human geography - chapter 6 - religion.pdf

# Introduction to religion and its characteristics Religion is defined as a system of beliefs that connects humans to the supernatural, encompassing diverse forms and methods of membership acquisition, and can be categorized by the nature of deities or even secular systems exhibiting religious traits [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). ### 1.1 Defining religion * **Core Definition:** Religion is broadly characterized as a system of beliefs that connects humans to the supernatural [1](#page=1). * **Sacredness:** Religious beliefs and practices are generally considered sacred because adherents believe they were conceived by a supernatural power, a god(s), or a person possessing extraordinary power or insight [1](#page=1). * **Group Practice:** Religion is typically practiced in a group setting, with adherents bound by beliefs and practices that form the basis for group and individual identities [1](#page=1). * **Environmental Influence:** Many religious beliefs and practices are products of the natural and social environments in which they evolved, and in turn, they critically inform adherents on how to think and act across various issues, including politics, economics, and interactions with the natural environment [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Categorizing religions by membership acquisition Religions can be categorized based on how they acquire new members [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). #### 1.2.1 Proselytic religions * **Definition:** These religions actively recruit new members into their faith [1](#page=1). * **Characteristics:** They are often universal religions, meaning anyone can join [1](#page=1). * **Examples:** Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism are major religions that actively seek converts. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormons) is cited as an example of a proselytic faith with missionaries who encourage people to join [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.2 Ethnic religions * **Definition:** These religions rarely proselytize and are often referred to as closed religions [1](#page=1). * **Membership:** Generally, one must be born into the religion to become part of that religious group [1](#page=1). * **Examples:** Judaism and Hinduism are presented as prominent examples of ethnic religions. It is rare for a Jewish rabbi to invite someone to temple with the aim of them becoming Jewish [1](#page=1). ### 1.3 Categorizing religions by deities Religions can also be grouped based on the number and nature of their deities [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.1 Monotheistic religions * **Definition:** Religions focused on a single deity [2](#page=2). * **Examples:** Islam, Christianity, and Judaism consider themselves monotheistic [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.2 Polytheistic religions * **Definition:** Religions that have multiple deities with various responsibilities, personalities, and capabilities [2](#page=2). * **Examples:** The religions of Ancient Greece and Rome are well-known polytheistic religions [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.3 Pantheistic religions * **Definition:** Religions where the divine is present everywhere and in everything [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.4 Other focuses * Some religious practitioners focus less on deities and more on directing their energies inward to achieve an elevated state of mind, or seek a beneficial afterlife through outward deeds or acts of devotion [2](#page=2). > **Tip:** It's important to note that these categories are often messy and can overlap [2](#page=2). ### 1.4 Recognizing and counting religious adherents * **Visibility:** Some religions, like most Christian groups, are easily recognized and counted due to regular group meetings (congregations) in purpose-built structures (churches) [2](#page=2). * **Challenges:** Other religions and their adherents can be harder to recognize and count if adherents do not meet regularly in church, a purpose-built building for worship, or even meet regularly in a group [2](#page=2). ### 1.5 Secular belief systems with religious characteristics Interestingly, some presumably profane or secular belief and behavioral systems exhibit characteristics similar to religion [2](#page=2). * **Sacred Texts:** Some secular groups treat certain texts as if they are sacred or nearly sacred [2](#page=2). * **Rituals and Holidays:** These groups may have followers who engage in well-practiced rituals, observe holidays, and have figures akin to priests who hold specialized knowledge and interpret these special texts [2](#page=2). * **Meeting Places:** Many of these groups convene regularly in specially constructed buildings [2](#page=2). * **Examples for