | Conciseness | The quality of expressing a great deal of meaning in few words; avoiding wordiness and unnecessary phrasing to communicate effectively and respect the reader's time. | | Direct speech | The exact words spoken by a person, usually enclosed in quotation marks. | | Indirect speech | Also known as reported speech, this is a way of conveying what someone else has said without quoting them directly, often involving changes in pronouns, verb tenses, and expressions of time and place. | | Nominalisation | The process of converting verbs or adjectives into nouns, which can sometimes lead to wordiness or a less direct style in writing. | | Parliamentary sovereignty | The principle that the legislative body (Parliament) has supreme authority and can create or end any law, and that its laws cannot be overridden by any other government body. | | Precedent | A legal principle or rule established in a previous court case that is binding or persuasive for a court when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. | | Reported speech | See Indirect speech. | | Sentence clarity | The quality of a sentence that makes its meaning easily and immediately understandable to the reader, achieved through clear structure, precise word choice, and logical organization. | | Stative verbs | Verbs that describe a state of being, a condition, or a feeling, rather than an action, and are typically not used in continuous (progressive) tenses. Examples include "know," "believe," and "own." | | Wordiness | The use of more words than are necessary to convey meaning, often leading to unclear or tedious writing. |

# Introduction to linguistics and its branches This section introduces the fundamental concepts and diverse subfields of linguistics, exploring the key questions scholars investigate about human language. ### 1.1 What is linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language, seeking to understand its structure, function, and evolution. Linguists investigate fundamental questions such as: * How did language develop over time? (Evolutionary linguistics) * Why and how does language change? (Historical/diachronic linguistics) * How do children acquire their first language? (First language acquisition) * How is a second or foreign language learned? (Second language acquisition) * How do speakers manage multiple languages in real-world situations? (Multilingualism studies, Contact linguistics) * What are the neural and cognitive mechanisms underlying language processing and storage in the brain? (Neurolinguistics, Psycholinguistics) * How does language interact with thought processes? (Cognitive linguistics) * How is language used within and shaped by social contexts and behaviors? (Sociolinguistics) * What are the various communicative roles language plays? (Functional linguistics) * How do languages differ from one another? (Typology) * What are the most effective methods for teaching languages, particularly foreign languages? (Foreign language teaching) ### 1.2 Central concepts in linguistics Several core dichotomies and concepts are central to the study of linguistics: * **Synchronic vs. Diachronic:** * **Synchronic linguistics** examines language at a specific point in time, focusing on its state and structure at that moment. * **Diachronic linguistics** (or historical linguistics) studies language change over time. * **Descriptive vs. Prescriptive:** * **Descriptive linguistics** aims to describe how language is actually used by its speakers, without judgment. * **Prescriptive linguistics** attempts to dictate how language *should* be used, often based on perceived standards or rules. * **Langue vs. Parole:** This distinction, from Ferdinand de Saussure, differentiates between: * **Langue:** The abstract, social system of language (e.g., the rules and vocabulary of English). * **Parole:** The concrete, individual acts of speaking and writing (e.g., a specific person speaking English). * **Semiotics:** The broader study of signs and symbols and their interpretation, of which language is a primary example. Linguistics views language as a system or code of signs. > **Tip:** Understanding these foundational concepts is crucial for grasping the different approaches and perspectives within linguistics. ### 1.3 Branches of linguistics Linguistics is a multifaceted field with numerous specialized branches, each focusing on a particular aspect of language: * **Phonetics:** The study of speech sounds themselves, their physical properties, and how they are produced and perceived. * **Phonology:** The study of the sound systems of individual languages, examining how sounds are organized and function as meaningful units (phonemes). * **Morphology:** The study of the internal structure of words and how they are formed, focusing on morphemes (the smallest meaningful units). * **Syntax:** The study of the rules and principles that govern how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, and sentences, essentially the study of sentence structure. * **Semantics:** The study of meaning in language, at the level of words, phrases, and sentences. * **Pragmatics:** The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning, focusing on how speakers use language in real-world situations to achieve communicative goals. ### 1.4 The nature of human language Linguists often compare human language to animal communication systems, identifying key features that distinguish the former: * **Duality of patterning (Double articulation):** Human language has two layers of structure. Meaningless sounds (phonemes) are combined to form meaningful units (morphemes and words), which are then combined to form larger structures. > **Example:** The sounds /k/, /æ/, and /t/ are meaningless individually, but combined as /kæt/, they form the meaningful word "cat." * **Productivity/Open-endness:** Humans can create and understand an infinite number of novel utterances from a finite set of linguistic elements. * **Displacement:** Humans can communicate about things that are not present in time or space, such as past events, future possibilities, or hypothetical situations. * **Arbitrariness:** The relationship between a word's form (signifier) and its meaning (signified) is largely arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent reason why a particular sound sequence denotes a particular concept. * **Cultural transmission:** Language is learned and passed down through social interaction within a community, rather than being purely instinctual. * **Reflexivity:** Humans can use language to talk about language itself, a feature not found in most animal communication systems. * **Recursion/Embedding:** The ability to embed linguistic structures within themselves, allowing for potentially infinite sentence length and complexity. > **Example:** "I know that you believe that she said that he is here." ### 1.5 Morphology: The building blocks of words Morphology is the study of morphemes, which are the smallest units of language that carry meaning or grammatical function. #### 1.5.1 Characteristics and types of morphemes Morphemes are not all alike; they can be categorized based on several criteria: * **Autonomy:** * **Free morphemes:** Can stand alone as words (e.g., "cat," "run," "happy"). * **Bound morphemes:** Cannot stand alone and must be attached to another morpheme (e.g., prefixes like "un-," "re-"; suffixes like "-ly," "-ing," "-ed"). * **Function/Meaning:** * **Derivational morphemes:** Can change the meaning or part of speech of a base word (e.g., adding "-ness" to "happy" creates "happiness," a noun). * **Inflectional morphemes:** Indicate grammatical information such as tense, number, or case, without changing the core meaning or part of speech (e.g., adding "-s" to "cat" creates "cats," plural). English has eight inflectional suffixes: * Noun plurals: `-s` * Noun possessives: `-'s` * Verb third person singular present: `-s` * Verb present participle: `-ing` * Verb past tense: `-ed` * Verb past participle: `-en` or `-ed` * Adjective comparative: `-er` * Adjective superlative: `-est` * **Position:** * **Prefixes:** Bound morphemes that come before the base (e.g., "un-," "pre-"). * **Suffixes:** Bound morphemes that come after the base (e.g., "-ly," "-able"). * **Circumfixes:** Affixes that surround the base, appearing both before and after it (e.g., German "ge- + verb + -t" like "gesagt" - said). * **Infixes:** Affixes inserted within the base (relatively rare in English, more common in other languages). #### 1.5.2 Allomorphy **Allomorphy** refers to variations in the form of a morpheme that do not change its meaning or grammatical function. These variations are often conditioned by the phonetic environment or grammatical context. > **Example:** The plural morpheme in English has several allomorphs: > * `/s/` after voiceless consonants (e.g., "cats" /kæts/) > * `/z/` after voiced consonants and vowels (e.g., "dogs" /dɔgz/, "bees" /biːz/) > * `/ɪz/` or `/əz/` after sibilant sounds (e.g., "churches" /tʃɜːrtʃɪz/) The "Wug Test," developed by Jean Berko Gleason, is a famous experiment used to demonstrate children's knowledge of morphological rules, including their ability to apply allomorphs correctly to novel words. #### 1.5.3 Word formation processes Languages have various ways to create new words: * **Compounding:** Combining two or more free morphemes to create a new word (e.g., "blackboard," "sunflower," "bedroom"). English compounds can be written as one word, two words, or hyphenated. * **Affixation:** Adding prefixes or suffixes to a base word (e.g., "un-happy," "quick-ly," "teach-er"). * **Conversion (Zero derivation):** Changing the part of speech of a word without adding any affix (e.g., "google" [noun] to "to google" [verb]). * **Shortening (Clipping, Acronyms, Initialisms):** Creating shorter forms of existing words (e.g., "exam" from "examination," "NASA" from "National Aeronautics and Space Administration," "FBI" from "Federal Bureau of Investigation"). --- # Central concepts and theories in linguistics This section explores fundamental distinctions and theoretical constructs within linguistics, focusing on approaches to language study and the nature of language itself. ### 2.1 Synchronic vs. diachronic approaches Linguistics can be studied from two primary temporal perspectives: * **Synchronic linguistics:** This approach examines a language at a specific point in time, without regard to its historical development. It focuses on the structure and relationships of elements within the language as it exists *now*. This is akin to taking a snapshot of the language. * **Diachronic linguistics:** This approach, also known as historical linguistics, studies language change over time. It investigates how languages evolve, trace their origins, and map out their development through different historical periods. This is like studying a film of the language's evolution. ### 2.2 Descriptive vs. prescriptive approaches These two approaches define the role of the linguist in analyzing language: * **Descriptive linguistics:** This approach aims to describe how language is actually used by its speakers, without making judgments about correctness. Linguists using this approach observe and record linguistic phenomena as they occur naturally. The goal is to understand the rules and patterns of a language as it is, not as it "should" be. * **Prescriptive linguistics:** This approach focuses on establishing rules for how language *should* be used. It often involves setting standards for "correct" grammar and usage, often based on what is perceived as prestigious or historically established. Prescriptivism is more concerned with how language ought to be than how it is. > **Tip:** Descriptive linguistics is the scientific standard in modern linguistics, focusing on objective analysis of language use. Prescriptive approaches are more common in language teaching or style guides. ### 2.3 Langue and parole This distinction, central to the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, differentiates between the abstract system of language and its individual use: * **Langue:** This refers to the abstract, social, and shared system of a language. It encompasses the rules, vocabulary, and grammar that are common to all speakers of a particular language community. Langue is a collective phenomenon, existing in the minds of speakers as a shared code. * **Parole:** This refers to the concrete, individual act of speaking or writing. It is the actual utterance or performance of language by an individual speaker at a particular time and place. Parole is individual and variable, reflecting personal choices and circumstances. > **Example:** In English, the word "cat" is part of *langue*. When someone actually says "The cat sat on the mat," that specific utterance is an instance of *parole*. ### 2.4 Language as a system of signs (Semiotics) Linguistics views language as a fundamental system of signs. Semiotics is the broader study of signs and symbols and their interpretation. * **Sign:** A sign is a unit that comprises two inseparable parts: * **Signifier:** The form of the sign (e.g., the sound of the word "dog" or the written letters d-o-g). * **Signified:** The concept or meaning that the signifier refers to (e.g., the mental image or idea of a canine animal). * **Arbitrariness of the sign:** The relationship between the signifier and the signified is generally arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent, natural connection between them. For example, the sound sequence /kæt/ has no inherent connection to the furry, four-legged creature we call a cat; different languages use different signifiers for the same signified concept. > **Tip:** While most linguistic signs are arbitrary, some exceptions exist, such as onomatopoeia (e.g., "buzz," "meow"), where the signifier imitates the sound it represents. ### 2.5 Animal communication vs. human language Human language possesses several unique features that distinguish it from animal communication systems: * **Duality of patterning (Double articulation):** Human language has two layers of structure. At the lower level, meaningless sounds (phonemes) are combined to form meaningful units (morphemes and words). At the higher level, these meaningful units are combined according to grammatical rules to form sentences. Animal communication systems typically operate on a single level, where signals are not decomposable into smaller, meaningless components that can be recombined. > **Example:** The sounds /k/ and /æt/ are meaningless in isolation, but when combined, they form the meaningful word "cat." In contrast, a dog's bark is a single, indivisible signal. * **Productivity (Open-endedness):** Humans can create and understand an infinite number of novel utterances from a finite set of linguistic elements and rules. New sentences can be formed and understood that have never been spoken or heard before. Animal communication systems are typically closed, with a fixed repertoire of signals. * **Displacement:** Humans can talk about things that are not present in the immediate time or space – the past, the future, abstract concepts, hypothetical situations, or imaginary beings. Animal communication is largely tied to the "here and now." * **Cultural transmission:** While animals may have some innate