Revision Sheet - Fall 2025.docx

# Defining and understanding culture This topic explores the multifaceted nature of culture, encompassing its definition, historical understanding, and its relationship with society, identity, and diversity. ## 1. Defining and understanding culture Culture can be understood as a complex whole of learned behaviors, beliefs, and social patterns. It encompasses a broad spectrum of human activity and knowledge, including language, ideas, customs, laws, art, morals, institutions, tools, and rituals. Essentially, culture shapes a group's identity through unique social patterns. ### 1.1 Early anthropological and sociological perspectives * **Edward Burnett Tylor's classic definition (1871):** Culture is "that complex of whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." This definition emphasizes the learned and societal aspects of culture. * **Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition:** Defines culture as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings that are learned through socialization. This highlights the shared and learned nature of cultural elements. ### 1.2 Cultural studies and evolving concepts * **Subjectivity and Engaged Analysis:** Early cultural studies approached culture through two main features: * **Subjectivity:** Examining culture in relation to individual lives and how changes affect a person's way of life. * **Engaged form of analysis:** Critiquing societal inequalities and advocating for those with fewer resources, recognizing that societies are not equally structured. * **Critique of "High Culture":** Cultural studies moved away from the idea of culture as solely "high culture" with constant, universal value. Raymond Williams critiqued the separation of culture from society and "high culture" from a "whole way of life," though he acknowledged this separation gave modern culture its unique energy. * **Hegemony:** From the 1970s, culture began to be viewed as a form of "hegemony," a concept associated with Antonio Gramsci. Hegemony describes domination that is not overtly visible, involving both coercion and the consent of the dominated. It explains phenomena like the popularity of fascism despite its curtailment of liberties. Counter-hegemonic strategies must adapt to changing social and cultural conditions. * **Governmentality:** Michel Foucault's concept of "governmentality" relates to culture as a means to produce conforming citizens, often through education. As culture was seen less as local expression and more as a system of domination, cultural studies critiqued its hegemonic effects. * **Semiotic Analysis:** Early critiques heavily utilized semiotic analysis, breaking down culture into discrete messages and practices distributed by institutions and media. For example, analyzing cigarette smoking not just as a practice but as a signifier of masculinity and freedom. * **Ideology:** Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan viewed individuals as constructs of ideology, which refers to widespread knowledge and values that constitute "common sense." Ideology is seen as essential for the reproduction of the state and capitalism, masking political and class differences as natural and universal. ### 1.3 Cultural diversity and its implications * **Definition of Diversity:** Diversity refers to "a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system." It includes culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. * **Global Context:** With a significant global migrant population, societies are increasingly composed of multiple cultures. This diversity offers potential for educational and personal development through mutual enrichment. * **Challenges of Diversity:** Fundamental cultural differences can lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Identity politics can divide groups, leading to feelings of persecution and misunderstanding. * **Interactions and Shared Values:** Despite differences, people from various origins and cultures interact daily in shared environments, often adhering to common values and norms for everyday events. * **Understanding and Coexistence:** Understanding different cultures and identities is crucial for living and collaborating together, reducing misunderstandings and biases. Cultural diversity provides opportunities to transcend one's own perspectives and experience different ways of being. * **Challenges to Compatibility:** Difficulties arise when different identities are not compatible or compete, particularly when underlying prejudices and misconceptions prevent coexistence and cooperation. * **Equity and Justice:** The core themes in discussions of cultural diversity are equity and justice, encompassing respect for cultures, recognition of identities, and transformation of social systems. * **Recognition:** A fundamental human need, recognition involves how people treat each other, fostering a sense of belonging. This can range from elementary recognition and respect to love and friendship. However, there is no universal agreement on what recognition entails, leading to diverse interpretations and applications across political, social, curricular, and personal levels. #### 1.3.1 Forms of multiculturalism * **Multicultural State:** This concept involves: 1. **Repudiation of dominant group ownership:** The state belongs equally to all citizens. 2. **Accommodation of minority groups:** Replacing assimilationist policies with recognition and accommodation, allowing citizens to access state institutions without denying their ethnocultural identity. 3. **Acknowledgment of historic injustice:** Willingness to offer remedies for past assimilation and exclusion policies. * **Trends in Multiculturalism:** * **Indigenous Peoples:** A shift from policies of assimilation and disappearance to recognizing indigenous peoples as distinct societies with rights to land claims, cultural practices, and self-government. * **Substate/Minority Nationalisms:** Moving from suppressing regional groups with distinct national identities to accommodating them through regional autonomy and official language rights, often via federal or quasi-federal structures. * **Immigrant Groups:** A change from assimilationist approaches to a "multicultural" conception of integration, where public institutions accommodate visible ethnic identities. This includes adopting race-neutral admissions criteria. * **Metics:** Long-term residents not admitted as citizens (e.g., undocumented migrants, asylum-seekers, overstayed visa holders). Their primary claim is regularization of status and access to citizenship, though some countries resist this due to their irregular entry or non-compliance with