Debate:** Sociologists have likened Fascism and Marxism to religions, though these ideas are open to debate. Fraternal organizations like the Freemasons or the Odd Fellows are also cited as examples of groups taking on quasi-religious characteristics [2](#page=2). > **Example:** A Masonic lodge or temple, like one found in Philadelphia, can serve as an example of where secular and religious practices mimic one another [2](#page=2). > > **Example:** A street preacher using a bullhorn to attract converts demonstrates an active proselytizing method within a religious context [2](#page=2). * * * # Major world religions and their adherents This section explores the major global religious families, Abrahamic and Indian, detailing specific religions, their origins, beliefs, practices, and geographical distribution [3](#page=3). ### 2.1 Religious families and global distribution Most of the world's religious adherents belong to two major families: Abrahamic and Indian religions [3](#page=3). #### 2.1.1 Abrahamic religions Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, originated in the Middle East. Adherents of these faiths can now be found worldwide [3](#page=3). #### 2.1.2 Indian religions Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, originated on the Indian subcontinent and spread northeast across Asia [3](#page=3). #### 2.1.3 Other adherents Individuals not affiliated with these major traditions may follow local (folk) religions or no religion at all. The religiosity of individuals varies significantly, with some parts of the world being intensely faith-centered, particularly in the Muslim world, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). ### 2.2 Christianity Christianity is the world's largest religion with approximately 2.2 billion adherents. However, many Christians in developed nations exhibit lower levels of commitment to their faith, a phenomenon known as secularization [4](#page=4). #### 2.2.1 Divisions within Christianity Christianity is divided into various denominations [4](#page=4). ##### 2.2.1.1 Eastern Orthodoxy The Great Schism of 1054 led to a split between the Catholic Church into Eastern Orthodox Christians (headquartered in Constantinople) and Western (Roman Catholic) Christians (headquartered in Rome). The Eastern Orthodox Church comprises multiple national churches, such as Greek and Russian Orthodox, and is prevalent in Southeastern and Eastern Europe. Orthodox churches are often recognizable by their distinctive onion domes or helmet cupolas, unlike Western churches which typically have steeples or towers [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). ##### 2.2.1.2 Western Christianity Western Christianity was dominated by the Roman Catholic Church for centuries until the Protestant Reformation began in 1517. This movement involved Catholics protesting corrupt practices and demanding reforms, leading to the formation of Protestant denominations. A key demand was the right for individuals to read and interpret the Bible independently of papal authority. This period saw significant migration of people seeking freedom from religious persecution, including groups like the Pilgrims and Puritans to North America. Religious intolerance was also present in the New World, with instances of violence against Catholics, Jews, and various Asian faiths, and continues to be directed towards Muslims by some Evangelical Christians [5](#page=5). #### 2.2.2 American Christianity Christianity in the United States shows significant variation in practice, primarily through denominational differences and regional patterns [6](#page=6). ##### 2.2.2.1 Roman Catholicism Approximately 60 million Americans are Roman Catholic, making them the largest religious group. They are concentrated in New England, around the Great Lakes, and along the southern US border, reflecting late 19th and early 20th-century European migration patterns [6](#page=6). ##### 2.2.2.2 Evangelical Protestants Evangelical Protestants constitute the second-largest Christian group in the US, with around 50 million adherents. They emphasize a personal relationship with Jesus Christ, often interpret the Bible literally, and are motivated to spread their beliefs. Their congregations are frequently led by charismatic preachers. The largest Evangelical denomination is Southern Baptists (20 million), with Pentecostal and Non-Denominational churches also contributing significantly to the total. Evangelicals are dominant in the Deep South and Appalachia, areas with fewer Catholics, but also have large populations in cities like Los Angeles and Chicago [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). ##### 2.2.2.3 Mainline Protestants Mainline Protestants are another large category of Christians in the US, generally holding more progressive theological, political, and social views than Evangelicals. They are less