predispositions for communication, human language is largely learned and passed down from one generation to the next through social interaction and cultural transmission. Animal communication is often largely instinctive. * **Reflexivity:** Humans can use language to talk about language itself. This allows for self-correction, meta-linguistic discussion, and the development of grammatical theories. Animals cannot typically reflect on their own communication systems. * **Arbitrariness:** As discussed earlier, the symbolic relationship between form and meaning in human language is largely arbitrary. Many animal signals have a more direct, indexical or iconic relationship to their referent. * **Recursion (Embedding):** Human language allows for the embedding of clauses within other clauses indefinitely, creating complex sentence structures. > **Example:** "I know that you think that she said that..." This ability to nest structures is a hallmark of human linguistic capacity. --- # Morphology: the study of word structure Morphology is the study of the creation and structure of words and the smallest units of language carrying meaning, known as morphemes. ### 3.1 Morphemes: the building blocks of meaning A morpheme is defined as the smallest unit of language that carries meaning and has a form. It is essentially a sign, comprising both meaning and form. #### 3.1.1 Characteristics of morphemes Morphemes exhibit several key characteristics: * **Meaningful:** Each morpheme conveys a specific meaning. * **Form:** Morphemes have a distinct phonetic or graphic form. * **Combinatorial:** Morphemes can combine to form words. * **Potential for Shape Change:** Morphemes may alter their form when they combine with others. #### 3.1.2 Types of morphemes Morphemes can be classified according to three main criteria: autonomy, function/meaning, and position. ##### 3.1.2.1 Autonomy: free vs. bound morphemes * **Free morphemes:** These can stand alone as independent words. * **Example:** *cat*, *man*, *nature* * **Bound morphemes:** These cannot stand alone and must be attached to another morpheme. They are often referred to as affixes. * **Example:** *un-* (in *unhappy*), *-ly* (in *quickly*), *-al* (in *natural*) ##### 3.1.2.2 Function/meaning: inflectional vs. derivational morphemes Bound morphemes (affixes) can be further categorized by their function: * **Inflectional morphemes:** These express grammatical categories such as tense, number, or case. They do not change the core meaning or grammatical class of the word. * **Example:** The *-s* in *cats* indicates plurality, and the *-ed* in *walked* indicates past tense. * **Derivational morphemes:** These are added to a base to create new words, often changing the meaning or grammatical class of the base. * **Example:** The suffix *-al* in *natural* derives a new word from the base *nature*. The prefix *un-* in *unhappy* changes the meaning of *happy*. ##### 3.1.2.3 Position and special cases * **Affixes:** These are bound morphemes attached to a base. They can be prefixes (before the base), suffixes (after the base), circumfixes (before and after the base), or infixes (inserted within the base). * **Prefixes:** *un-*, *re-* * **Suffixes:** *-ly*, *-ing*, *-ed* * **Circumfix:** The German prefix *ge-* and suffix *-en* in *gebunden* (bound). * **Infix:** Less common in English, but an example can be seen in phrases like *sisters-in-law* where *-in-* is inserted. #### 3.1.3 Allomorphy Allomorphy refers to the phenomenon where a single morpheme can have different phonetic or graphic forms (allomorphs) depending on the surrounding phonemes or grammatical context. > **Tip:** Understanding allomorphy is crucial for accurately identifying morphemes, especially in cases where spelling might not directly reflect the underlying morphemic structure. * **Example:** The plural morpheme in English has several allomorphs: * *-s* after voiceless consonants (e.g., *cats* /kæts/) * *-z* after voiced consonants and vowels (e.g., *dogs* /dɒɡz/, *cats* /kæts/) * *-ɪz* after sibilant sounds (e.g., *churches* /tʃɜːrtʃɪz/) #### 3.1.4 The Wug Test The Wug Test, developed by Jean Berko Gleason, is an experiment designed to assess children's understanding of morphological rules. Children are presented with novel words (like "wug") and asked to apply grammatical rules, such as forming the plural. Their ability to correctly apply these rules demonstrates an unconscious mastery of morphology. ### 3.2 Word formation processes Languages employ various processes to create new words. Morphology studies these word formation processes. #### 3.2.1 Compounding Compounding involves combining two or more free morphemes to create a new word. * **Example:** *blackboard*, *sunflower*, *smartphone*. #### 3.2.2 Affixation Affixation involves adding derivational or inflectional morphemes (affixes) to a base word to create a new word or a grammatical variant. * **Example:** *unbreakable* (prefix *un-* + base *break* + suffix *-able*), *happily* (base *happy* + suffix *-ly*). #### 3.2.3 Conversion Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is a process where a word is changed from one grammatical category to another without any overt morphological marking (no added affix). * **Example:** The noun *google* can be used as a verb: "to google something." The verb *run* can become a noun: "I went for a run." #### 3.2.4 Shortening Shortening involves reducing words or phrases to a shorter form. This can include: * **Clipping:** Removing a part of a word. * **Example:** *app* from *application*, *prof* from *professor*. * **Acronyms:** Forming a word from the initial letters of a phrase. * **Example:** *NASA* (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), *SCUBA* (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus). * **Initialisms:** Pronouncing the initial letters of a phrase individually. * **Example:** *FBI* (Federal Bureau of Investigation), *USA* (United States of America). --- # Word formation processes This section explores the various mechanisms by which new words are created in English. ### 4.1 Overview of word formation Word formation processes are crucial for the continuous evolution and expansion of a language's lexicon. English utilizes several distinct methods to generate new vocabulary, allowing it to adapt to new concepts, technologies, and social changes. The primary processes discussed include compounding, affixation, conversion, and shortening. ### 4.2 Compounding Compounding involves the combination of two or more existing words to create a new word with a distinct meaning. These new words, known as compounds, can be written as a single word, hyphenated, or as separate words, although the semantic unit is unified. > **Tip:** Pay attention to how compounds are written (as one word, hyphenated, or two words), as this can sometimes indicate their grammatical function or historical development, though semantic unity is the key characteristic. ### 4.3 Affixation Affixation is the process of adding morphemes, called affixes, to a base word to create a new word or modify its grammatical function. Affixes are categorized into prefixes (added to the beginning of a base) and suffixes (added to the end of a base). Affixes can be either derivational or inflectional. * **Derivational affixes:** These affixes alter the meaning or part of speech of the base word, creating a new lexeme. For example, adding "-ness" to "happy" (an adjective) creates "happiness" (a noun). * **Inflectional affixes:** These affixes modify a word to express grammatical categories such as tense, number, or case, but do not change the core meaning or part of speech of the base word. For example, adding "-s" to "cat" creates "cats" (plural noun). ### 4.4 Conversion Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is a process where a word changes its class or part of speech without undergoing any change in form. A word is "converted" from one category to another. > **Example:** The word "google" can be used as a noun ("I searched on google") or as a verb ("I will google that information"). No affixes are added; the form remains the same. ### 4.5 Shortening Shortening involves creating new words by reducing existing words or phrases. This category includes several sub-processes: * **Clipping:** This process removes one or more syllables from a word. Examples include "ad" for advertisement, "lab" for laboratory, and "prof" for professor. * **Abbreviation:** This involves using shortened forms of longer words or phrases. Acronyms, which are formed from the initial letters of a phrase and pronounced as a word (e.g., NASA, NATO), and initialisms, where the initial letters are pronounced individually (e.g., FBI, BBC), fall under this broader category. > **Tip:** While shortening is a common way to create informal or concise terms, be aware of the specific type of shortening (clipping, acronym, initialism) being used, as this can affect its formality and usage. --- # Features of human language Human language possesses several distinct features that differentiate it from animal communication systems. ### 5.1 Key distinguishing features Human language exhibits a set of unique characteristics that allow for complex communication. These features are crucial for understanding the structure and capabilities of human language. #### 5.1.1 Reflexivity This feature allows language users to refer to language itself. Humans can talk about language, discuss its rules, and even use it to make statements about the act of communication. An animal cannot, for example, tell another animal not to bark so loudly using a commentary on their barking behavior. #### 5.1.2 Displacement Displacement refers to the ability to communicate about things that are not present in the immediate environment, such as events in the past or future, or abstract or hypothetical concepts. This includes discussing past experiences, planning for the future, or talking about imaginary beings like unicorns or Santa Claus. > **Tip:** Displacement is a fundamental aspect that enables storytelling, planning, and abstract thought through language. #### 5.1.3 Arbitrariness In human language, there is generally no inherent or natural connection between the signifier (the word or sound) and the signified (the concept or object it represents). For example, the word "dog" does not resemble a dog in any way; its meaning is assigned by convention. This arbitrariness allows for a vast number of words to be created and understood within a language community. #### 5.1.4 Productivity (or Open-endedness) Human language is characterized by its productivity, meaning that speakers can create and understand an infinite number of new sentences and phrases from a finite set of words and grammatical rules. New utterances can be generated, and novel combinations of existing linguistic elements are possible, allowing for endless creative expression. > **Example:** The sentence "I think that you know that I am hungry" is a simple example of embedding, which contributes to language's productivity. This can be extended infinitely: "I think that you know that I am hungry, and I think that you know that I know that I am hungry, and so on." #### 5.1.5 Cultural transmission Unlike many animal communication systems that are largely innate or genetically determined, human language is learned and passed down from one generation to another through cultural transmission. Children acquire language by being exposed to it within their social environment, rather than being born with a complete linguistic system. > **Tip:** This contrasts with animal communication, which is often instinctual and cannot be easily modified or expanded upon by learned behavior. #### 5.1.6 Duality of patterning (or Double articulation) Human language exhibits duality, meaning it is structured at two levels: 1. **Meaningless sounds:** Individual sounds (phonemes) are meaningless in themselves. For instance, the sounds /f/, /o/, and /u/ have no inherent meaning. 2. **Meaningful units:** These meaningless sounds can be combined in specific ways to form meaningful units, such as words (e.g., /f+o+u/ = "fou", which can combine with other morphemes to form words like "foul"). This allows for a highly efficient system where a limited set of sounds can generate a vast array of meaningful expressions. Animal communication systems, like a dog's bark, typically do not have this dual structure; the entire sound unit conveys a meaning and cannot be rearranged into new meaningful combinations. #### 5.1.7 Recursion (or Embedding) Recursion is the ability to embed clauses or phrases within other clauses or phrases of the same type, leading to potentially infinite sentence structures. This allows for the expression of complex relationships and ideas. > **Example:** The sentence "You are a fool" can be embedded within another statement: "I think that you are a fool." This can be further embedded: "I think that I know that you are a fool," demonstrating the recursive nature of language. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Phonetics | The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds, their production, and their physical properties. | | Phonology | The study of the sound systems of individual languages, focusing on how sounds are organized and used to distinguish meaning (phonemes). | | Morphology | The study of the internal structure of words and the processes of word formation, including the analysis of morphemes. | | Syntax | The study of the rules governing the combination of words into phrases and sentences, and the structure of grammatical utterances. | | Semantics | The branch of linguistics that deals with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. | | Pragmatics | The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in language, including the use of language in social situations. | | Evolutionary linguistics | The subfield of linguistics that investigates the origins and development of language in the human species. | | Historical linguistics (diachronic linguistics) | The study of language change over time, examining how languages evolve and diverge. | | First Language Acquisition (L1 Acquisition) | The process by which children learn their native language. | | Second Language Acquisition (L2 Acquisition) | The process by which individuals learn a language other than their native tongue. | | Neurolinguistics | The study of how language is processed and stored in the brain, and the neural mechanisms underlying language use. | | Psycholinguistics | The study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend, and produce language. | | Cognitive linguistics | A theoretical framework in linguistics that views language as an integral part of cognition and emphasizes the relationship between language, thought, and experience. | | Sociolinguistics | The study of language in relation to society, examining how social factors such as class, ethnicity, and gender influence language use and variation. | | Functional linguistics | An approach to linguistics that emphasizes the communicative functions of language and how these functions shape linguistic structures. | | Typology | The study of the classification of languages based on their structural properties, aiming to identify universal patterns and variations. | | Synchronic | A