visa terms. ### 1.4 Prejudice and discrimination * **Nature of Prejudice:** Prejudice, meaning "prejudgment," is an attitude toward a social group. A traditional view includes cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and conative (intentions) components. However, other definitions incorporate discriminatory behavior. * **Dehumanization:** A key aspect of prejudice is the dehumanization of an outgroup, making atrocities seem less significant. * **Societal Impact:** Prejudice contributes to significant human suffering, from restricted opportunities to violence and genocide. Despite being socially undesirable, it pervades social life, often masked by justifications. * **Prejudiced Attitudes and Discriminatory Behavior:** Prejudice is often considered an attitude objectified as a social group. It involves derogatory social attitudes, negative affect, and intentions to behave hostilely or discriminatorily towards members of a group due to their membership. --- # Cultural studies and concepts of hegemony This section explores cultural studies as an academic field, emphasizing its subjective and engaged analytical approach, and its interaction with concepts like hegemony and governmentality. ### 2.1 Cultural studies: an engaged and subjective approach Cultural studies is characterized by two primary features: subjectivity and an engaged form of analysis. #### 2.1.1 Subjectivity in cultural studies Subjectivity refers to the study of culture in relation to individual lives. It examines the changes that occur within an individual's life and how these transformations influence their overall way of living. #### 2.1.2 Engaged analysis in cultural studies The second key characteristic is an "engaged form of analysis." This perspective posits that societies are not structured equally, and individuals do not possess the same access to resources such as education, wealth, or healthcare. Cultural studies, through its engaged analysis, champions the interests of those with fewer resources. > **Tip:** Early cultural studies rejected the notion of culture solely as an abbreviation for 'high culture' with a fixed value, instead emphasizing its connection to societal structures and lived experiences. #### 2.1.3 Raymond Williams and the redefinition of culture Raymond Williams, in his work *Culture and Society*, critiqued the separation of culture from society and 'high culture' from a broader understanding of "culture as a whole way of life." However, he also acknowledged that this very separation contributed to modern culture's dynamism and capacity for insight. ### 2.2 Hegemony and governmentality From the early 1970s, culture began to be conceptualized through the lens of "hegemony," a term associated with Antonio Gramsci. #### 2.2.1 Gramsci's concept of hegemony Hegemony describes relations of domination that are not overtly apparent. It involves both coercion and the consent of the dominated. Gramsci developed this concept to explain the popularity of Mussolini's fascism, despite its curtailment of individual liberties. > **Tip:** Because hegemonic forces continuously adapt to changing social and cultural conditions, counter-hegemonic strategies must also be regularly revised. #### 2.2.2 Foucault's concept of governmentality In a similar vein, Michel Foucault introduced the concept of "governmentality," viewing culture as a mechanism for producing conforming or "docile" citizens, largely through educational systems. #### 2.2.3 Cultural studies' critique of hegemonic effects As culture was increasingly understood not merely as an expression of local communities but as an apparatus within a larger system of domination, cultural studies began to offer critiques of culture's hegemonic influences. Initially, this critique heavily relied on semiotic analysis. #### 2.2.4 Semiotic analysis and cultural "messages" Semiotic analysis deconstructs culture into discrete messages, which are seen as practices or discourses distributed by institutions and media. For instance, the analysis of cigarette smoking among workers would not just see it as a life practice but as a signifier associated with images like the "Marlboro Man," symbolizing masculinity, freedom, and escape from mundane work. > **Example:** A semiotic analysis of a particular advertisement might break down its visual elements, text, and sound to understand how it constructs meanings about a product and its target audience, revealing underlying cultural assumptions and desires. #### 2.2.5 Ideology and the reproduction of power Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan proposed that individuals are constructs of ideology. Ideology, in this context, refers not to disapproved beliefs but to the prevalent set of discourses and images that form widespread knowledge and values, often termed "common sense." This ideology is essential for the state and capitalism to perpetuate themselves without facing revolutionary threats. > **Tip:** For thinkers like Hoggart and Williams, the state's claim to neutrality is seen as false because it serves to protect the class differences inherent in capitalist "relations of production." Althusser argued that dominant ideology transforms inherently political, partial, and mutable phenomena into something perceived as "natural," universal, and eternal. --- # Diversity and its social implications Diversity encompasses the vast spectrum of human differences within societies and workplaces, presenting both profound challenges and enriching opportunities. ### 3.1 Understanding diversity Diversity refers to a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system. It encompasses a wide range of differences, including: * Culture * Ethnicity * Physical abilities/qualities * Class * Religious beliefs * Traditions and customs * Sexual orientation * Gender identity This rich tapestry of human experience makes life more interesting and offers significant potential for educational and personal development through mutual enrichment. However, fundamental cultural differences can also lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. > **Tip:** While diversity enriches society, it's crucial to recognize that differences can also be a source of conflict if not managed with understanding and respect. #### 3.1.1 The concept of culture Culture is defined as the complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of society. More broadly, it involves shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings that are learned through socialization, fostering a group's unique identity. Cultural studies, as a field, is characterized by: * **Subjectivity:** Examining culture in relation to individual lives and how changes