likely to be Biblical literalists or to actively proselytize. Prominent Mainline Protestant denominations include Episcopalians, Methodists (10 million), Lutherans (6 million), and Presbyterians. They are predominantly found in the middle of the United States, with Methodists common in the Great Lakes/Midwestern states and Lutherans in the Upper Midwest. The United Church of Christ represents the evolution of the old New England Congregationalists and is common in New England [7](#page=7). ##### 2.2.2.4 Latter Day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS), popularly known as "Mormons," claims about 6 million members, primarily in Utah. Unlike Protestants, they do not trace their history to the Reformation but originated during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century. Founded by Joseph Smith Jr., the religion's tenets are found in the Book of Mormon, which recounts the history of an ancient North American civilization. Persecution in the 19th century led LDS members to seek refuge in Utah. They renounced polygamy in 1890, gaining wider acceptance. Like Evangelicals, they hold conservative cultural beliefs, emphasize family life, and maintain strong religious convictions. In 2018, the Church requested the discontinuation of the term "Mormon" [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.3 Secular and Diverse America In many parts of the US, particularly the West (excluding Utah), no single religion or denomination holds a majority, leading to greater religious diversity. Areas with high religious diversity often show lower rates of church attendance, with less than one-third of the population belonging to any faith in parts of Oregon, Ohio, Michigan, and Maine. Conversely, regions with low religious diversity, such as Utah, the Dakotas, and parts of Texas, have church attendance rates above 75%. Nationally, about 13% of Americans are agnostic [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.4 Diffusion of Religion Most Americans adopt the religion of their parents, a process that has continued for generations. Religious conversion was a significant driving force behind global colonization, part of the "Three G's" (God, Gold, and Glory). European religious intolerance fueled the migration of Christians to the New World, while Africans brought as slaves and Indigenous Americans were often forced to convert to Christianity. Social and legal sanctions historically limited religious choice, but the US Constitution guarantees religious freedom. Religious affiliation changes slowly, typically signaling significant life changes for individuals who convert or diverge from familial practices [10](#page=10). ##### 2.2.4.1 Denominational Affiliation Patterns Denominational affiliation patterns in the US can be partly explained by ethnicity and migration. Spanish colonization led to the conversion of Indigenous peoples in Latin America and the American Southwest, influencing the Catholic presence there. Catholic immigrants from Europe often settled in areas with established Catholic churches, attracting further Catholic migrants through chain migration. Lutherans, originating from Germanic countries, settled in colder climates like Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Dakotas, bringing their religion with them. Baptists became predominant in the US South due to their focus on oral religious services, appealing to immigrants who were less literate and had less access to schooling compared to other regions. The Southern Baptist Convention favored slavery prior to the Civil War, contributing to its popularity in the South [11](#page=11). ##### 2.2.4.2 Latter-day Saints and Urban Minorities The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints established dominance in the Intermontane West as a refuge from persecution in the 19th century. Religious minorities like Jews, Muslims, Hindus, and Buddhists tend to reside in large urban areas in the US, partly due to economic opportunities and the safety in numbers that large cities provide against discrimination and violence. Urban environments also foster a sense of tolerance due to exposure to diversity [12](#page=12). ##### 2.2.4.3 Novel Religious Practices Remoteness can foster innovation in religious practices and doctrinal interpretations. The American West, with its numerous isolated towns, attracted many Christian splinter groups and became a breeding ground for new religious movements, such as "new age" cults around Mt. Shasta in California [12](#page=12). ### 2.3 Islam Islam is the world's second-largest religion, with over 1.8 billion adherents, and is growing rapidly. It is not monolithic, with two major subgroups: Sunni (about 80% of Muslims) and Shia (Shi'ite) (about 20%). While Americans often associate Muslims primarily with Southwest Asia and North Africa, a larger Muslim population resides