perspective in linguistics that analyzes a language at a specific point in time, without considering its historical development. | | Diachronic | A perspective in linguistics that analyzes language change and development over time. | | Descriptive linguistics | The study of language as it is actually used by its speakers, aiming to describe linguistic phenomena without making judgments about correctness. | | Prescriptive linguistics | An approach to language that seeks to establish rules for correct usage, often based on perceived standards or historical precedents. | | Langue | The abstract system of language shared by a community, including its rules and structures, as theorized by Ferdinand de Saussure. | | Parole | The actual, concrete act of speaking or writing by an individual speaker, representing the realization of langue. | | Semiotics | The study of signs and symbols and their interpretation, including how meaning is created and communicated. | | Morpheme | The smallest meaningful unit of language that cannot be further divided. | | Monomorphemic word | A word that consists of a single morpheme (e.g., "cat"). | | Polymorphemic word | A word that consists of two or more morphemes (e.g., "cats" consists of "cat" + "-s"). | | Free morpheme | A morpheme that can stand alone as a word (e.g., "cat," "run"). | | Bound morpheme | A morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word and must be attached to another morpheme (e.g., prefixes like "un-", suffixes like "-ly"). | | Derivational morpheme | A bound morpheme that, when added to a base, creates a new word with a new meaning or word class (e.g., "-ness" in "happiness"). | | Inflectional morpheme | A bound morpheme that expresses grammatical information such as tense, number, or case, without changing the core meaning or word class of the base (e.g., "-s" in "cats" for plural). | | Circumfix | An affix that surrounds a base, consisting of a prefix and a suffix that work together (e.g., the German "ge-" and "-t" in "gesagt"). | | Infix | An affix that is inserted within the base of a word (e.g., the insertion of "-s-" in "passer" to form "passers" in some languages, or the colloquial "abso-bloody-lutely"). | | Allomorphy | The phenomenon where a single morpheme has different phonetic forms (allomorphs) depending on the phonological or morphological context. | | Compounding | A word formation process where two or more independent words are joined together to form a new word (e.g., "blackboard"). | | Affixation | A word formation process involving the addition of prefixes, suffixes, or infixes to a base word. | | Conversion | A word formation process where a word is changed from one grammatical class to another without any change in form (e.g., "to google" from the noun "Google"). | | Shortening | A word formation process that creates a new word by shortening an existing one, such as clipping (e.g., "prof" from "professor") or acronyms (e.g., "NASA"). | | Reflexivity | A feature of human language allowing it to be used to talk about language itself. | | Displacement | A feature of human language enabling communication about things that are not present in the immediate time or space. | | Arbitrariness | The lack of a direct, inherent connection between the form of a word (signifier) and its meaning (signified) in human language. | | Productivity (open-endedness) | The ability of human language to create an infinite number of novel utterances from a finite set of elements and rules. | | Cultural transmission | The process by which language is learned and passed on from one generation to the next through social interaction and teaching. | | Duality (double articulation) | The property of human language that allows meaningful utterances to be constructed from meaningless units (phonemes) and meaningful words (morphemes). | | Recursion (embedding) | The ability to embed linguistic structures within similar structures, allowing for the creation of infinitely complex sentences. |

# Greetings and introductions in Spanish This section focuses on fundamental Spanish greetings, introductions, and essential phrases for classroom interaction, including how to ask and state one's name [1](#page=1). ### 1.1 Basic greetings Spanish offers a variety of greetings suitable for different times of the day and levels of formality [1](#page=1). * **General greetings:** * `hola` - hello [1](#page=1). * `¿qué tal?` - how are you [1](#page=1)? * `¿cómo estás?` - how are you? (informal) [1](#page=1). * **Time-specific greetings:** * `buenos días` - good morning [1](#page=1). * `buenas tardes` - good afternoon [1](#page=1). * `buenas noches` - goodnight [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Introductions Introducing oneself and inquiring about another person's name are core conversational skills [1](#page=1). * **Stating your name:** * `me llamo [your name]` - my name is [your name [1](#page=1). * **Example:** `me llamo Anderson` - my name is Anderson [1](#page=1). * **Asking for someone's name:** * `¿cómo te llamas?` - what's your name? (informal) [1](#page=1). * `¿y tú?` - and you? (informal, used to reciprocate the question) [1](#page=1). ### 1.3 Classroom phrases These phrases are useful for participating in class and managing communication [1](#page=1). * **Asking for clarification or help:** * `¿cómo se dice...?` - how do you say... [1](#page=1)? * `¿qué significa...?` - what does... mean [1](#page=1)? * `¿cómo se pronuncia...?` - how do you pronounce... [1](#page=1)? * `¿cómo se escribe...?` - how do you spell... [1](#page=1)? * `más despacio, por favor` - slower, please [1](#page=1). * `repetir (i), por favor` - repeat, please [1](#page=1). * **Responding to instructions:** * `vale` - OK [1](#page=1). * **Expressing limitations:** * `lo siento` - I'm sorry [1](#page=1). * `no hablo japonés` - I don’t speak Japanese [1](#page=1). * **Polite requests:** * `gracias` - thank you [1](#page=1). * `por favor` - please [1](#page=1). ### 1.4 Farewells When leaving a conversation or class, specific farewells are used [1](#page=1). * `adiós` - goodbye [1](#page=1). * `hasta luego` - see you later [1](#page=1). * `hasta pronto` - see you soon [1](#page=1). * `chau` - bye [1](#page=1). --- # Spanish pronunciation and spelling This section introduces fundamental aspects of Spanish pronunciation and spelling, along with practical phrases for inquiring about these elements, focusing on the content provided [1](#page=1). ### 1.1 Basic vocabulary and phrases The document provides vocabulary related to greetings, introductions, and classroom objects, alongside phrases useful for language learning [1](#page=1). #### 1.1.1 Greetings and introductions Key phrases for initiating conversations include: * `hola` (hello) [1](#page=1). * `me llamo` (my name is) [1](#page=1). * `¿cómo te llamas?` (what’s your name?) [1](#page=1). * `y tú?` (and you?) [1](#page=1). * `¿cómo estás?` (how are you?) [1](#page=1). * `¿qué tal?` (how are you?) [1](#page=1). Time-specific greetings are also listed: * `buenos días` (good morning) [1](#page=1). * `buenas tardes` (good afternoon) [1](#page=1). * `buenas noches` (goodnight) [1](#page=1). Farewells include: * `hasta pronto` (see you soon) [1](#page=1). * `hasta luego` (see you later) [1](#page=1). * `chau` (bye) [1](#page=1). * `adiós` (goodbye) [1](#page=1). #### 1.1.2 Classroom objects A list of common classroom items is provided: * `la silla` (chair) [1](#page=1). * `el proyector` (projector) [1](#page=1). * `la papelera` (bin) [1](#page=1). * `la tableta` (tablet) [1](#page=1). * `el estuche` (pencil case) [1](#page=1). * `la mesa` (table) [1](#page=1). * `el libro` (book) [1](#page=1). * `el bolígrafo` (pen) [1](#page=1). * `el ordenador` (computer) [1](#page=1). * `el cuaderno` (exercise book) [1](#page=1). * `la pizarra` (blackboard) [1](#page=1). * `la hoja de papel` (sheet of paper) [1](#page=1). * `la mochila` (backpack) [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Inquiring about spelling and pronunciation The document introduces essential phrases for learners to ask about how words are written and pronounced in Spanish [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.1 Asking how to spell a word The phrase to inquire about spelling is: * `¿cómo se escribe...?` (how do you spell...?) [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.2 Asking how to say a word To ask how to say something in Spanish: * `¿cómo se dice...?` (how do you say...?) [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.3 Asking for the meaning of a word To ask for the definition of a word: * `¿qué signifi ca...?` (what does... mean?) [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.4 Asking about pronunciation To inquire about pronunciation: * `¿cómo se pronuncia...?` (how do you pronounce...?) [1](#page=1). > **Tip:** Mastering these phrases is crucial for effective language acquisition, allowing you to clarify any uncertainties about vocabulary. #### 1.2.5 Additional useful phrases for learning The document also includes phrases for requesting slower speech or repetition: * `más despacio` (slower) [1](#page=1). * `repetir (i)` (to repeat) [1](#page=1). * `lo siento` (I’m sorry) [1](#page=1). * `gracias` (thank you) [1](#page=1). ### 1.3 Place names for practice Several place names are listed, likely for practicing pronunciation and spelling of Spanish words [1](#page=1). * Buenos Aires [1](#page=1). * Cuba [1](#page=1). * Honduras [1](#page=1). * Kenia [1](#page=1). * España [1](#page=1). * Quito [1](#page=1). * Uruguay [1](#page=1). * Venezuela [1](#page=1). * Yalta [1](#page=1). * Zaragoza [1](#page=1). > **Example:** When encountering a new word, such as "España," a student could ask, `¿cómo se pronuncia España?` to practice its pronunciation and `¿cómo se escribe España?` to practice its spelling [1](#page=1). --- # Classroom vocabulary and objects This section introduces essential Spanish vocabulary for describing classroom objects and items, along with useful phrases for seeking clarification on word meanings and pronunciation. ### 3.1 Classroom objects This subsection provides a list of common objects found in a classroom, along with their Spanish equivalents. * la silla - chair [1](#page=1). * el proyector - projector [1](#page=1). * la papelera - bin [1](#page=1). * la tableta - tablet [1](#page=1). * el estuche - pencil case [1](#page=1). * la mesa - table [1](#page=1). * el libro - book [1](#page=1). * el bolígrafo - pen [1](#page=1). * el ordenador - computer [1](#page=1). * el cuaderno - exercise book [1](#page=1). * la pizarra - blackboard [1](#page=1). * la hoja de papel - sheet of paper [1](#page=1). * la mochila - backpack [1](#page=1). * la ventana - window [1](#page=1). ### 3.2 Asking about word meanings and pronunciation This subsection details key phrases used to inquire about the meaning or spelling of Spanish words, as well as how to ask for repetition or slower speech. * ¿cómo se dice...? - how do you say... [1](#page=1)? * ¿qué significa...? - what does... mean [1](#page=1)? * ¿cómo se pronuncia...? - how do you pronounce... [1](#page=1)? * ¿cómo se escribe...? - how do you spell... [1](#page=1)? * **Tip:** These phrases are crucial for active participation and understanding in a Spanish-speaking classroom environment. ### 3.3 Useful classroom phrases This subsection includes additional helpful phrases for classroom interactions. * puedes hablar más alto, por favor - can you speak louder, please [1](#page=1). * puedes hablar más despacio, por favor - can you speak slower, please [1](#page=1). * ¿puedes repetir, por favor? - can you repeat, please [1](#page=1)? * lo siento, no hablo japonés - I'm sorry, I don't speak Japanese [1](#page=1). * gracias - thank you [1](#page=1). --- # Common Spanish phrases and expressions This section covers essential Spanish vocabulary and phrases for classroom interaction and basic communication, including greetings, farewells, and requests for clarification [1](#page=1). ### 4.1 Greetings and farewells Spanish offers various ways to greet people and say goodbye, depending on the time of day and formality. #### 4.1.1 Greetings * **Hola** means "hello" [1](#page=1). * **Buenos días** is used for "good morning" [1](#page=1). * **Buenas tardes** is used for "good afternoon" [1](#page=1). * **Buenas noches** is used for "goodnight" [1](#page=1). * **¿Cómo estás?** translates to "how are you?" [1](#page=1). * **¿Qué tal?** is another common way to ask "how are you?" [1](#page=1). #### 4.1.2 Introductions * **Me llamo [name]** means "my name is [name]" [1](#page=1). * **¿Cómo te llamas?** means "what's your name?" [1](#page=1). * **Y tú?** means "and you?" when asking a male, or **Y tú?** for a female [1](#page=1). #### 4.1.3 Farewells * **Adiós** means "goodbye" [1](#page=1). * **Hasta luego** means "see you later" [1](#page=1). * **Hasta pronto** means "see you soon" [1](#page=1). * **Chau** is an informal "bye" [1](#page=1). ### 4.2 Classroom interaction phrases These phrases are crucial for effective communication and participation in a Spanish learning environment. #### 4.2.1 Requests for clarification and assistance * **¿Cómo se dice...?** means "how do you say...?" [1](#page=1). * **¿Qué significa...?** means "what does... mean?" [1](#page=1). * **¿Cómo se pronuncia...?** means "how do you pronounce...?" [1](#page=1). * **¿Cómo se escribe...?** means "how do you spell...?" [1](#page=1). * **Puedes hablar más alto, por favor** means "can you speak louder, please" [1](#page=1). * **Puedes hablar más despacio, por favor** means "can you speak slower, please" [1](#page=1). * **¿Puedes repetir, por favor?** means "can you repeat, please?" [1](#page=1). #### 4.2.2 Expressions of apology and gratitude * **Lo siento** means "I'm sorry" [1](#page=1). * **Gracias** means "thank you" [1](#page=1). #### 4.2.3 Other useful classroom phrases * **Vale** means "OK" [1](#page=1). * **Sí** can mean "yes" or "if" depending on context [1](#page=1). * **Yo** means "I" [1](#page=1). * **No hablo japonés** means "I don't speak Japanese" [1](#page=1). ### 4.3 Vocabulary for classroom objects Familiarity with classroom object names enhances understanding and participation. * **la silla** - chair [1](#page=1). * **el proyector** - projector [1](#page=1). * **la papelera** - bin [1](#page=1). * **la tableta** - tablet [1](#page=1). * **el estuche** - pencil case [1](#page=1). * **la mesa** - table [1](#page=1). * **el libro** - book [1](#page=1). * **el bolígrafo** - pen [1](#page=1). * **el ordenador** - computer [1](#page=1). * **el cuaderno** - exercise book [1](#page=1). * **la pizarra** - blackboard [1](#page=1). * **la hoja de papel** - sheet of paper [1](#page=1). * **la mochila** - backpack [1](#page=1). ### 4.4 Miscellaneous common words This category includes a variety of useful terms for general conversation. * **hola** - hello [1](#page=1). * **me llamo** - my name is [1](#page=1). * **y** - and [1](#page=1). * **tú** - you (informal) [1](#page=1). * **el español** - Spanish (language) [1](#page=1). * **otro/a** - other [1](#page=1). * **la lengua** - language [1](#page=1). * **la ventana** - window [1](#page=1). * **la tarde** - afternoon [1](#page=1). * **que** - that [1](#page=1). * **este/a** - this/that [1](#page=1). * **en** - in/on [1](#page=1). * **esto** - this [1](#page=1). * **la página** - page [1](#page=1). * **la actividad** - activity [1](#page=1). * **la playa** - beach [1](#page=1). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Hola | An informal greeting in Spanish, equivalent to "hello" in English, used for initiating a conversation. | | Me llamo | A Spanish phrase used to introduce oneself, meaning "my name is" or "I am called." | | ¿Cómo te llamas? | A Spanish question used to ask someone their name, translating to "What is your name?" in English. | | Hablar | The Spanish verb meaning "to talk" or "to speak," referring to the act of vocal communication. | | La lengua | The Spanish word for "language," referring to a system of communication used by a particular community or country. | | El saludo | The Spanish term for "greeting," referring to an expression of welcome or recognition given to someone. | | ¿Cómo estás? | A common Spanish phrase used to ask someone about their well-being, translating to "How are you?" | | Buenas tardes | A Spanish greeting used in the afternoon, meaning "good afternoon." | | Buenos días | A Spanish greeting used in the morning, meaning "good morning." | | Buenas noches | A Spanish greeting used in the evening or before sleeping, meaning "goodnight." | | ¿Qué tal? | A very common and informal Spanish phrase used to ask "How are you?" or "What's up?". | | La despedida | The Spanish term for "farewell," referring to an act of parting or saying goodbye. | | Hasta pronto | A Spanish phrase meaning "see you soon," used as a casual farewell. | | Chau | An informal Spanish word for "bye," borrowed from Italian. | | Hasta luego | A Spanish phrase meaning "see you later," used as a common farewell. | | Adiós | The Spanish word for "goodbye," a more formal farewell than "chau" or "hasta luego." | | ¿Cómo se escribe? | A Spanish phrase used to ask "How do you spell...?", inquiring about the correct sequence of letters in a word. | | La silla | The Spanish word for "chair," a piece of furniture designed for one person to sit on. | | El proyector | The Spanish term for "projector," an optical device that projects an image onto a surface. | | La papelera | The Spanish word for "wastebasket" or "bin," a container for discarded items. | | La tableta | The Spanish term for "tablet," a portable personal computer. | | El estuche | The Spanish word for "pencil case," a container used to hold pens, pencils, and other stationery. | | La mesa | The Spanish word for "table," a piece of furniture with a flat top and legs. | | El libro | The Spanish word for "book," a written or printed work consisting of pages bound together. | | El bolígrafo | The Spanish term for "pen," a writing instrument that applies ink to paper. | | El ordenador | The Spanish term for "computer," an electronic device for storing and processing data. | | El cuaderno | The Spanish word for "notebook" or "exercise book," used for writing notes or exercises. | | La pizarra | The Spanish word for "blackboard" or "whiteboard," a surface for writing or drawing. | | La hoja de papel | The Spanish phrase for "sheet of paper," a thin flat material used for writing or printing. | | La mochila | The Spanish word for "backpack" or "rucksack," a bag carried on the back. | | ¿Cómo se dice...? | A Spanish phrase used to ask "How do you say...?", inquiring about the correct wording in Spanish. | | ¿Qué significa...? | A Spanish phrase used to ask "What does... mean?", inquiring about the meaning of a word or phrase. | | ¿Cómo se pronuncia...? | A Spanish phrase used to ask "How do you pronounce...?", inquiring about the correct pronunciation of a word. | | Vale | A Spanish interjection meaning "OK," "all right," or "fine," commonly used to express agreement. | | Puedes | The Spanish verb "puedes" means "you can" (informal singular form of poder). | | Más alto | The Spanish phrase meaning "louder," referring to increased volume. | | Por favor | The Spanish phrase for "please," used to make a polite request. | | Este/a | Spanish demonstrative adjectives meaning "this" or "that," used to point out something nearby or further away. | | La tarde | The Spanish word for "afternoon," the period of time between noon and evening. | | Estaba pensando | The Spanish phrase meaning "I was thinking," indicating a past continuous thought process. | | Que | A versatile Spanish conjunction that can mean "that," "which," or "who," used to connect clauses. | | Podríamos | The Spanish verb "podríamos" means "we could" (conditional form of poder). | | Ir a | The Spanish phrase "ir a" means "to go to," indicating movement towards a destination. | | El/la | Spanish definite articles meaning "the" (masculine and feminine singular forms). | | La playa | The Spanish word for "beach," a sandy or pebbly shore by the sea or a lake. | | Más despacio | The Spanish phrase meaning "slower," referring to a reduced pace or speed. | | Repetir | The Spanish verb meaning "to repeat," to say or do something again. | | En | A Spanish preposition that can mean "in," "on," or "at," indicating location or time. | | Lo siento | The Spanish phrase meaning "I'm sorry," used to express regret or apology. | | No hablo japonés | The Spanish phrase meaning "I don't speak Japanese." | | Gracias | The Spanish word for "thank you," used to express gratitude. | | Esto | The Spanish pronoun meaning "this" (neuter singular), referring to an unspecified thing or idea. | | La página | The Spanish word for "page," one side of a leaf in a book or document. | | La actividad | The Spanish word for "activity," an action or pursuit. |

# Academic English: Reported speech Reported speech is a grammatical construct used to convey what someone else has said without quoting them directly, involving changes to tense, pronouns, and adverbs of time and place. ### 1.1 What is reported speech? Direct speech quotes the exact words someone spoke, enclosed in quotation marks. Reported speech, also known as indirect speech, paraphrases or summarizes what someone said, without using quotation marks. > **Example:** > Direct speech: She said, "I am going to the market." > Reported speech: She said that she was going to the market. ### 1.2 Changes in reported speech When converting direct speech to reported speech, several grammatical elements typically change. #### 1.2.1 Tense backshifting The most common change is "backshifting," where the tense of the verb in the reported clause moves one step back in time. * **Present Simple** becomes **Past Simple**: * Direct: "I like coffee." * Reported: He said he liked coffee. * **Present Continuous** becomes **Past Continuous**: * Direct: "I am making cupcakes." * Reported: She said she was making cupcakes. * **Present Perfect** becomes **Past Perfect**: * Direct: "I have finished the report." * Reported: He said he had finished the report. * **Past Simple** becomes **Past Perfect**: * Direct: "I saw her yesterday." * Reported: He said he had seen her the day before. * **Past Continuous** becomes **Past Perfect Continuous**: * Direct: "I was studying when you called." * Reported: She said she had been studying when I called. * **Future Simple (will)** becomes **Conditional Simple (would)**: * Direct: "I will call you later." * Reported: He said he would call me later. * **Modals:** * `can` becomes `could` * `may` becomes `might` * `must` can become `had to` or remain `must` if the obligation is still current. * `could`, `should`, `would`, `might`, and `ought to` generally do not change. > **Tip:** If the statement is still true at the time of reporting, or if it's a general truth, the tense may not need to be backshifted. > **Example:** "The Earth is round." -> She said that the Earth is round. (or was round) #### 1.2.2 Pronoun changes Personal pronouns and possessive pronouns change to reflect the new speaker and listener perspective. * **Pronouns:** `I` becomes `he/she`, `we` becomes `they`, `you` changes based on context. * Direct: "We'll phone later!" * Reported: They said they would phone later. * **Possessive Pronouns:** `my` becomes `his/her`, `our` becomes `their`, `your` changes based on context. * Direct: "I gave her my book." * Reported: He said he gave her his book. #### 1.2.3 Time and place adverb changes Adverbs of time and place also change to reflect the shift in context from the original utterance. * `now` becomes `then` or `at that moment` * `today` becomes `that day` * `yesterday` becomes `the day before` or `the previous day` * `tomorrow` becomes `the next day` or `the following day` * `last week/month/year` becomes `the week/month/year before` or `the previous week/month/year` * `next week/month/year` becomes `the week/month/year after` or `the following week/month/year` * `here` becomes `there` * `this` becomes `that` * `these` becomes `those` > **Example:** > Direct: "I went there yesterday." > Reported: She said she had been there the day before. ### 1.3 Reported questions Reported questions do not use question marks and follow statement word order, with backshifting of tense, pronouns, and adverbs as applicable. * **Yes/No questions:** Introduced by `if` or `whether`. * Direct: "Do you like peanut butter?" * Reported: He asked me if I liked peanut butter. * **Wh- questions:** The question word (who, what, where, when, why, how) introduces the reported clause. * Direct: "When did she finish her tasks?" * Reported: He asked when she had finished her tasks. ### 1.4 Reported commands and requests Commands and requests are reported using an infinitive structure, typically with `tell` or `ask`. * **Commands:** Use `tell [object] to [infinitive]`. * Direct: "Sit down!" * Reported: He told me to sit down. * **Requests:** Use `ask [object] to [infinitive]`. * Direct: "Will you sit down, please?" * Reported: He asked me if I would sit down. (This can also be treated as a question.) ### 1.5 Exercises and application Reported speech exercises often involve converting direct speech examples into reported speech, requiring careful application of the rules for tense, pronouns, and adverbs. These exercises can also include scenarios where the original statement's truthfulness affects the need for backshifting, or where context requires choosing from multiple pronoun options. > **Example of exercise application:** > > Direct statement: "I am leaving at that moment." > Reported: He said he was leaving at that moment. > > Direct statement: "I have seen her the day before." > Reported: He said he had seen her the day before. > > Direct question: "Have you finished the report?" > Reported: He asked (me) if I had finished the report. > > Direct statement: "I will see you next week." > Reported: He said he would see me next week. > > Direct command: "Do it tomorrow." > Reported: He told me to do it tomorrow. > > Direct statement: "I might do it." > Reported: He said he might do it. > > Direct statement: "I have to go." > Reported: He said he had to go. > **Tip:** Pay close attention to the context provided in the exercise to determine the correct pronouns and the need for backshifting. For instance, when reporting a tabloid editor's comment, the pronoun `I` or `you` in direct speech might become `I/you/he/she/they` in reported speech depending on the perceived audience. --- # Legal English: UK court systems This section outlines the structure and functions of the court systems in England and Wales, and briefly touches upon Scotland's distinct system. ### 2.1 England and Wales: A unified court system England and Wales operate under a unified court system that is rooted in common law principles. While most civil cases are heard in the County Court, a significant number of specialized tribunals also handle specific matters. All criminal cases commence in the Magistrates' Court. More serious criminal offenses are subsequently referred to the Crown Court. #### 2.1.1 The High Court The High Court serves a dual purpose: * **Court of first instance:** It handles high-value civil claims. * **Appellate court:** It hears appeals from both civil and criminal cases. The High Court is further divided into three divisions: * **King's Bench Division:** Primarily deals with common law cases, including contract disputes, torts (such as negligence), and administrative law. It also exercises a supervisory role over other courts and tribunals. * **Chancery Division:** Specializes in areas like company law, intellectual property, trusts, probate, property disputes, insolvency, and contentious probate matters. * **Family Division:** Adjudicates on family-related legal issues, including divorce, child custody, financial settlements stemming from divorce, and cases concerning the welfare of children. #### 2.1.2 The Court of Appeal The Court of Appeal handles appeals from decisions made in the High Court and County Court. It has distinct divisions for civil and criminal matters: * **Civil Division:** Hears appeals from both High Court and County Court judgments. * **Criminal Division:** Hears appeals from the Crown Court. #### 2.1.3 The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the final court of appeal for all civil cases. It also serves as the final appellate court for criminal cases originating from England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The court comprises twelve permanent justices who are appointed by the Lord Chancellor. ### 2.2 Scotland: A distinct legal system Scotland possesses a mixed or hybrid legal system, drawing from both civil law and common law traditions. #### 2.2.1 Courts in Scotland * **Justice of the Peace Courts:** Handle less serious ('summary') criminal cases. * **Sheriff Courts:** Deal with less serious ('summary') criminal cases and also handle serious ('solemn') criminal cases, which involve a judge and jury. The Sheriff Courts also manage most civil business. * **Sheriff Appeal Court:** Hears appeals for most civil and criminal cases originating from the Sheriff Courts. * **High Court of Justiciary:** Serves as the first instance court for serious ('solemn') criminal cases and also functions as the criminal appeal court. * **Court of Session:** * **Inner House:** Acts as the civil appeal court. * **Outer House:** Is the first instance court for high-value civil cases. #### 2.2.2 The Supreme Court of the UK and Scotland While the Supreme Court of the UK is generally not a further court of appeal for criminal cases in Scotland, exceptions exist for cases involving devolution or human rights issues. For civil matters, the Supreme Court of the UK acts as the final court of appeal, but only on points of law. #### 2.2.3 Distinctive Features of the Scottish System A notable characteristic of the Scottish legal system is its three-verdict system in criminal trials: * Guilty * Not guilty * Not proven ### 2.3 Tribunals in Scotland Similar to England, Scotland has various tribunals that handle specific types of matters. --- # Legal English: US court systems The United States operates under a dual court system, comprising parallel federal and state court structures, each with its own jurisdiction and hierarchy. ### 3.1 Overview of the dual court system The US employs a dual court system, where federal and state courts operate concurrently. Federal courts derive their power from the federal government and the Constitution, while state courts are established and governed by their respective state constitutions and laws. These systems are