affect a person's way of life. * **Engaged analysis:** Recognizing societal inequalities in access to resources like education and money, and working to benefit those with fewer resources. Raymond Williams critiqued the separation of "culture" from "a whole way of life" and "high culture" from broader cultural practices, though he acknowledged this separation could lend modern culture energy and insight. #### 3.1.2 Hegemony and governmentality From the early 1970s, culture began to be viewed through the lens of "hegemony," a concept developed by Antonio Gramsci. Hegemony describes subtle relations of domination that involve both coercion and the consent of the dominated. Gramsci used this to explain the popularity of fascism despite its curtailment of liberties. Because hegemonic forces adapt to changing social and cultural conditions, counter-hegemonic strategies must also evolve. Michel Foucault's concept of "governmentality" further expands this idea, viewing culture as a means to produce conforming or "docile" citizens, often through educational systems. As culture was increasingly understood as an apparatus within larger systems of domination, cultural studies began to critique its hegemonic effects. #### 3.1.3 Semiotic analysis and ideology Early critiques of culture often relied on semiotic analysis, which breaks down culture into discrete messages or "discourses" distributed by institutions and media. For example, the act of smoking among workers might be analyzed not just as a practice but as a signifier of masculinity, freedom, and escape from work, often produced by media imagery. Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan viewed individuals as constructs of ideology. Ideology, in this context, refers not to beliefs one disapproves of, but to the pervasive discourses and images that constitute common sense knowledge and values. This dominant ideology is essential for the reproduction of the state and capitalism by preventing revolutionary threats. The state's claim to neutrality is seen as false, as it protects the exploitative "relations of production" and class differences necessary for capitalism. Dominant ideology, according to Althusser, can make political, partial, and changeable aspects of society appear "natural," universal, and eternal. #### 3.1.4 Diversity in contemporary societies In contemporary societies, diversity is a ubiquitous reality in both communities and workplaces. The significant global migration, estimated at about one billion people in 2019, means that societies are increasingly composed of individuals from many cultures. While this diversity is a source of richness, fundamental cultural differences can unfortunately lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. People from diverse origins and cultures interact daily in neighborhoods, workplaces, and educational settings. Despite these differences, individuals often share common values and norms, and engage in similar everyday activities. This coexistence presents an opportunity for mutual enrichment through understanding and experiencing different languages, customs, historical memories, and beliefs. #### 3.1.5 The evolving concept of diversity The term "diversity" is often used ambiguously in discussions of multiculturalism, identity politics, and anti-discrimination policies. It can refer to any approach that recognizes differences, such as distinctions in education based on gender, immigration, or disability. However, an overemphasis on isolated differences can lead to difficulties in addressing other "sources of difference" and their intersections. The concept of "difference," which implies clear distinctions, is gradually being replaced by "diversity," which emphasizes multiplicity, overlap, and the crossing of human variations. This is analogous to the concept of "biodiversity," which refers to biological and ecological variations. Culture is closely linked to identity, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities, bringing both opportunities and challenges. The increasing presence of people from various cultural, racial, ethnic, and religious backgrounds necessitates understanding and learning about other cultures and identities to foster collaboration and diminish misunderstandings, stereotypes, biases, and discrimination. Cultural diversity can offer opportunities to transcend one's own perspectives and engage with different ways of being, making societies more dynamic. ### 3.2 Challenges and opportunities of diversity Difficulties arise when different identities are not compatible and must compete. Overcoming these challenges is particularly hard when underlying prejudices and misconceptions prevent people from different backgrounds from living or cooperating together. For those who have fought against exclusion, the continuation of wars and conflicts fueled by misunderstandings and hatred toward different cultures and identities is disorienting and disheartening. #### 3.2.1 Recognition and justice Cultural diversity is often discussed in terms of equity and justice. The meaning of these terms can range from showing equal respect for all cultures to maintaining cultural diversity, recognizing all identities associated with cultures, and transforming social systems. Cultural diversity extends beyond the mere coexistence of various human attributes to how people react to this reality and choose to live together. Pioneering movements, such as the civil rights movements, have recognized different cultures and identities as a major approach to acknowledge and rectify past injustices where the contributions of certain groups were denied or ignored. In countries with a history of immigration, such as the United States, Australia, and Canada, denying the contributions of specific groups and their cultures is dishonest and undermines the shared past of citizens. Rectifying past injustices and creating a just and inclusive environment requires admitting these wrongs. Human beings require recognition from each other to live with dignity, especially in diverse societies. Recognition, viewed as a courtesy and a fundamental human need, involves how people treat each other. Providing everyone with a sense of belonging is crucial in diverse public and private spheres, and recognized culture is indispensable for cultivating this sense. However, there is no universal agreement on what "recognition" entails. It can encompass elementary respect, esteem, love, friendship, acknowledgment, and the allowance of coexistence and interplay. This multifaceted nature makes recognition a concept that is difficult to define and implement universally. #### 3.2.2 Forms of recognition To better