in Asia, including Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India. Nigeria in Sub-Saharan Africa also has a substantial Muslim population. In the United States, about 2.6 million Muslims reside there, with approximately 50,000 belonging to the Nation of Islam (NOI) [13](#page=13). #### 2.3.1 Core Beliefs and Texts The holy text of Islam is the Qur'an (or Koran). Muslims share commonalities with Christianity and Judaism, recognizing Abraham, Moses, and Jesus as prophets. They believe that Judaism and Christianity are corrupted variations of the same original religion, with the Qur'an representing the uncorrupted, final revelation from Allah to the Prophet Muhammad. Islam is strictly monotheistic, contrasting with the Christian doctrine of the Holy Trinity [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14). #### 2.3.2 Five Pillars of Islam Observant Muslims adhere to the Five Pillars of Islam, which are core religious duties [14](#page=14). 1. **Shahada:** The recitation of an oath of faith: "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah" [14](#page=14). 2. **Salat:** Performing prayer five times daily, often at a mosque, but acceptable in any clean place [14](#page=14). 3. **Alms giving (Zakat):** Donating a certain percentage of one's wealth to help the poor and needy. This collective giving likely exceeds all other global aid to the needy [14](#page=14). 4. **Sawm (Fasting):** Fasting from sunrise to sunset during the entire month of Ramadan for those who are able. This is followed by the holiday Eid al-Fitr [14](#page=14). 5. **Hajj:** A pilgrimage to Mecca, Islam's holiest city, which all Muslims must undertake at least once if physically and financially able [14](#page=14). The Arba'een Pilgrimage in Iraq, attracting up to 20 million Shia Muslims, is largely unknown in the United States [14](#page=14). ### 2.4 Judaism Judaism is the oldest Abrahamic religion, rooted in the Middle East. It is monotheistic, text-based, and fragmented, but unlike Christianity and Islam, it is not a universalizing religion, meaning Jews generally do not seek to convert others [14](#page=14). #### 2.4.1 Sub-groups Judaism is divided into several sub-groups based on the interpretation of Jewish Law: Orthodox (very conservative), less conservative groups, and Reform (more liberal). A fourth category, culturally Jewish, encompasses individuals who observe Jewish practices without actively practicing the religion [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). #### 2.4.2 Adherents and Distribution Between 11 and 15 million people worldwide identify as Jewish. Approximately 40% live in the United States, primarily in large cities like New York, Miami, and Los Angeles. Another 40% reside in Israel. Jews constitute less than 2% of the American population but have had a significant cultural impact. They have thrived in the US due to an emphasis on education and career success [15](#page=15). #### 2.4.3 Ethnic and Geographic Divisions About 10% of Jews live in Europe. Ashkenazi Jews, with recent European ancestry, are the most numerous. Sephardic Jews identify with a Middle Eastern or Mediterranean heritage [15](#page=15). ### 2.5 Hinduism There are approximately one billion Hindus globally, making it the third-largest religion. The majority of Hindus reside in India and Nepal, with over a million in the United States, primarily in large urban centers. Hinduism is the oldest of the major faiths and is characterized by a wide array of branches and interpretations. The Indian Supreme Court has suggested it be viewed as a way of life rather than a religion [15](#page=15). #### 2.5.1 Beliefs and Practices Hinduism encompasses a diverse range of beliefs, with followers who are monotheistic, polytheistic, pantheistic, and even atheistic. Key concepts incorporated into Western vocabulary include [15](#page=15): * **Karma:** The notion that one's actions in this life determine their destiny in the next life, with the possibility of carrying over to future lives [15](#page=15). * **Reincarnation:** The belief that the soul is reborn into a new body after death [15](#page=15). * **Dharma:** Adhering to one's duty or achieving harmony with an ideal lifestyle (righteousness) [16](#page=16). * **Nirvana:** A state of blissful enlightenment, the ultimate goal for many Hindus [16](#page=16). * **Yoga:** A set of practices, beyond mere stretching and breathing exercises, used by Hindus to achieve spiritual goals and well-being [16](#page=16). Hindus generally practice ritual cremation rather than burial. Many undertake pilgrimages, with the most famous being to the Ganges River in Varanasi, believed to absolve sin [16](#page=16). ### 2.6 Buddhism Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) lived in India around five centuries ago, seeking a new spiritual path due to perceived abuses and injustices within Hinduism. Buddhism shares concepts with Hinduism, such as Dharma, reincarnation, and karma [16](#page=16). #### 2.6.1 Core Tenets A central element of Buddhism is the Four Noble Truths, which explain the nature of suffering and the path to liberation [16](#page=16): 1. Suffering is a pervasive aspect of life. 2. Suffering arises from ignorance and desires. 