distinct but function similarly, allowing cases to move through different levels of courts within each track. > **Tip:** While the general structure of federal and state courts is presented, be aware that the specific names and number of layers in state court systems can vary significantly from state to state. Additional court systems exist beyond federal and state, such as Tribal Courts established by American Indian and Alaska Native tribes, and military courts. These are not covered in this general overview. ### 3.2 Federal court system Federal courts have limited jurisdiction, primarily hearing cases that involve "federal questions" (arising under federal law, treaties, or the Constitution) or cases of "diversity jurisdiction" (disputes between citizens of different states, provided the amount in controversy exceeds a certain monetary threshold). Cases to which the United States itself is a party also fall under federal jurisdiction. #### 3.2.1 U.S. District Courts These are the trial courts of the federal system. There are 94 judicial districts across the United States, and these courts handle most federal matters, serving as the initial point of litigation for federal cases. #### 3.2.2 U.S. Courts of Appeals Also known as circuit courts, there are twelve regional circuit courts and one federal circuit. These courts hear appeals from the U.S. District Courts. The Federal Circuit also handles specialized appeals, such as those related to patents, claims against the government, and international trade. Appeals in the U.S. Courts of Appeals are based solely on the written record from the lower court. #### 3.2.3 Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) The Supreme Court is the highest court in the federal system and the ultimate interpreter of federal law and the U.S. Constitution. It reviews questions of federal law and constitutional issues arising from both federal courts (Courts of Appeals) and state supreme courts. * **Original Jurisdiction:** The Supreme Court has a narrow original jurisdiction, which means it can hear certain cases directly, such as disputes between states. * **Discretionary Review:** For most cases, the Supreme Court exercises discretionary review, meaning it chooses which cases to hear. This is typically done through a process called a "writ of certiorari." * **Writ of Certiorari:** * **Step 1:** A party petitions the Supreme Court for a writ of certiorari. * **Step 2:** At least four justices must agree to grant the appeal (the "Rule of Four"). This is usually based on: * A conflict of law between lower courts. * An important case to the nation. * A disregard for precedent. * An egregious error by a lower court. * **Step 3:** If granted, briefs are submitted by the parties. * **Step 4:** Oral arguments are given before the Court. * **Step 5:** The case is decided. The decision is published as a majority opinion, which may include concurring opinions. There are also dissenting opinions that explain why some justices disagree. Cases can also be decided per curiam, meaning by the Court as a whole without identifying individual authors. * **Justices:** The Supreme Court consists of nine justices who serve for life. > **Tip:** Understanding the criteria for granting a writ of certiorari is crucial for predicting which cases the Supreme Court might hear. ### 3.3 State court system All fifty states maintain their own court systems, operating under their own state constitutions and laws. These courts handle the vast majority of American litigation and are generally courts of general jurisdiction, meaning they can hear a wide range of cases, both civil and criminal. #### 3.3.1 Trial courts of limited jurisdiction These are the lowest level trial courts in many states, handling less serious matters. Examples include municipal courts, justice courts, small claims courts, traffic courts, and juvenile courts. #### 3.3.2 Trial courts of general jurisdiction These courts are often called Superior Courts, Circuit Courts, or District Courts, depending on the state. They handle more significant cases, including higher-value civil claims and felony criminal cases. #### 3.3.3 Intermediate appellate courts Most states have an intermediate appellate court. These courts review decisions from the trial courts for legal errors. They do not rehear evidence or conduct new trials; their review is based on the trial court's record. #### 3.3.4 State Supreme Court This is the highest court in a state's judicial system. It serves as the final appellate court for cases arising under state law. However, if a case decided by a state supreme court involves a federal question (e.g., a violation of the U.S. Constitution), the losing party may petition the U.S. Supreme Court for review. Some states, like Texas and Oklahoma, have separate high courts for civil and criminal matters. > **Tip:** Recognize that the hierarchy within state court systems can be complex and vary by jurisdiction, but generally follows a pattern of trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and a state supreme court. --- # UK society: Industrial action, the Thatcher revolution, and Euroscepticism This section examines the historical trajectory of industrial action, the transformative impact of the Thatcher era, and the persistent rise of Euroscepticism in modern UK society. ### 4.1 Industrial action and the decline of trade unions #### 4.1.1 Historical context of trade unions The history of industrial action in the UK is deeply intertwined with the development of trade unions. Key milestones include: * **1867:** Trade unions were decriminalised, acknowledging their existence within the legal framework. * **1871:** Trade unions were legalised, granting them formal recognition and the ability to operate more openly. * These developments were instrumental in reforming the socio-economic conditions for working men in British industries. * This period also saw the creation of a Labour Representation Committee, which ultimately formed the basis for the **Labour Party**, established in **1899**. #### 4.1.2 The role and decline of trade unions Historically, most trade unions in Britain have been affiliated with the **Trade Union Congress (TUC)**. The TUC's primary functions included: * Engaging in **collective bargaining** with employers to safeguard their members' interests. * Protecting **real wages** against inflation. * Defending members against **unfair dismissal**. * Improving **working conditions and work-life balance**. * Promoting workplace training and education. * Securing and protecting **pension rights**. However, the role of trade unions in Britain has significantly diminished in recent times due to a **stark decline in legislation** that supported their power and the introduction of **restrictive legislation**. #### 4.1.3 Industrial action in the 1970s The 1970s were marked by significant industrial unrest, exacerbated by a series of energy crises. * The **1973 Petroleum Crisis**, triggered by the Arab oil embargo following Western support for Israel in the Yom Kippur War, was particularly impactful. * This led to an inflation rate of **24%** in Britain. * The price of crude oil skyrocketed, significantly increasing the cost of petrol and transport. * Food prices also rose, leading to global shortages. * Britain experienced the highest inflation rate among OECD nations. * In **1974**, the Labour Party was elected but faced internal divisions regarding policy, often implementing measures opposed by unions. Despite this, the economy began to stabilise. * By **1978**, Prime Minister James Callaghan's government attempted to limit wage increases to **five percent**, a policy that strained relationships with unions. * This wage restraint policy proved to be a breaking point, leading unions to go on strike, demonstrating their power to resist government efforts. #### 4.1.4 The Winter of Discontent (1978-1979) This period represents a peak in industrial action and public sector strikes. * **September 1978:** Ford workers initiated a strike, demanding a **17% wage increase**, effectively defying the government's income policy. * The road haulage sector soon followed suit, influenced by government bans on overtime. * **January 1979:** Public sector workers joined the strikes, leading to widespread disruption. This included: * Piles of rubbish in the streets. * Limited services at hospitals. * Picketing gravediggers. ### 4.2 The Thatcher revolution The election of the Conservative Party under Margaret Thatcher in May 1979 marked a radical shift in British politics and society. This period, often termed the "Thatcher Revolution," was characterised by a set of policies aimed at individual liberty, economic restructuring, and reducing the power of trade unions. #### 4.2.1 Ideological underpinnings The Conservatives promised: * Greater independence for the individual. * **Privatisation** of state-owned enterprises. * The **sale of public housing** to tenants. * Reducing government expenditures on areas like healthcare, education, and housing. * The adoption of **Monetarism** as a key economic policy. * The implementation of **legal restrictions on trade unions**. #### 4.2.2 Impact on trade unions The Thatcher government actively sought to curb the power of trade unions: * **Undermining the ability to organise strikes** through various legislative measures. * **Banning the closed shop**, an arrangement where union membership was a condition of employment. * **Requiring members to poll** before ordering a strike. * **Banning sympathy strikes**, where workers strike in support of another group of striking workers. * **Rendering unions responsible for damages** caused by industrial action. * A significant example was the **1984 National Union of Mineworkers' strike**, which lasted nearly a year. The strike was called to prevent the closure of unproductive coal mines. Thatcher's government refused to negotiate, and the miners eventually returned to work without any concessions, a clear victory for the government. #### 4.2.3 Impact on the economy The economic policies of the Thatcher era brought about substantial changes: * **Privatisation of state-owned industries and public services:** This included sectors like aerospace, television, gas, and water. * **Sale of public housing:** By the end of the 1980s, approximately **1.5 million housing units** had been sold to tenants. This led to a tripling of individual stockholders. * **Economic restructuring:** The government inherited a weak economy and implemented policies to reduce regulation on businesses and eliminate subsidies. This aimed to purge manufacturing of inefficient firms. * **Increased unemployment:** A dramatic rise in unemployment occurred, from **1.3 million in 1979 to 2.6 million in 1981**, reaching three million by 1986. * **Inflation:** Inflation doubled in 14 months to over **20%**. * **Manufacturing output declined sharply.** * These economic shifts led to rising social tensions, making Thatcher deeply unpopular. #### 4.2.4 Political resilience Despite widespread unpopularity, Thatcher's government maintained power: * The **Labour Party** was deeply divided, with its radical manifesto being described as the "longest suicide note in history." * The **Falklands War** (1982) provided a significant boost to Thatcher's standing. This short, undeclared war with Argentina over the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands resulted in a decisive British victory and led to Thatcher winning the subsequent election with her biggest victory in almost 50 years. ### 4.3 Euroscepticism The latter part of Thatcher's premiership and subsequent Conservative governments saw a growing trend of Euroscepticism within British politics, particularly within the Conservative Party. #### 4.3.1 Impact on EU relations Under Thatcher and her successors, Britain's relationship with the European Union (EU) became increasingly strained: * Britain's **contribution to the EU budget was reduced**. * The government adopted a more **hostile stance towards further EU integration**. * There was strong opposition to the idea of a **single currency**. * These stances **divided her own party** but also solidified a core of **Conservative Euroscepticism**. #### 4.3.2 Broader societal impacts The era marked by the Thatcher revolution had lasting effects on British society: * A rise in the **financial industry** and a concurrent **fall of the unions**. * This period is seen as a phase of **left-wing decline**. * There was a perceived **return of British military confidence** and an end to post-imperial decline in foreign policy. * Prime Ministers began to style themselves as 'globalists', reflecting a shift in foreign policy outlook. > **Tip:** When studying Euroscepticism, consider its roots in historical British foreign policy and national identity, as well as specific economic and political events that fueled distrust of European integration. > **Example:** The Maastricht Treaty, signed in 1992, was a significant point of contention, further deepening divisions within the Conservative Party and contributing to the rise of Eurosceptic sentiment. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Reported speech | A way of recounting what someone else said without using their exact words; it involves changes in tense, pronouns, and adverbs of time and place. | | Direct speech | The exact words spoken by a person, typically enclosed in quotation marks. | | Backshifting | The process of changing verb tenses in reported speech to reflect a past perspective, usually moving one tense back (e.g., present simple to past simple). | | Common law | A body of law derived from judicial decisions instead of from statutes, forming the basis of the legal system in England and Wales. | | Civil law | A legal system originating in Europe, based on Roman law, which is characterized by codified statutes and less reliance on judicial precedent compared to common law. | | Tribunal | A body established to hear and decide cases in specific legal matters, often specialized in areas not covered by standard courts. | | Federal court system | The court system in the United States that handles cases involving federal law, the U.S. Constitution, or disputes between states. | | State court system | The court system within each U.S. state, handling the majority of legal cases under state law. | | Jurisdiction | The official power to make legal decisions and judgments, referring to the extent of authority a court has. | | Supreme Court | The highest court within a jurisdiction, with the final say on matters of law. In the US, the Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court. | | Industrial action | Actions taken by workers to pressure employers, such as strikes, work-to-rule campaigns, or overtime bans, often to achieve better working conditions or pay. | | Trade union | An organized association of workers formed to protect and further their rights and interests, particularly concerning wages, working conditions, and benefits. | | Euroscepticism | A critical attitude or skepticism towards the European Union, particularly concerning the extent of its integration and political power. | | Privatisation | The transfer of ownership of a business, industry, or service from public (government) to private (commercial) control. | | Monetarism | An economic theory that emphasizes the role of governments in controlling the amount of money in circulation to moderate inflation and economic fluctuations. | | Writ of certiorari | An order from a higher court to a lower court to review the lower court's decision; commonly known as a "cert" petition in the US Supreme Court. | | Per curiam | A Latin term meaning "by the court," referring to a decision or opinion delivered by the court as a whole, rather than by a specific judge. |

# Introduction to a new job and workplace This study guide section covers essential vocabulary and phrases for navigating the initial stages of a new job and workplace, including introductions, office navigation, and fostering a welcoming environment for new staff. ## 1. A new job ### 1.1 Vocabulary – ‘is this your first day?’ This subsection introduces key vocabulary related to starting a new role, particularly for recent graduates or new hires. #### 1.1.1 General vocabulary * **Guided**: supervised or accompanied [2](#page=2). * **Induction**: an introductory process for new employees [2](#page=2). * **Graduate**: someone who has successfully completed a university degree [2](#page=2). * **Introduce**: to present someone to another person, or to present oneself [2](#page=2). * **Information**: facts provided or learned about something or someone [2](#page=2). * **Recruit**: to enlist someone as a member or worker [2](#page=2). #### 1.1.2 Collocations and definitions * **Collocation**: a combination of words that are often used together, e.g., "strong coffee" [2](#page=2). * **Information pack**: a collection of papers or a book providing details about a company [2](#page=2). * **Introduce yourself**: to state your name to someone for the first time [2](#page=2). * **Guided tour**: a walk-through of a place where someone explains what you are seeing [2](#page=2). * **Induction programme**: a series of presentations designed to inform new employees about the company [2](#page=2). * **Graduate trainee**: an employee who has recently completed university and is undergoing training [2](#page=2). * **New recruit**: a recently hired employee [2](#page=2). * **Trainee**: an individual undergoing training for a particular job [2](#page=2). * **Trainee solicitor**: a new employee in a legal firm who is still in training [2](#page=2). #### 1.1.3 Related terms * **Boss**: a person in charge of a worker or organization [2](#page=2). * **Career**: the series of jobs that a person has had throughout their working life [2](#page=2). * **Tour**: a journey made for pleasure in which several different places are visited [2](#page=2). * **Joined**: became a member of or participant in [2](#page=2). * **Colleagues**: people with whom one works, especially in a profession or business [2](#page=2). * **Resources**: assets or supplies available for use [2](#page=2). * **Director**: a member of the board of directors of a company [2](#page=2). * **Pack**: a container or package [2](#page=2). * **Staff**: a group of people who work for an organization or business [2](#page=2). #### 1.1.4 Further vocabulary * **Company**: a commercial business [2](#page=2). * **Employee**: a person employed for wages or salary [2](#page=2). * **Degree**: a qualification awarded on the completion of a university course [3](#page=3). * **Experience**: practical contact with and observation of facts or events [3](#page=3). * **Challenge**: a task or situation that tests someone's abilities [3](#page=3). * **Colleague**: a person with whom one works [3](#page=3). * **Graduate**: someone who has completed a degree [3](#page=3). * **Interview**: a meeting at which someone is asked questions to see if they are suitable for a job or course [3](#page=3). ### 1.2 To show round a new colleague This section focuses on vocabulary and phrases used when giving a new colleague a tour of the workplace. #### 1.2.1 Workplace areas * **Production area**: the part of a factory or plant where goods are manufactured [3](#page=3). * **Finance Manager’s office**: the office belonging to the manager of the finance department [3](#page=3). * **Car park**: an area where vehicles can be left [3](#page=3). * **Canteen**: a restaurant or dining hall, especially in a factory or office building [3](#page=3). * **Sales and Marketing**: the departments responsible for selling products or services and promoting them [3](#page=3). * **Warehouse**: a large building where raw materials or manufactured goods are stored [3](#page=3). #### 1.2.2 Directions * **On the left**: situated to the left side [3](#page=3). * **Turn right**: change direction to the right [3](#page=3). * **Go straight ahead/on**: continue moving forward without turning [3](#page=3). * **On the right**: situated to the right side [3](#page=3). #### 1.2.3 Additional useful phrases * **Into**: used to indicate movement or direction towards the inside of something [3](#page=3). * **In**: preposition used to indicate location within a defined space [3](#page=3). * **To pop by**: a phrasal verb meaning to visit a place briefly [3](#page=3). * **I will meet you back**: a phrase indicating a future meeting at a specific time or place [3](#page=3). * **Elevator**: a passenger lift [3](#page=3). * **Warehouse**: can also refer to a large retail store [3](#page=3). * **Purchasing**: the act of buying goods or services [3](#page=3). * **PA (Personal Assistant)**: an assistant who provides administrative support to a particular person [3](#page=3). * **Insurance company**: a company that provides insurance policies [3](#page=3). ### 1.3 Listening/speaking: how to make new staff feel welcome? This subsection explores language used to create a welcoming atmosphere for new employees. #### 1.3.1 Modal verbs for past possibilities and advice * **They could have + past participle**: used to discuss a possibility that did not happen in the past [4](#page=4). * **They should have + past participle**: used to offer advice or criticism about something that was not done in the past. This can also be used to criticize something for not having been done [4](#page=4). #### 1.3.2 Informal expressions * **I have not (got) a clue**: an informal way to say "I do not know" [4](#page=4). #### 1.3.3 General vocabulary * **The corridor**: a long passage in a building from which doors lead into rooms [4](#page=4). * **To sit on a chair**: the action of resting on a seat [4](#page=4). * **To work at a desk**: the action of performing tasks while positioned at a desk [4](#page=4). ### 1.4 First impressions This section deals with how individuals and companies make initial judgments. #### 1.4.1 Starting questions * **To remedy**: to put something right or correct a problem [4](#page=4). * **What gives us a first impression of a company or person?**: This question probes the factors that shape our initial perceptions [4](#page=4). #### 1.4.2 Factors influencing first impressions of a company or person * **Uniform**: a distinctive set of clothes worn by members of the same organization or group [4](#page=4). * **Office/ business premises**: the buildings and land used by a company for its business activities [4](#page=4). * **Website**: a set of related web pages located under a single domain name [4](#page=4). * **Reception area**: the space where visitors are greeted when they enter a building [4](#page=4). * **Reputation**: the beliefs or opinions that are generally held about someone or something [4](#page=4). * **Advertisement in the media**: promotional messages published or broadcast through various communication channels [4](#page=4). * **Price**: the amount of money expected, required, or given in payment for something [4](#page=4). * **Telephone answering system**: an automated system that answers calls when no one is available [4](#page=4). #### 1.4.3 Virtual impressions - reading * **To come across**: a phrasal verb meaning to give a particular impression or have a particular quality. It can also mean "to come over as" [4](#page=4). * **To take a dislike to someone**: to start to dislike someone [4](#page=4). #### 1.4.4 Collocations * Collocations are word pairings that frequently appear together, enhancing natural language use [4](#page=4). --- # Personal introductions and professional identity This section outlines key elements for introducing oneself, covering details such as spelling names, discussing age, nationality, civil status, profession, and personal appearance, along with personal qualities relevant in a professional context. ### 2.1 Introducing yourself #### 2.1.1 Spelling your name When introducing yourself, it is crucial to be able to spell your name accurately. This involves knowing the English alphabet and how to communicate potential ambiguities. You can ask for clarification using phrases like "Could you spell that, please?" or "How do you spell that?". When spelling, it is important to enunciate each letter clearly. Some letters, like 'A' and 'E', or 'V' and 'W', can sound similar and require careful pronunciation [5](#page=5). * **Diacritics:** While not frequent in English, diacritics like diaeresis (e.g., Zoë), acute accents (e.g., Stéphanie), and circumflex accents (e.g., Hélène, 'ê') may be encountered when spelling foreign names [5](#page=5). * **Common Spelling Clarifications:** Instead of spelling out every letter, you can use descriptive phrases for common situations: * Hyphenated names: "Mary-Katy is hyphenated" [6](#page=6). * Compound names: "Mcdonald, one word, no capital letter for 'donald'" [6](#page=6). * Ending letters: "Beheydt, that is with a d and a t at the end" [6](#page=6). * Double letters: "Hamond, with one m in the middle, not two," or "Matt, double t" [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.2 Talking about your age When discussing age, you can state it directly as "I am 24". This can be expanded to "I am 24 years old" or, more formally, "I am 24 years of age". You can also express it numerically, "I am twenty-four years" [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.3 Nationalities Expressing nationality involves using adjectives that describe a person's origin [7](#page=7). * She is American [7](#page=7). * Are you Belgian? [7](#page=7). * They are French/Frenchmen/French people [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.4 Civil status Civil status refers to one's marital and relationship situation [8](#page=8). * **In a relationship:** If you have a boyfriend or girlfriend [8](#page=8). * **Married:** If you have a husband or wife. The term "spouse" can be used for either [8](#page=8). * **Widowed:** If your spouse has passed away [8](#page=8). * **Divorced:** If a legal separation from a husband, wife, or partner has occurred [8](#page=8). * **Separated:** If you are no longer living with your spouse or partner [8](#page=8). * **Single:** If you do not have a partner [8](#page=8). * **Cohabiting/in a civil union:** If you share a home with a partner without being married. This is also referred to as "habitation" [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.5 Talking about your profession Discussing your profession involves various related terms and grammatical nuances [8](#page=8). * **Key Terms:** * **Line of work/line of business:** Refers to a specific industry or sector, e.g., "banking" [8](#page=8). * **Exciting:** Means "spannend, boeiend" [8](#page=8). * **Headquarters (HQ):** The main office of a company. It's always plural but can take a singular or plural verb (e.g., "our headquarters is/are in Amsterdam") [8](#page=8). * **To involve:** To include or consist of [8](#page=8). * **To provide:** To give or make available [8](#page=8). * **Taxation:** The system of charging taxes [8](#page=8). * **Grammar Note: Present Simple vs. Present Continuous** * Use the **present simple** to describe what your job generally involves as a regular occupation [8](#page=8). * Use the **present continuous** (be + -ing) to refer to current tasks, projects, or temporary jobs [8](#page=8). * *Example:* "John normally provides legal advice on taxation, but I am dealing with his clients now, as he is away on business" [8](#page=8). * **Vocabulary Note: Hierarchies and Reporting** * **Responsible for:** The person in charge of a task or department [9](#page=9). * **Responsible to / Report to:** The person to whom one answers or is accountable [9](#page=9). * **Senior vs. Junior Management:** Senior management (e.g., Sales Director) has higher rank and more responsibilities than junior management (e.g., Sales Manager) [9](#page=9). * *Example:* "The Sales Manager reports to the Sales Director" [9](#page=9). * **Distinguishing Professional Terms:** * **Job:** The work done regularly to earn money, often for a company or organization. Also used to describe the state of having work (e.g., "to look for/find work/a job," "to be out of work/a job") [9](#page=9). * **Work:** Used more generally for activities to earn money, either for others or oneself. It also refers to the balance between personal and professional life [9](#page=9). * **Post:** A formal term for a job, often in academia or government (e.g., "a teaching post") [9](#page=9). * **Position:** A more formal term, often referring to a job with significant responsibility in a company (e.g., "a managerial/senior position") [9](#page=9). * **Occupation:** The type of work someone usually does, often used on official forms (e.g., "State your name, age, and occupation"). Do not use it to refer to your own job (e.g., "I am an accountant," not "My occupation is accountant") [9](#page=9). * **Profession:** Work requiring special training and education, such as teaching, law, or medicine (e.g., "the legal profession") [10](#page=10). * **Career:** The type of work one pursues or hopes to pursue throughout life [10](#page=10). * **Vocation:** A career believed to be particularly suitable for an individual, even if difficult or poorly paid; one's "calling" [10](#page=10). #### 2.1.6 Giving your email address When providing an email address, be familiar with the terms for common symbols: * `.