understand recognition in the context of diversity, several categories have been proposed: * **Political recognition:** This refers to the recognition of cultures in legal and political spheres, such as citizenship and voting rights. It emphasizes combining recognition with redistribution to ensure equal participation in public life, even if not supported by the majority in everyday life. * **Social recognition:** This requires different groups to recognize and respect each other's cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular recognition:** This is vital because minority cultures and identities are often denigrated. Curricular recognition promotes an inclusive national narrative in educational curricula to unite people from different cultural backgrounds. It insists that fundamental diverse cultures and identities should be reflected in curricula. #### 3.2.3 Multiculturalism and state reforms The struggles for multiculturalism involve common principles across different countries, even though the precise details vary. These general principles include: 1. **Repudiation of the dominant group's ownership of the state:** The state is viewed as belonging equally to all citizens, not just a single national group. 2. **Rejection of assimilationist policies:** Nation-building policies that assimilate or exclude minority groups are rejected. Instead, individuals should have equal access to state institutions and political life without having to conceal their ethnocultural identity. The state has an obligation to accord the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups the same recognition and accommodation as the dominant group. 3. **Acknowledgment of historic injustice:** Recognition is given to past injustices done to minority/non-dominant groups by policies of assimilation and exclusion, with a willingness to offer remedies or rectification. #### 3.2.4 Different trends in multiculturalism While abstract principles of multiculturalism are common, specific approaches vary significantly across countries and between different minority groups. Three general trends can be observed, primarily in Western democracies: ##### 3.2.4.1 Indigenous peoples Historically, countries like Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia, and the United States aimed for the eventual disappearance of indigenous peoples as distinct communities through assimilation or intermarriage. Policies often involved stripping lands, restricting traditional practices, and undermining self-government. However, a significant reversal began in the 1970s, with a general acceptance, in principle, that indigenous peoples will continue as distinct societies with land claims, cultural rights, and self-government rights. ##### 3.2.4.2 Substate/minority nationalisms Groups such as the Québécois in Canada, Scots and Welsh in Britain, Catalans and Basques in Spain, Flemish in Belgium, and minorities in Italy and the United States see themselves as distinct nations within larger states. Historically, these nationalisms were suppressed through measures like restricting minority language rights and abolishing regional self-government. Today, there is a shift towards accommodating these identities through "multination and multilingual federalism," often involving federal subunits with self-government and official language rights. France is a notable exception, though recent legislation has aimed to provide autonomy to Corsica. ##### 3.2.4.3 Immigrant groups In traditional "countries of immigration" like the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, the historical approach was assimilationist, expecting immigrants to adopt the prevailing way of life. Discriminatory policies excluded certain ethnic groups. Since the late 1960s, there has been a move towards race-neutral admissions criteria and a more "multicultural" conception of integration, where immigrants are encouraged to express their ethnic identities, and public institutions are expected to accommodate them. #### 3.2.5 Metics: Residents excluded from citizenship "Metics" is a term borrowed from Ancient Greece to describe long-term residents who are excluded from citizenship. This category includes individuals who enter a country illegally, as asylum-seekers, students, or "guest-workers" who have overstayed their visas. They were not initially conceived as future citizens but have settled permanently. Metics face significant obstacles to integration and often live on the margins of society. Their primary claim is for regularization of their status and access to citizenship. Western democracies have responded differently to this demand. Some countries, particularly those with a history of immigration, have granted permanent residence and citizenship to asylum-seekers and guest-workers, or offered periodic amnesties to illegal immigrants. Other countries, often those less accustomed to immigration, have resisted these demands due to legal complexities, a lack of integration infrastructure, or xenophobia. ### 3.3 Prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination represent significant challenges to humanity, often leading to profound hatred, torture, and murder. Understanding their causes and consequences is a critical endeavor. Despite technological advancements, preventing wars and conflicts fueled by prejudice remains a major hurdle. #### 3.3.1 Dehumanization and its consequences A particularly harmful aspect of prejudice is the dehumanization of outgroups, making atrocities against them seem akin to harming insects. Historical examples include Europeans viewing Asians as "strange and wondrous creatures" and a Chinese scholar describing Europeans as "tall beasts." Dehumanization can range from restricted opportunities to physical violence and genocide. #### 3.3.2 The paradox of prejudice Despite being socially undesirable and often leading to severe insults like "racist" or "bigot," prejudice pervades social life. Even in societies where prejudice is institutionalized, sophisticated justifications are used to mask it. The apartheid system in South Africa, for instance, was publicly presented as a recognition of cultural differences, while in reality, it was a system of institutionalized prejudice. Researchers view prejudice as doubly social: it involves people's feelings and actions towards others, guided by group memberships and historical intergroup relations. #### 3.3.3 Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behavior The term "prejudice" literally means "prejudgment." Traditionally, prejudice is understood as an attitude with three components: * **Cognitive:** Beliefs about the attitude object (a social group). * **Affective:** Strong