3. Ceasing suffering requires eliminating ignorance and desires. 4. An eight-fold path leads to liberation from ignorance and desires. #### 2.6.2 Schools and Distribution Buddhism has spread from India and is the dominant belief system in much of East and Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Bali, and Kalmykia in Russia. There are several "schools" of Buddhism [16](#page=16): * **Theravada Buddhism:** Dominant in Southeast Asia, with high active participation [16](#page=16). * **Mahayana Buddhism:** Popular in China, Korea, and Japan, though adherence rates are lower and it is interwoven with local traditions like Confucianism and Shinto [16](#page=16). * **Tibetan Buddhism:** Found in Tibet, Nepal, and Mongolia, and well-known in the US due to the popularity of the Dalai Lama [16](#page=16). * * * # The landscape of religion and its manifestations Religious practice profoundly shapes the physical and cultural landscape, revealing belief systems and values, while simultaneously influencing adherents' practices [17](#page=17). ### 3.1 Sacred architecture and houses of worship Sacred architecture, from grandiose Catholic churches to the simple meetinghouses of the Amish, reflects diverse interpretations of religious texts and the desire to glorify deities. These structures aim to be monuments worthy of their religion and can evoke a sense of the supernatural or reinforce religious guidelines. Historically, stained-glass windows and elaborate designs served to educate a largely illiterate population about biblical stories and even to attract new converts [17](#page=17). * **Churches:** Represent a wide spectrum of religious expression, from monumental Catholic cathedrals to small, rural Baptist chapels, serving as iconic symbols of belief systems and lifestyles [17](#page=17). * **Megachurches:** A contemporary phenomenon in the US, these large complexes often include multiple buildings like gymnasiums and bookstores, offering numerous services for congregation convenience and acting as significant recruitment tools. Their extravagance has drawn controversy regarding the allocation of funds versus addressing societal needs and their potential impact on smaller churches [18](#page=18). * **Simple Architecture:** Groups like certain Amish and Mennonite communities forgo elaborate church buildings, worshipping in homes to adhere to interpretations of scripture stating God "does not dwell in temples made with hands". Early Puritan churches in New England also emphasized simplicity, lacking ornamentation and often built in square designs to foster communalism. Some congregations continue this tradition, prioritizing financial resources for other religious activities [18](#page=18). > **Tip:** The design and comfort level of a place of worship can influence the nature of services and the types of people it attracts. * **Adaptive Reuse:** Impoverished congregations may utilize secular spaces like abandoned gas stations or convenience stores for worship, raising questions about the process by which a place becomes sacred [19](#page=19). ### 3.2 Shrines and other sacred spaces The transformation of secular locations into sacred spaces is a common practice, though the process of sanctification can be informal [19](#page=19). * **Consecration and Desecration:** Holy persons can consecrate sites through ceremonies, while rituals can deconsecrate them. The aggressive destruction of sacred sites by vandals or rival groups is known as desecration [19](#page=19). * **Folk Shrines:** Small, often homemade shrines, particularly dedicated to the Virgin Mary and enclosed in grottos, are common in Catholic areas. These can range from dedicated structures to impromptu shrines at accident sites, adorned with candles, crosses, and memorabilia, temporarily creating sacred spaces for mourners [19](#page=19). * **Sites of Tragedy:** Locations of public tragedies, such as Ground Zero in New York City or Dealey Plaza in Dallas, can become sacred spaces where people gather to remember, grieve, and ponder metaphysical questions, exhibiting behaviors akin to those in formally recognized sacred spaces, like speaking in hushed tones. Monuments like the Lincoln Memorial can also subtly encourage visitors to treat the space as sacred [20](#page=20). > **Example:** The transformation of an abandoned building into a place of worship highlights that sacredness can be attributed through belief and practice, not solely through prescribed architecture. ### 3.3 Religious