`: Dot [10](#page=10). * `-`: Hyphen [10](#page=10). * `_`: Underscore [10](#page=10). * `@`: At [10](#page=10). * `/`: (Forward) slash [10](#page=10). * `\`: Backslash [10](#page=10). ### 2.2 Talking about appearance Describing someone's appearance involves detailing their physical characteristics [10](#page=10). #### 2.2.1 Male appearance * **Facial features and hair:** Eyebrows stubble clean-shaven beard moustache [10](#page=10) [12](#page=12). * **Body features:** Broad shoulders skinny fattish plump stocky/well-built [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11). * **Skin and complexion:** Dark-skinned pale-skinned tanned [11](#page=11). * **Hair loss:** Go bald/be bald losing his hair/his hair is receding [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). * **General condition:** In a good shape/condition [10](#page=10). * **Other:** Scar [10](#page=10) [12](#page=12). #### 2.2.2 Female appearance * **General attributes:** Pretty smooth tanned slim figure appearance [11](#page=11). * **Hair:** Hair long short shoulder-length cropped thick thin straight curly wavy fizzy [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). * **Hair styles and features:** Spiky bob (hairstyle) fringe/pony parting ponytail [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). * **Skin and aging:** Skin wrinkles go grey or white [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). * **Other features:** Freckles tattoo pierced ears [12](#page=12). * **Pregnancy:** Be pregnant [11](#page=11). #### 2.2.3 Revision exercise terms * Eyebrow [11](#page=11). * Stubble [11](#page=11). * Bald [11](#page=11). * Beard [12](#page=12). * Moustache [12](#page=12). * Scar [12](#page=12). * Receding [12](#page=12). * Losing hair [12](#page=12). * Wrinkles [12](#page=12). * Clean-shaven [12](#page=12). * Curly hair [12](#page=12). * Freckles [12](#page=12). * Shoulder-length hair [12](#page=12). * Fringe, pony [12](#page=12). * Straight hair [12](#page=12). * Parting [12](#page=12). * Tattoo [12](#page=12). * Pierced ears [12](#page=12). * Ponytail [12](#page=12). ### 2.3 Talking about personality Describing personality involves identifying personal qualities and character traits, particularly in a work context [12](#page=12) [14](#page=14). #### 2.3.1 Personal qualities * **Ambition:** Having a strong desire to do well or be successful. Opposite: unambitious. Noun: ambition [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Self-confident:** Feeling sure about one's own ability. Opposite: insecure [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Generous:** Happy to give more money and help than is usual. Opposite: mean. Noun: generosity [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Impatient:** Not able to stay calm and wait. Opposite: patient [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Arrogant:** Thinking one is better than other people. Opposite: modest. Noun: arrogance [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Aggressive:** Likely to fight or argue. Noun: aggression [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Cheerful:** Feeling happy [12](#page=12). * **Easy-going:** Relaxed and not worried by what others do [12](#page=12). * **Energy:** The ability to be very active without getting tired. Adjective: energetic [12](#page=12). * **Responsible:** Able to act sensibly and intelligently. Opposite: irresponsible [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Crazy:** Having a mental illness or behaving in a strange way [12](#page=12). * **Honest:** Always telling the truth. Opposite: dishonest. Noun: honesty [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Hard-working:** Able to work with effort and for a long time. Opposite: lazy [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Tolerant:** Able to accept ideas one doesn’t agree with. Opposite: intolerant. Noun: tolerance [12](#page=12) [13](#page=13). * **Dull:** Boring [13](#page=13). * **Sense of humour:** The ability to laugh and see when something is funny [13](#page=13). * **Spontaneous:** Acting in an open and natural way, without worrying about what one says or does. Noun: spontaneity [13](#page=13). * **Happy-go-lucky:** Not caring or worrying about the future [13](#page=13). * **Down-to-earth:** Sensible and realistic in what one says or thinks [13](#page=13). * **Chatterbox:** A person who talks a lot. Adjective: chatty [13](#page=13). * **Passionate:** Very enthusiastic or interested in something. Noun: passion [13](#page=13). * **Considerate:** Always thinking about other people’s wishes and feelings; thoughtful. Opposite: inconsiderate [14](#page=14). * **Affection:** The feeling of being fond of someone [14](#page=14). * **Integrity:** The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles [14](#page=14). * **Pretentious:** Trying to appear important, intelligent, etc., to impress others [14](#page=14). * **Attribute:** A quality or feature of someone or something [14](#page=14). #### 2.3.2 Character in a work context When describing someone's character, especially in a professional setting, the following phrases and terms are relevant: * **What do you do of something/somebody:** To ask for an opinion or impression [14](#page=14). * **What’s your first impression of somebody/something:** To ask about the initial perception [14](#page=14). * **Character:** Can refer to an interesting or unusual person [14](#page=14). * **Quick-witted:** Able to think quickly and intelligently [14](#page=14). * **Shrewd:** Good at judging people and situations; astute [14](#page=14). * **Ruthless:** Determined to get what one wants without caring about others [14](#page=14). * **Take to somebody/something:** To start liking someone or something [14](#page=14). * **Come across (as):** To make a particular impression [14](#page=14). * **Pushy:** Trying hard to get what one wants, often rudely [14](#page=14). * **Conceited:** Thinking one is very important or clever [14](#page=14). * **Strike somebody (as something):** To give somebody a particular impression [14](#page=14). * **Conscientious:** Careful and diligent in one's work [14](#page=14). * **Trustworthy:** Able to be relied on as good and honest [14](#page=14). > **Tip:** When discussing professions, differentiate between general terms like "job" and "work" versus more specific terms like "post," "position," "occupation," "profession," "career," and "vocation". Pay attention to the grammatical differences between using the present simple for general job descriptions and the present continuous for current tasks [10](#page=10) [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). > **Example:** To describe someone as very hardworking, you would say they are "hard-working". If they are exceptionally good at judging people, they are "shrewd" [12](#page=12) [14](#page=14). --- # Business communication through email Email is a crucial asynchronous communication tool in business, requiring specific structure, vocabulary, and an understanding of formal versus informal registers [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). ### 3.1 Email vocabulary and structure Effective email communication relies on understanding its common terminology and organizational elements [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). #### 3.1.1 Common email terms * **Inbox:** Where received emails are found [15](#page=15). * **Outbox:** Emails that are ready to be sent [15](#page=15). * **Sent items:** Emails that have been successfully sent [15](#page=15). * **Drafts:** Emails being worked on but not yet ready for sending [15](#page=15). * **Deleted items/trash:** Removed emails [15](#page=15). * **Reply:** To respond to a sender [15](#page=15). * **Reply all:** To respond to the sender and all other recipients [15](#page=15). * **Forward:** To send a received email to a third party [15](#page=15). * **Send and receive:** The action of transmitting and obtaining emails [15](#page=15). * **High priority:** Indicates an email is important and requires immediate attention [15](#page=15). * **Attachment:** A document sent along with an email [15](#page=15). * **Contacts:** Stores email addresses and other personal data [16](#page=16). * **Subject:** The topic or purpose of a message [16](#page=16). * **Venue:** The location of an event [16](#page=16). * **To forward:** To send an email on [16](#page=16). #### 3.1.2 Email structure and subject lines An email's structure is essential for clarity, with the subject line playing a vital role in conveying the message's content at a glance [16](#page=16). * **Subject line:** Should be brief, concise, and informative, allowing the recipient to quickly understand the email's purpose [16](#page=16). ### 3.2 Formal vs. informal emails: register The choice of vocabulary and phrasing depends on the desired level of formality, with distinct word choices differentiating formal and informal business communication [16](#page=16). #### 3.2.1 Formal vocabulary More formal language is often used for official communications, such as: * To receive [16](#page=16). * To inform [16](#page=16). * To assist [16](#page=16). * To contact [16](#page=16). * Convenient [16](#page=16). * Assistance [16](#page=16). * To reply [16](#page=16). * To regret [16](#page=16). * To postpone [16](#page=16). * To arrange [16](#page=16). * To enquire [16](#page=16). * To require [16](#page=16). #### 3.2.2 Informal vocabulary Less formal language is appropriate for more casual business interactions: * To get [16](#page=16). * To tell [16](#page=16). * To help [16](#page=16). * To get in touch [16](#page=16). * Ok [16](#page=16). * Help [16](#page=16). * To tell [16](#page=16). * To answer [16](#page=16). * To be sorry [16](#page=16). * To put off [16](#page=16). * To set up [16](#page=16). * To ask [16](#page=16). * To need [16](#page=16). > **Tip:** It is crucial to distinguish between "to inform" (to give information) and "to enquire" (to ask for information) [16](#page=16). ### 3.3 Useful phrases in business emails Certain phrases are commonly employed in business emails for various purposes, from initiating contact to concluding a message [16](#page=16) [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22). #### 3.3.1 Phrases for making enquiries * "I have been looking at your website" [22](#page=22). * "I can find no mention of discounts" [22](#page=22). * "If you have any further questions" [22](#page=22). #### 3.3.2 Phrases for replying to enquiries * "I am confident that we can supply" [22](#page=22). * "I would be happy to make a sample" [22](#page=22). * "We do offer quantity discounts" [22](#page=22). * "I also notice that you can personalize" [22](#page=22). #### 3.3.3 General useful phrases * **I look forward to + -ing form:** Expresses anticipation [21](#page=21). * Example: "I look forward to hearing from you" [21](#page=21). * **To advise someone:** Means to inform someone [21](#page=21). * **To acknowledge receipt of:** To confirm that something has been received [21](#page=21). ### 3.4 Key terms related to business transactions Understanding specific terminology is vital when discussing business dealings, product ranges, and financial matters [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). * **Product range (PR):** The assortment of products a company offers [21](#page=21). * **Delivery times (DT):** When products will be shipped [21](#page=21). * **Prices and discounts (PD):** Information regarding costs and potential reductions [21](#page=21). * **Payments (P):** How transactions are processed [21](#page=21). * **A transfer:** An electronic movement of funds [21](#page=21). * **An account number:** A unique identifier for a bank account [21](#page=21). * **To incur a penalty:** To become liable for a fine [21](#page=21). * **A working day:** A day on which business is typically conducted [21](#page=21). * **To ship/to transport:** To move goods [21](#page=21). * **In-house/company internal:** Pertaining to operations within the company [21](#page=21). * **To trade in:** To exchange an old item for a new one as part of payment [21](#page=21). * **A cash back:** A sum of money returned to the customer as an incentive [21](#page=21). * **After invoice:** Payment due after receiving an invoice [21](#page=21). * **A deposit:** An initial payment made in advance [21](#page=21). > **Tip:** Be aware of the distinction between "to stock" (to build up inventory for sale) and "to store" (to put things away until needed) [20](#page=20). --- # Understanding companies and organizations This section provides a foundational understanding of companies and organisations, covering their profiles, structures, departments, cultures, and relevant business vocabulary. ### 4.1 Talking about companies This subsection introduces key vocabulary for discussing business operations and company characteristics. * **Produce/manufacture**: To make goods [17](#page=17). * **Supply**: To provide goods or services [17](#page=17). * **Specializes**: To concentrate on a particular area or subject [17](#page=17). * **Employee**: A person who is paid to work for a company or another person [17](#page=17). * **Based**: Located or situated in a particular place [17](#page=17). * **Subsidiary**: A company that is owned or controlled by another company [17](#page=17). * **Sales**: The activity of selling products or services [17](#page=17). * **Competitor/rival**: A person or company that is trying to win or be better than others in the same market [17](#page=17). ### 4.2 Company profile This subsection focuses on the information used to describe a company, including its products, market, and history. * **Key terms for company descriptions:** * **Automatic door**: A door that opens by itself [17](#page=17). * **Security**: Protection from danger or risk [17](#page=17). * **Swedish**: Relating to Sweden [17](#page=17). * **Competitors**: Companies that are trying to win customers from each other [17](#page=17). * **Company**: A commercial business [17](#page=17). * **It operates in**: The field or industry in which a company is active [17](#page=17). * **It specializes in**: The specific area a company focuses its expertise on [17](#page=17). * **It has sales of**: The total revenue generated from selling goods or services [17](#page=17). * **It provides/offers**: The products or services a company makes available [17](#page=17). * **Elements of a company profile:** * **Market**: The geographical area or sector where products are sold [17](#page=17). * **Unique selling proposition (USP)**: A feature or characteristic of a product or service that differentiates it from others and is used in advertising to persuade customers to buy it. Finding a USP can be challenging, especially in service industries [17](#page=17). * **Was founded**: The year or period when the company was established [17](#page=17). * **Source**: The origin from which goods or services are obtained [17](#page=17). * **Impact**: The effect or influence of the company's activities [17](#page=17). * **Expanded**: Grew in size or scope [17](#page=17). * **Run by**: Managed or controlled by [17](#page=17). * **CEO (Chief Executive Officer)**: The highest-ranking executive in a company [17](#page=17). * **Additional vocabulary for company descriptions:** * **To source**: To obtain goods from a particular place. For example, fish might be sourced daily from local ports [18](#page=18). * **A track record**: A history of past achievements or performance [18](#page=18). * **In a bad financial situation**: Experiencing financial difficulties [18](#page=18). ### 4.3 Company structure This subsection details the different physical locations and organisational units within a company. * **Key organisational locations and units:** * **Subsidiary**: A company controlled by a parent company [18](#page=18). * **Factory/plant**: A building where goods are manufactured [18](#page=18). * **Call centre**: A department that handles incoming or outgoing phone calls [18](#page=18). * **Service centre**: A location providing customer support or repairs [18](#page=18). * **Headquarters**: The main administrative centre of a company [18](#page=18). * **Distribution centre**: A facility for storing and dispatching goods [18](#page=18). * **Warehouse**: A building for storing large quantities of goods [18](#page=18). * **Outlet**: A retail shop or point of sale [18](#page=18). * **Matching terms to organisational units:** * Low stock levels typically relate to a **Warehouse** [18](#page=18). * Constant checks with the main company often occur in a **Subsidiary** [18](#page=18). * Handling