feelings (usually negative) about the attitude object and its perceived qualities. * **Conative:** Intentions to behave in certain ways towards the attitude object. However, some definitions of prejudice also include discriminatory behavior. For example, one definition includes the holding of derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs, the expression of negative affect, or the display of hostile or discriminatory behavior towards members of a group solely because of their group membership. --- # Multiculturalism and recognition of diverse groups Multiculturalism and the recognition of diverse groups analyze how societies accommodate and integrate individuals and communities with varied cultural backgrounds, focusing on principles of recognition and accommodation. ### 4.1 Defining Diversity and Cultural Diversity Diversity refers to the coexistence of different group identities within the same social system, encompassing a wide range of differences including culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. Cultural diversity, in particular, is defined as a reality of coexistence of diverse knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, religions, languages, abilities and disabilities, genders, ethnicities, races, nationalities, and other human variations. It is not merely the existence of these differences but also how individuals and societies react to and choose to live with this reality. #### 4.1.1 The Nature of Cultural Diversity * **A Rich Tapestry:** Cultural diversity is often described as a beautiful tapestry that makes life rich and interesting, offering potential for educational and personal development through mutual enrichment. * **Interactions and Shared Values:** While people from different cultures interact daily in shared environments with common values and norms, their distinct languages, customs, and beliefs can also lead to misunderstandings, stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. * **Shift from Difference to Diversity:** The concept of "difference" (e.g., feminist, intercultural, integrative education focusing on gender, immigration, or disability) is evolving towards "diversity," which emphasizes multiplicity, overlapping, and crossing between sources of human variation, similar to how "biodiversity" refers to biological and ecological variations. * **Culture and Identity:** Culture is closely linked to identity, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities, presenting both opportunities and challenges for education and society. > **Tip:** Understanding cultural diversity requires acknowledging that it is not just about the presence of different groups but also about the dynamic interactions and the accommodation of varied perspectives and experiences. ### 4.2 Recognition and Belonging Human beings require recognition from one another to live with dignity, especially in a culturally diverse society. Recognition, in this context, relates to how people should treat each other and is considered a fundamental human need akin to courtesy. In societies where people with different cultures mix, providing everyone with a sense of belonging is crucial, and recognized culture is an indispensable element for cultivating this feeling. #### 4.2.1 The Ambiguity of "Recognition" While recognition is generally agreed upon as desirable for teaching about cultural diversity, there is no universal agreement on its precise meaning. It can encompass elementary recognition, respect, esteem, love, friendship, acknowledging and being acknowledged, and allowing coexistence and interplay. This ambiguity makes it challenging to define and implement recognition consistently. #### 4.2.2 Dimensions of Recognition Recognition can be understood through several dimensions: * **Political Recognition:** Focuses on the legal and political spheres, including citizenship and voting rights. It often involves combining recognition with redistribution to ensure equal participation in public life, irrespective of majority opinion. * **Social Recognition:** Requires different groups to recognize and respect each other's cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular Recognition:** Essential when minority cultures and identities are denigrated. It promotes an inclusive national narrative within curricula to foster unity among people from diverse backgrounds. It insists that fundamental diverse cultures and identities should be reflected in educational content. * **Personal Recognition:** Operates at individual and psychological levels, pertaining to how individuals are perceived and valued personally. ### 4.3 Principles of a Multicultural State The struggles for multiculturalism, though varied in their specific demands, generally share common principles: 1. **Shared State Ownership:** The repudiation of the idea that the state belongs to a single national group. Instead, the state must be viewed as belonging equally to all citizens. 2. **Recognition and Accommodation:** The rejection of assimilationist or exclusionary nation-building policies. Individuals should be able to access state institutions and participate in political life as full and equal citizens without denying their ethnocultural identity. The state has an obligation to accord the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups the same recognition and accommodation provided to the dominant group. 3. **Rectification of Past Injustices:** Acknowledging historical injustices committed against minority or non-dominant groups through older policies of assimilation and exclusion, and demonstrating a willingness to offer remedies or rectification. > **Tip:** These three principles form the bedrock of multicultural state aspirations: shared belonging, equal participation through recognition and accommodation, and making amends for historical wrongs. ### 4.4 Different Forms of Multiculturalism While abstract principles guide multiculturalism, their practical application varies significantly across countries and even among different minority groups within a single country. Three general trends, primarily observed in Western democracies, illustrate these variations: #### 4.4.1 Indigenous Peoples Historically, countries like Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia, Greenland, and the United States pursued policies aimed at the eventual disappearance of indigenous peoples as distinct communities through assimilation, land dispossession, cultural suppression, and undermining self-governance. However, starting in the early 1970s, a significant policy reversal occurred. Today, these nations generally recognize indigenous peoples as distinct societies within the