holiday space Religious holidays often convert public spaces into quasi-religious areas, sometimes detached from strict doctrine [20](#page=20). * **Secularization of Holidays:** In the US, secular spaces like shopping malls and roadsides become associated with religious holidays like Christmas, with figures like Santa Claus becoming symbols embraced by a wider public, including non-Christians [20](#page=20). * **Public Displays:** The placement of religious symbols like nativity scenes and menorahs in public spaces such as courthouses or parks during holidays can lead to legal debates about the use of public space for religious expression [20](#page=20). * **Civic and Religious Intersection:** Large public festivals like Mardi Gras or St. Patrick's Day parades blur the lines between religious, ethnic, and civic functions, often requiring significant public funding and endorsement [20](#page=20). ### 3.4 Cemeteries Cemeteries serve as religious or sacred spaces, often regulated and maintained by the public, offering insights into a society's religious beliefs about death and the afterlife [21](#page=21). * **Abrahamic Burial Practices:** The Abrahamic faiths generally believe in a future resurrection, leading to traditions of burial. Muslims bury the dead facing Mecca, while Christians traditionally bury facing east to greet Christ on Judgment Day. The extensive land dedicated to cemeteries, especially in large or old cities, presents geographical considerations [21](#page=21). * **Evolving Attitudes toward Death:** In the past, it was common to bury loved ones on family property. Today, backyard cemeteries are largely forbidden due to shifting attitudes about death, burial, and property, and the perceived "creepiness" associated with dead bodies. Past generations, experiencing death within the home rather than in isolated institutions, may have viewed cemeteries and the deceased with less fear [21](#page=21). * **Grave Markers and Cemetery Design:** Early Puritan grave markers were often plain, evolving to include imagery like "winged death heads" and skull and crossbones to remind the living of mortality. In the 19th century, cemeteries were sometimes designed as park-like spaces for tranquil encounters with death, suitable for strolls or picnics, a practice observed among immigrant families in cities like Los Angeles [22](#page=22). * **Modern Cemetery Trends:** The high cost and maintenance of traditional cemeteries have led to the popularity of memorial gardens with flat grave markers, facilitating easier lawn maintenance. However, the uniformity of markers can be unappealing. The rising costs of burial have also increased interest in cremation and natural burial as more environmentally conscious alternatives [22](#page=22). > **Tip:** The evolution of cemetery design and practices reflects significant changes in societal attitudes toward death, mortality, and the use of land. * * * # Cultural ecology of religion and its societal interactions Religion is deeply intertwined with various cultural elements, significantly influencing political, economic, and environmental spheres of society through its beliefs and practices [23](#page=23). ### 4.1 Religion and politics Religious affiliation often serves as a strong indicator of political behavior. In the United States, for example, Evangelical Christians and Mormons consistently exhibit conservative voting patterns. Historically, Southern Baptists were aligned with the Democratic Party for a considerable period post-Civil War. The "Reagan Revolution" in the 1980s saw a significant mobilization of conservative Christians towards the Republican Party, partly due to shifts on issues like Civil Rights for African-Americans and the contentious issue of abortion, championed by prominent television ministers like Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson. However, the alliance with the pro-business, anti-taxation stance of the Republican Party has sometimes created discomfort for some Evangelical Christians due to Biblical restrictions on usury, which conflict with policies advocating for deregulation of interest rates on loans [23](#page=23). ### 4.2 Religion and economics Religious doctrines profoundly impact economic activities. Many religions prohibit charging interest on loans, which historically limited lending practices in various societies. Jewish people, facing fewer restrictions on usury, dominated the banking industry until Christian doctrines on usury began to evolve after the Reformation, contributing to their long-standing involvement in banking and jewelry. Similarly, the prohibition of alcohol consumption by many Evangelical Christians and Mormons explains the scarcity of wineries in regions like Utah or Alabama. Conversely, California's historical association with Catholicism has supported its prosperous viticulture industry. Dietary