transformations or service requests may happen at a **Call centre** [18](#page=18). * Delivery operations are managed by a **Distribution centre** [18](#page=18). * Manufacturing processes take place on a **Production line** within a **Factory/plant** [18](#page=18). * Strategic decisions and board meetings are often associated with **Headquarters**, where the AGM (Annual General Meeting) is fixed [18](#page=18). * Window displays are designed by the **Head office** and displayed at **Outlets** [18](#page=18). * Engineers working on repairs are typically found at a **Service centre** [18](#page=18). * **AGM (Annual General Meeting)**: A formal meeting where shareholders discuss the company's financial performance and other important matters from the previous year [18](#page=18). ### 4.4 Company departments This subsection lists and defines the various functional departments found within companies. * **Key company departments and their functions:** * **Legal**: Handles all legal matters and compliance [19](#page=19). * **IT (Information Technology)**: Manages computer systems, networks, and technological infrastructure [19](#page=19). * **Technical support**: Provides assistance with technical issues [19](#page=19). * **Marketing**: Promotes and sells products or services [19](#page=19). * **Training**: Develops and delivers employee development programs [19](#page=19). * **Customer services**: Assists customers with inquiries and issues [19](#page=19). * **Purchasing**: Acquires necessary goods and services for the company [19](#page=19). * **R&D (Research and Development)**: Focuses on innovation and developing new products or processes [19](#page=19). * **Production**: Manages the manufacturing or creation of goods [19](#page=19). * **HR (Human Resources)**: Manages employee relations, recruitment, and welfare [19](#page=19). * **Finance**: Oversees the company's financial planning, budgeting, and reporting [19](#page=19). * **Logistics**: Manages the flow of goods from origin to consumption [19](#page=19). * **Quality control**: Ensures products meet established standards [19](#page=19). * **Sales**: Responsible for selling products or services [19](#page=19). * **Administration**: Handles general office management and support tasks [19](#page=19). * **PR (Public Relations)**: Manages the company's image and communication with the public and media [19](#page=19). * **Verbs associated with department functions:** * **Recruit**: To hire new employees [19](#page=19). * **Buy**: To acquire goods or services [19](#page=19). * **Check**: To verify or control quality or status [19](#page=19). * **Arrange**: To organize or prepare [19](#page=19). * **Maintain**: To keep something in good condition [19](#page=19). * **Deal**: To conduct business or negotiate an agreement [19](#page=19). * **Manufacture**: To make products on a large scale [19](#page=19). * **Organize**: To arrange systematically [19](#page=19). * **Keep**: To maintain records or information [19](#page=19). * **Draw up**: To prepare a document, such as a contract or plan [19](#page=19). * **Specific department activities:** * **Administration** is associated with terms like paperwork and bureaucracy [19](#page=19). * **PR** deals with inquiries from journalists and broadcasts [19](#page=19). * **HR** activities include recruitment, training, and managing retirement [19](#page=19). * **Office types:** * **Open plan office**: An office layout without dividing walls, creating a large, single workspace [19](#page=19). ### 4.5 Company culture This subsection explores the different types of environments and values that characterize a company. * **Types of company culture:** * **Bureaucratic**: Characterized by a focus on paperwork and established procedures [19](#page=19). * **Decentralized**: Power and decision-making are distributed among multiple smaller groups or units [19](#page=19). * **Impersonal**: Lacking warmth or individual attention [19](#page=19). * **Caring**: Employees are treated with concern and support [19](#page=19). * **Democratic**: Employees have a say in decisions affecting them [19](#page=19). * **Market-driven**: Focused on meeting customer demand and outperforming competitors [19](#page=19). * **Centralized**: Authority and power are concentrated at a single point or with a few individuals [19](#page=19). * **Dynamic**: Characterized by energy, innovation, and rapid change [19](#page=19). * **Professional**: Operating with a high degree of expertise and ethical conduct [19](#page=19). * **Conservative**: Resistant to change and preferring tradition [19](#page=19). * **Hierarchical**: Organized in a strict system of ranks and levels of authority [19](#page=19). --- # Numerals and financial calculations in business This section details the correct usage of cardinal and ordinal numbers, how to spell out numbers, handle various currencies, and perform basic financial calculations relevant to business contexts. ### 5.1 Numerals Numerals encompass both cardinal numbers, which represent quantity (e.g., 1, 2, 3), and ordinal numbers, which indicate position or order (e.g., first, second, third) [22](#page=22). #### 5.1.1 Cardinal numbers #### 5.1.1.1 Use of "and" with cardinal numbers In British English (BE), the word "and" is typically used before the last two figures (tens and units) of a number exceeding 100. American English (AE) usage of "and" in this context is less common [23](#page=23). > **Tip:** Be mindful of regional differences in English when stating numbers, especially in formal business communication. #### 5.1.1.2 Distinguishing similar number endings Care must be taken to differentiate between numbers with similar sounds, such as "thirteen" and "thirty" or "fourteen" and "forty" [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14) [23](#page=23) . #### 5.1.1.3 Punctuation in numbers The convention for indicating decimal fractions and thousands differs: * A decimal point is used for decimal fractions (e.g., 3.5 is read as "three point five") [23](#page=23). * A comma is used to denote thousands (e.g., 2,400 is read as "two thousand four hundred") [23](#page=23). #### 5.1.1.4 Pronunciation of the figure 0 * In BE, 0 is usually read as "nought," while in AE, it is read as "zero" [24](#page=24). * "Zero" is specifically used for measurements, such as temperature [24](#page=24). * In sports, BE uses "nil" for a zero score in team games, and "love" in tennis to indicate no points [24](#page=24). * When numbers are stated figure by figure, such as telephone numbers, 0 is pronounced like the letter "o" (i.e., "oh") [24](#page=24). #### 5.1.1.5 Use of "a" or "one" with hundred, thousand, million The words "hundred," "thousand," and "million" cannot stand alone without a determiner (like "a," "one," or a numeral) preceding them [24](#page=24). * "A" is more common in informal English, whereas "one" is used for greater precision [24](#page=24). * For numbers over 100, we say "a/one hundred and twenty-five" [24](#page=24). * When referring to a number like 4,125, it is "four thousand one hundred and twenty-five," not "four thousand a hundred" [24](#page=24). * "One" is only used before "thousand" when followed by a number of hundreds [24](#page=24). * The units "hundred," "thousand," "million," and "billion" do not take a plural 's' when referring to a precise figure. For instance, 9,605,361 is read as "nine million six hundred and five thousand three hundred and sixty-one" [24](#page=24). * The plural forms "hundreds," "thousands," and "millions" are used for approximate amounts [24](#page=24). * Abbreviations for large numbers include: * Million = m [24](#page=24). * Billion = bn [24](#page=24). * Thousand = k [24](#page=24). #### 5.1.1.6 Using "hundred" for specific ranges "Eleven hundred," "twelve hundred," etc., can be used as alternatives to "one thousand one hundred," "one thousand two hundred," and so on. This is most prevalent for round numbers between 1,100 and 1,900, excluding multiples of 1,000 like 1,000, 2,000, etc. [24](#page=24). #### 5.1.1.7 Billion definition * In British English (BE), "billion" traditionally signifies a million million ($10^{12}$) [25](#page=25). * In American English (AE), "billion" signifies a thousand million ($10^9$), which is equivalent to the Dutch "miljard" [25](#page=25). #### 5.1.2 Ordinal numbers #### 5.1.2.1 Use with monarchs Ordinal numbers are employed after the names of monarchs [25](#page=25). * Henry VII is read as "Henry the eighth" [25](#page=25). * Louis XIV is read as "Louis the Fourteenth" [25](#page=25). #### 5.1.2.2 Dates When writing and reading dates, specific conventions are followed: * 1 June 202x is read as "the first of June" [25](#page=25). * 1st June 202x is read as "the first of June" or "June the first" [25](#page=25). * June 1, 202x is read as "June the first" [25](#page=25). * June 1st, 202x is read as "June the first" [25](#page=25). * Avoid formats like 2/4/98 as month and day order can be ambiguous [26](#page=26). The numbers of a year are typically spoken in two parts: * 1042 is read as "ten forty-two" [26](#page=26). * 1907 is read as "nineteen oh seven" [26](#page=26). * However, 1000 is "one thousand," and 1900 is "nineteen hundred" [26](#page=26). * For years in the 21st century, 2009 can be read as "two thousand (and) nine" or "twenty oh nine," and 2010 as "two thousand (and) ten" or "twenty ten" [26](#page=26). #### 5.1.2.3 Abbreviated ordinal numbers Ordinal numbers can be represented by figures followed by the last two letters of their written form, ideally not in superscript (e.g., 1st, 2nd) [26](#page=26). #### 5.1.2.4 Fractions Fractions are read as follows: * 1/8 = "one eighth" [26](#page=26). * 1/5 = "one fifth" [26](#page=26). * 1/4 = "one quarter" or "one fourth" [26](#page=26). * 3/4 = "three quarters" [26](#page=26). * 1/3 = "one third" [26](#page=26). * 2/3 = "two thirds" [26](#page=26). * 1/2 = "one half" [26](#page=26). * 8/10 = "eights tenths" [26](#page=26). * 5/1000 = "five thousandths" [26](#page=26). ### 5.2 Financial calculations #### 5.2.1 Basic operations The following terms and phrases are used for mathematical operations: 1. **Addition** (to add up): * Formal: "… plus … is/equals …" [26](#page=26). * Informal: "… and … is/make/makes …" [26](#page=26). 2. **Subtraction** (to subtract from): * Formal: "… minus … is/equals …" [26](#page=26). * Informal: "… take away … is/leaves/leaved …" [26](#page=26). * Example: "four from seven" for $7 - 4$ [26](#page=26). 3. **Multiplication** (to multiply): * Formal: "… multiplied by … is/equals …" [26](#page=26). * Informal: "… times … is/are/makes …" [26](#page=26). 4. **Division** (to divide): * Formal: "… divided by … is/equals …" [27](#page=27). * Informal: "… into … goes …" (e.g., for $9 \div 3$, "three into nine goes three") [27](#page=27). > **Example:** A complex calculation such as $(((1 + 6) - 2) \times 2) \div 2.5 = 4$ can be stated formally as "one plus six minus two multiplied by two divided by two point five equals four," or informally as "one and six take away two times two divided by two point five is four" [27](#page=27). #### 5.2.2 Percentage calculations * $10\%$ of $100$ is $10$, stated as "ten per cent of one hundred equals ten" [27](#page=27). ### 5.3 Quoting prices When quoting prices, it is essential to use the verb "to be". Currency amounts must be written out in full words [28](#page=28). #### 5.3.1 British currency * The official name is Pound Sterling, with the symbol GBP and ISO code GBP [27](#page=27). * One pound is equivalent to 1.21 euros [27](#page=27). * There are 100 pennies in a pound; "penny" is informal [27](#page=27). * A coin worth 1 pound is a "one-pound coin" [27](#page=27). * A banknote worth 5 pounds is "five pounds" or a "five-pound note" [27](#page=27). #### 5.3.1.1 Saying amounts of money (British) * 1p is read as "one penny" [28](#page=28). * 5p is read as "five pence" [28](#page=28). * GBP 2.46 is read as "two pounds forty-six," or less commonly, "two pounds and forty-six pennies" [28](#page=28). * Note: "Pence" is the plural for value, while "pennies" refers to the coins themselves [28](#page=28). #### 5.3.2 American currency * The currency is the Dollar, with the symbol USD and ISO code USD [28](#page=28). * One dollar is equivalent to 100 cents. "Bucks" is an informal term for dollar [28](#page=28). * Some coins have specific names: * One-cent coin = penny [28](#page=28). * Five-cent coin = nickel [28](#page=28). * Ten-cent coin = dime [28](#page=28). * Twenty-five cent coin = quarter [28](#page=28). #### 5.3.2.1 Saying amounts of money (American) * USD 5.39 is read as "five dollars thirty-nine," or less commonly, "five dollars (and) thirty-nine cents" [28](#page=28). #### 5.3.2.2 Writing amounts of money (American) * Two hundred dollars = two hundred dollars [28](#page=28). * Fifty cents = fifty cents [28](#page=28). * Two dollars fifty (cents) = two dollars fifty [28](#page=28). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Induction programme | A structured series of presentations or activities designed to familiarize new employees with the company, its policies, and procedures. | | Collocation | A combination of two or more words that are commonly used together in a way that sounds natural to native speakers, such as 'heavy rain' or 'make a decision'. | | Phrasal verb | A verb combined with a preposition or adverb, or both, to create a new meaning different from the original verb, for example, 'give up' or 'look forward to'. | | Virtual impressions | Perceptions or judgments formed about a company or person based on non-physical interactions, often through online presence or digital communication. | | Civil status | A person's marital status, which can include being single, married, divorced, widowed, or in a civil union or cohabiting. | | Headquarters (HQ) | The main administrative center or office of a company or organization, from which it is controlled and directed. | | Subsidiary | A company that is owned or controlled by another company, which is known as the parent company. | | USP (Unique Selling Proposition) | A feature of a product or service that differentiates it from competitors and is highlighted in advertising to persuade customers to buy. | | AGM (Annual General Meeting) | A formal meeting of shareholders or members of a public company, held once a year to discuss financial results and other important matters. | | Company culture | The shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that characterize an organization and guide its employees' actions and interactions. | | Asynchronous communication | Communication that does not occur in real-time, allowing participants to send and receive messages at different times, such as email. | | Cardinal numbers | Numbers used for counting, such as one, two, three, etc., that indicate quantity. | | Ordinal numbers | Numbers that denote the position of something in a series, such as first, second, third, etc. | | Decimal point | A symbol used in a number to separate the whole number part from the fractional part, particularly in American English. | | Pound sterling (£) | The official currency of the United Kingdom, also known as the pound, divided into 100 pence. | | Dollar ($) | The official currency of the United States and several other countries, divided into 100 cents. |