larger country, with rights to land claims, cultural preservation (including customary law), and self-government to sustain their distinctiveness. #### 4.4.2 Substate/Minority Nationalisms This trend concerns regionally concentrated groups that perceive themselves as nations within larger states, such as the Québécois in Canada, Scots and Welsh in Britain, Catalans and Basques in Spain, Flemish in Belgium, South Tyroleans in Italy, and Puerto Ricans in the United States. Historically, these substate nationalisms were suppressed through measures like restricting minority language rights and abolishing regional self-government, as they were seen as threats to state integrity. The modern approach, however, involves accommodating these nationalist aspirations. This often manifests as multination and multilingual federalism, where minority groups gain self-government in federal or quasi-federal subunits, and their language is recognized as an official state language, at least regionally. France is noted as an exception, although recent legislation indicates a move towards granting autonomy to Corsica. #### 4.4.3 Immigrant Groups Immigrants are individuals and families who choose to relocate to another society, typically with the right to become citizens after a specified period, subject to minimal conditions like language proficiency and knowledge of the country. Traditional "countries of immigration" like the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand historically pursued assimilationist policies, expecting immigrants to adopt the dominant society's speech, dress, and way of life. Exclusionary laws, such as those barring Africans and Asians, reflected this approach. Since the late 1960s, there has been a shift towards race-neutral admissions criteria, leading to greater diversity in immigrant origins, and a multicultural conception of integration, where public institutions are expected to accommodate ethnic identities. #### 4.4.4 Metics Metics are migrants not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens. This heterogeneous group includes individuals who enter a country illegally, seek asylum, or overstay student or guest-worker visas. They are not initially intended as permanent residents but often settle long-term. While facing the threat of deportation, they form communities, engage in employment, and may form families. Borrowing from ancient Greek terminology, Michael Walzer uses "metics" to describe these long-term residents excluded from full political participation. Metics face significant legal, political, economic, social, and psychological obstacles to integration, often existing on the margins of society. Their primary claim is usually to regularize their status as permanent residents and gain access to citizenship. Some countries, particularly traditional immigrant nations, have responded by granting permanent residence and citizenship to asylum-seekers and offering amnesties to illegal immigrants. Conversely, countries without a tradition of immigration may resist these demands due to a lack of integration infrastructure and a more xenophobic outlook. --- # Prejudice, discrimination, and their nature Prejudice and discrimination are deeply ingrained social problems that involve negative attitudes and behaviors towards social groups, despite their pervasive presence and socially undesirable nature. ### 5.1 The nature of prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are considered significant challenges to humanity, hindering progress and causing immense suffering. Their impact ranges from limiting opportunities to instigating violence and genocide. #### 5.1.1 Defining prejudice The term "prejudice" literally means "prejudgment." Traditionally, prejudice is understood as an attitude towards a social group characterized by three components: * **Cognitive:** Beliefs held about the social group. * **Affective:** Strong feelings, typically negative, about the social group and its perceived qualities. * **Conative:** Intentions to behave in specific ways towards the social group. However, not all attitude theorists agree with this tripartite model. Some definitions of prejudice explicitly include discriminatory behavior. For example, one definition describes prejudice as holding derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs, expressing negative affect, or displaying hostile or discriminatory behavior towards members of a group due to their group membership. #### 5.1.2 Discriminatory behavior Discriminatory behavior is the outward manifestation of prejudice, involving actions taken against members of a social group based on their group affiliation. This can range from subtle exclusions to overt acts of hostility and violence. #### 5.1.3 The paradox of prejudice A key paradox concerning prejudice is its pervasive nature despite being widely considered socially undesirable. In liberal democratic societies, terms like "racist" and "bigot" are used as severe insults, indicating strong social disapproval. Nevertheless, most individuals encounter prejudice in various forms, from minor assumptions to blatant bigotry and violence. People often make assumptions about others' abilities and aspirations based on factors like age, ethnicity, race, or sex, and frequently find themselves making similar assumptions about others. This social undesirability coupled with widespread occurrence highlights the complex and deeply embedded nature of prejudice in social life. Even in societies where prejudice is institutionalized, sophisticated justifications are often employed to deny its existence. #### 5.1.4 Dehumanization as a component of prejudice A critical aspect of prejudice is the dehumanization of an outgroup. When individuals or groups are perceived as less than human, atrocities committed against them can be rationalized, akin to squishing an insect. This process of dehumanization has been historically prevalent, with examples of Europeans viewing people from China as "strange and wondrous creatures" and a Confucian scholar describing "Ocean Men" as beastly beings lacking human mental faculties. #### 5.1.5 The social context of prejudice For researchers, prejudice is inherently social. It involves people's feelings about and actions towards others, and these are shaped and contextualized by the groups to which individuals belong and the historical circumstances of intergroup relations. ### 5.2 Diversity and its relation to prejudice The increasing diversity in societies, characterized by a mixture of people with different group identities, presents both opportunities for mutual enrichment and challenges that can lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. #### 