restrictions, such as the abstinence from pork by Muslims, Jews, and some Christians, mean that pig farming is minimal in Israel and the Muslim world. In many parts of India, where meat consumption is avoided by various groups, animal husbandry is less common [24](#page=24). > **Tip:** Understanding religious dietary laws and financial ethics can provide insights into the prevalence or absence of certain industries in different regions. > **Example:** The absence of pork production in Muslim-majority countries due to religious prohibitions directly impacts the agricultural economy of those regions [24](#page=24). ### 4.3 Religion and the environment Religious beliefs also shape how individuals interact with the natural environment. Historically, Puritan settlers in New England viewed the vast forests negatively, associating them with chaos and the influence of Satan, contrasting them with the orderliness they perceived in cities, which they saw as a sign of God's plan. This perspective, where wilderness was seen as a place of sinfulness, can be observed in modern narratives, such as slasher films set in forests where characters who abandon moral codes often face dire consequences. The name of the NHL team, the New Jersey Devils, is also traced back to this historical Christian fear of untamed wilderness [24](#page=24). However, attitudes towards wilderness began to shift in the 19th century. Figures like John Muir argued that wilderness was a place for spiritual communion, a stark contrast to the earlier Puritanical view. This re-evaluation occurred alongside the Industrial Revolution and modern capitalism, leading some to view cities as centers of moral degradation and spiritual corruption, while considering wilderness areas as sites of purity or "God's Country" [25](#page=25). These differing philosophical stances continue to influence public opinion on environmental issues like climate change and deforestation, with religious affiliation playing a significant role. Individuals whose religions emphasize stewardship of the environment are more likely to hold positive views towards environmentalism. Conversely, those who believe the earth is primarily for human use may be less concerned about activities like coal mining or pipelines. This latter belief is more prevalent among religious conservatives in the United States. Some Christian Fundamentalists even interpret ecological catastrophes, such as global climate change, as signs of the Apocalypse or "Rapture," viewing them as welcome indicators of the end-of-days [25](#page=25). > **Tip:** The evolution of religious attitudes towards nature demonstrates how societal changes and intellectual movements can lead to reinterpretation of religious doctrines and their application to environmental ethics. > **Example:** The preservation efforts for Yosemite National Park reflect a significant 19th-century shift in religious and spiritual attitudes towards nature, moving from viewing it as a place to be tamed to one to be preserved and revered [25](#page=25). * * * ## Common mistakes to avoid * Review all topics thoroughly before exams * Pay attention to formulas and key definitions * Practice with examples provided in each section * Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Supernatural | Relating to or being beyond the limits of natural experience or phenomena. It often refers to forces or entities that are believed to be divine or to have a power beyond the natural world. | | Adherents | Individuals who follow or support a particular belief system, cause, or leader. In a religious context, adherents are people who are committed to a specific religion. | | Proselytic faiths | Religions that actively seek to recruit new members and convert people to their beliefs. They often engage in missionary work and evangelism to spread their faith. | | Ethnic religions | Religions that are tied to a particular ethnic group or culture, and membership is typically obtained through birth rather than conversion. Conversion is generally not sought by these religions. | | Monotheistic | The belief in the existence of only one God. Religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are considered monotheistic. | | Polytheistic | The belief in the existence of multiple gods. Ancient Greek and Roman religions are notable examples of polytheistic systems. | | Pantheistic | The belief that divinity is present in everything in the universe and that the universe itself is divine. The divine is seen as being immanent in all things. | | Congregation | A group of people who gather for religious worship. This term is often associated with Christian churches but can apply to gatherings in other religious contexts. | | Denominations | Distinct religious bodies or groups within a larger religion, often characterized by specific doctrines, practices, or historical