5.2.1 Cultural diversity Cultural diversity encompasses a wide range of differences, including culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. It is seen as a "beautiful tapestry of human experience" that enriches life. While diversity can foster personal and educational development through mutual enrichment, fundamental differences between cultures can also give rise to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. #### 5.2.2 The impact of identity politics and group divisions The division of people into various categories and partitions, such as through identity politics, can exacerbate feelings of being attacked, bullied, or discriminated against. This can create difficulties when different identities are not compatible and begin to compete, particularly when underlying prejudices and misconceptions exist, leading to resistance in living or cooperating together. #### 5.2.3 The need for understanding and recognition In increasingly diverse societies, understanding different cultures and identities is crucial for living and collaborating. This involves learning about others, diminishing misunderstandings, stereotypes, and biases, and transcending one's own perspectives to interact with and understand different ways of being. The denial of contributions from certain groups and their cultures and identities is viewed as dishonest and undermines the shared past of citizens. Recognition of one another is presented as a fundamental human need for dignity, especially in diverse societies. #### 5.2.4 Forms of recognition Recognition, as a courtesy and a courtesy, is crucial for fostering a sense of belonging in diverse societies. While there is agreement on its desirability, the specific meaning of recognition is debated and can range from elementary respect to actions of acknowledging and being acknowledged, allowing coexistence and interplay. Different levels of recognition are identified: * **Political recognition:** Focuses on legal and political areas, emphasizing equal participation in public life through combining recognition and redistribution. * **Social recognition:** Requires mutual recognition and respect for cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular recognition:** Advocates for inclusive national narratives in curricula to unite people of different cultures and identities, ensuring fundamental diverse cultures and identities are reflected. * **Personal recognition:** Operates at individual and psychological levels. #### 5.2.5 Multiculturalism and state policies The concept of a multicultural state involves repudiating the idea that the state belongs to a single national group and instead views it as belonging equally to all citizens. This leads to the rejection of assimilationist or exclusionary nation-building policies, promoting policies of recognition and accommodation for minority and non-dominant groups. Acknowledging historic injustice and offering amends is also a key element. ##### 5.2.5.1 Indigenous peoples Historically, policies aimed to assimilate or eliminate indigenous peoples as distinct communities. However, there has been a reversal, with a current principle accepting the indefinite existence of indigenous peoples as distinct societies and recognizing their rights to land, culture, and self-government. ##### 5.2.5.2 Substate/minority nationalisms Groups with a regional concentration and a sense of nationhood within a larger state have historically faced suppression. Modern approaches involve accommodating these identities through regional autonomy and official language rights, often through multination and multilingual federalism. ##### 5.2.5.3 Immigrant groups Traditional "countries of immigration" have shifted from assimilationist approaches to a more multicultural conception of integration. This involves race-neutral admissions criteria and an expectation that public institutions will accommodate visible ethnic identities. ##### 5.2.5.4 Metics Metics are migrants not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens, including those who entered illegally, as asylum-seekers, or as temporary workers who overstayed their visas. They often face deportation threats but form communities and engage in societal functions. Their primary claim is for regularization of status and access to citizenship, seeking an immigrant path to integration. Responses vary, with some countries grudgingly accepting these demands through amnesties or pathways to permanent residence and citizenship, while others resist due to a lack of integration infrastructure or xenophobia. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Culture | A complex whole encompassing knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by individuals as members of society. It includes shared patterns of behaviors, interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings learned through socialization. | | Subjectivity | In cultural studies, this refers to the examination of culture in relation to individual lives and the changes that occur within those lives, impacting an individual's overall way of life. | | Engaged Form of Analysis | An approach in cultural studies that recognizes societal inequalities in access to resources like education and healthcare, and actively works in the interests of those with fewer resources. | | Hegemony | A term describing relations of domination that are not overtly visible, involving both coercion and the consent of the dominated, often used to explain the popularity of certain political systems. | | Governmentality | A concept, associated with Michel Foucault, referring to a means by which conforming or "docile" citizens are produced, often through educational systems, acting as a form of governance. | | Semiotic Analysis | A method of analyzing culture by breaking it down into discrete messages, practices, or discourses that are distributed by institutions and media, treating cultural elements as signifiers with symbolic meanings. | | Ideology | The set of discourses and images that constitute the most widespread knowledge and values within a society, often perceived as "common sense," and which helps reproduce social and economic systems. | | Diversity | A mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system, encompassing variations in culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, and customs. | | Cultural Diversity | The coexistence of diverse knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, religions, languages, abilities and disabilities, genders, ethnicities, races, and nationalities of human beings, and the way people react to and live with this reality. | | Recognition | The act of acknowledging