origins. | | Cult | A system of religious veneration and adoration, often considered a relatively small group with beliefs or practices regarded by others as strange or sinister. Academically, it can refer to a new religious movement. | | Abrahamic religions | A group of monotheistic faiths—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—that trace their common origin to Abraham. They share many theological similarities and traditions. | | Indian religions | A family of religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. They often share concepts like karma and reincarnation. | | Secularization | The process by which religious institutions and beliefs lose their social and cultural significance. In a developed world context, it refers to declining religious observance and belief. | | Protestant Reformation | A religious movement in the 16th century that led to the separation of Protestant churches from the Roman Catholic Church. Key figures like Martin Luther challenged Catholic doctrines and practices. | | Evangelical Protestants | A branch of Protestant Christianity that emphasizes the experience of conversion, the authority of the Bible, and the importance of spreading their faith. They often have a literal interpretation of scripture. | | Mainline Protestants | A group of Protestant denominations in the United States that are generally more theologically liberal and progressive than Evangelical Protestants. They often have a more moderate interpretation of the Bible. | | Latter-day Saints (LDS) | A religious denomination originating in the 19th century in the United States, commonly known as Mormons. They have distinct scriptures and practices, including the Book of Mormon. | | Hajj | The pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, which is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey. | | Zakat | An obligatory charitable contribution in Islam, calculated as a small percentage of a Muslim's wealth, and given to the poor and needy. It is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. | | Sawm | Fasting from dawn until sunset during the month of Ramadan, one of the Five Pillars of Islam. It is a period of spiritual reflection, self-discipline, and devotion. | | Shahada | The Islamic declaration of faith, stating "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger." It is the first of the Five Pillars of Islam and a fundamental tenet of the religion. | | Salat | The ritual prayer performed by Muslims five times a day. It is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and involves specific movements and recitations directed towards Mecca. | | Nirvana | In Buddhism and Hinduism, a state of perfect peace and enlightenment, achieved through the cessation of desire and suffering. It is considered the ultimate goal for many practitioners. | | Dharma | In Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, it refers to the principle of cosmic order, one's duty, ethical conduct, and the path to spiritual enlightenment. | | Karma | In Indian religions, a principle of cause and effect where one's actions in this life determine their fate in future lives. Good deeds lead to positive outcomes, and bad deeds lead to negative ones. | | Reincarnation | The rebirth of a soul in a new body after death. This concept is central to Hinduism and Buddhism, where the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is influenced by karma. | | Sacred space | A place that is considered holy or has special spiritual significance. This can include churches, temples, natural sites, or even ordinary locations sanctified through rituals or remembrance. | | Desecration | The act of spoiling or violating something that is considered sacred or holy. This can involve vandalism or the aggressive destruction of religious sites by rival groups. | | Quasi-religious space | A space that exhibits characteristics of a religious setting or function, even if it is not formally designated as sacred. Examples include public spaces used for holiday displays or sites of public tragedy. | | Cultural preadaptation | The process by which certain cultural traits or practices become advantageous or well-suited to a specific environmental context before migration or settlement occurs. | | Usury | The practice of lending money at exorbitantly high rates of interest. Historically, many religions, including Christianity and Islam, have condemned usury as a sin. | | Viticulture | The cultivation of grapevines for winemaking and other purposes. It is an agricultural industry closely linked to the historical presence of Catholicism in regions like California. | | Apocalypse | In religious contexts, it refers to a prophetic revelation concerning the end of the world or a momentous, catastrophic event. Some Christian Fundamentalists view ecological disasters as signs of the approaching Apocalypse. |