and valuing different cultures and identities, seen as a fundamental human need and a courtesy, essential for cultivating a sense of belonging and rectifying past injustices. | | Political Recognition | The acknowledgment and integration of cultures within legal and political frameworks, such as citizenship and voting rights, emphasizing equal participation in public life through combining recognition and redistribution. | | Social Recognition | The mutual recognition and respect of each other’s cultures and identities by different groups of people within the public sphere of a society. | | Curricular Recognition | The inclusion of diverse cultures and identities within educational curricula to promote an inclusive national narrative and foster a sense of unity among people from different backgrounds. | | Multicultural State | A state that rejects the idea of belonging to a single national group and instead is seen as belonging equally to all citizens, repudiating assimilationist policies and accommodating the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups. | | Indigenous Peoples | Distinct communities, such as Native American tribes, Aboriginal Australians, and the Maori of New Zealand, who have historically faced assimilationist policies but are increasingly recognized for their rights to land, culture, and self-government. | | Substate Nationalisms | The aspirations of regionally concentrated groups who conceive of themselves as nations within larger states, seeking recognition of their nationhood through independence or territorial autonomy, such as the Québécois in Canada. | | Immigrant Groups | People who move to another society with the intention of becoming citizens, traditionally expected to assimilate but increasingly accommodated within a multicultural conception of integration that embraces ethnic identity expression. | | Metics | Long-term residents who are not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens, including individuals present illegally, asylum-seekers, or guest-workers who have overstayed their visas, often excluded from full societal participation. | | Prejudice | Prejudgment or a negative attitude towards a social group, often involving cognitive beliefs, strong negative feelings, and intentions to behave in certain ways towards members of that group based on their membership. | | Discrimination | The act of treating individuals or groups unfairly based on their membership in a particular social group, often stemming from prejudiced attitudes and leading to restricted opportunities and violence. | | Dehumanization | The process of viewing individuals or groups as less than human, which can enable atrocities and violence against them by removing moral inhibitions and making harmful actions seem less significant. | | Prejudiced Attitudes | Beliefs, feelings, and intentions concerning a social group that are formed prior to thorough examination, often negative and leading to biased perceptions and behaviors. | | Discriminatory Behavior | Actions taken towards members of a group that are unfair or biased, directly resulting from prejudiced attitudes or beliefs, leading to unequal treatment and disadvantage. | | Cultural Studies | An academic discipline that examines culture in relation to individual lives, analyzing societal inequalities and advocating for those with fewer resources, moving beyond a narrow focus on "high culture" to encompass "a whole way of life." | | Subjectivity (in Cultural Studies) | A key feature of cultural studies that focuses on analyzing culture in relation to individual experiences and the transformations that occur in people's lives, impacting their overall way of living. | | Ideology (Althusserian/Lacanian) | The set of discourses and images that form the most widespread knowledge and values, considered "common sense," rather than simply beliefs that are disapproved of, essential for societal reproduction. | | Assimilation | An approach where immigrants are encouraged and expected to adopt the customs, speech, dress, and way of life of the pre-existing society, aiming to become indistinguishable from native-born citizens. | | Integration (Multicultural Conception) | A contemporary approach that expects immigrants to visibly express their ethnic identity and obliges public institutions to accommodate these identities, shifting from assimilationist expectations. | | Engaged Form of Analysis (in Cultural Studies) | An analytical approach in cultural studies that acknowledges societal inequalities and unequal access to resources, actively working in the interests of those with fewer resources. | | Stereotypes | Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about particular groups of people, often negative, that can lead to prejudice and discrimination. | | Accommodation | The process of making adjustments or providing support to meet the needs of different cultural groups or individuals, ensuring their full participation in public life. | | Multination Federalism | A governmental structure that creates federal or quasi-federal subunits where minority groups can form a local majority, exercise meaningful self-government, and have their language recognized as an official state language. | | Cognitive Component | In the context of prejudice, this refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and stereotypes individuals hold about a particular social group. | | Affective Component | In the context of prejudice, this refers to the strong feelings, emotions, and attitudes (usually negative) individuals experience towards a social group and the qualities they believe it possesses. | | Conative Component | In the context of prejudice, this refers to the intentions or predispositions to behave in certain ways towards a social group, representing an inclination to act rather than the action itself. | | Social Group | A collection of individuals who share a common identity and interact with each other based on that shared identity, serving as the object of prejudice. | | Prejudgment | The act of forming an opinion or belief about someone or something before having sufficient knowledge or evidence, which is the literal meaning of prejudice. | | Socially Undesirable | Behavior or attitudes that are generally disapproved of by society, such as prejudice, even though they may still be prevalent. | | Institutionalized Prejudice | Prejudice that is embedded within the structures and policies of organizations or societies, leading to systemic unfair treatment of certain groups. | | Intergroup Relations | The interactions and relationships between different social groups, which can be influenced by prejudice and discrimination. |