8. Parlementen & regeringen (1).pptx

# Electoral behavior and systems This topic examines the fundamental aspects of democratic elections, including their functions, voter eligibility, the classification and impact of electoral systems, and the diverse factors that influence an individual's voting behavior. ## 1. Electoral behavior and systems ### 1.1 Functions of democratic elections Democratic elections serve several crucial functions within a political system: * **Representation:** They provide a mechanism for citizens to elect representatives who will voice their interests and concerns in government. * **Legitimation:** Elections grant legitimacy to the government by demonstrating popular consent and mandate. * **Accountability:** They allow voters to hold elected officials accountable for their performance and to remove them from office if dissatisfied. * **Policy Direction:** Elections can influence the policy direction of a government, as parties and candidates campaign on specific platforms. * **Political Socialization:** The electoral process contributes to the political socialization of citizens, educating them about the political system and their role within it. ### 1.2 Voter eligibility and participation Voter eligibility determines who is legally allowed to cast a ballot. While democratic societies generally advocate for universal suffrage, specific criteria such as age, citizenship, and residency requirements are typically in place. Factors influencing actual voter turnout are complex and can include: * **Demographics:** Age, education level, income, and race can correlate with different participation rates. * **Political Efficacy:** The belief that one's vote can make a difference. * **Civic Duty:** A sense of obligation to participate in the democratic process. * **Ease of Voting:** Factors like registration processes, polling place accessibility, and early voting options. * **Mobilization Efforts:** Campaigns and organizations encouraging people to vote. * **Election Competitiveness:** More competitive elections may spur higher turnout. ### 1.3 Classification of electoral systems Electoral systems are the rules that govern how votes are cast and translated into seats in a legislature. They can be broadly classified based on how they allocate seats and what type of representation they provide. Key classifications include: * **Plurality/Majoritarian Systems:** * **First-Past-the-Post (FPTP):** The candidate with the most votes in a district wins, even if they do not secure an absolute majority. > **Tip:** This system often leads to two-party dominance and can disadvantage smaller parties. * **Two-Round System:** Requires a candidate to win an absolute majority in the first round; if not, a second round is held between the top two candidates. * **Alternative Vote:** Voters rank candidates; if no candidate achieves a majority, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated, and their votes are redistributed based on the next preference until a candidate wins a majority. * **Proportional Representation (PR) Systems:** * **List PR:** Voters choose a party list, and seats are allocated to parties in proportion to their national or regional vote share. > **Example:** If a party wins 30 percent of the vote in a district, they will receive approximately 30 percent of the seats in that district. * **Single Transferable Vote (STV):** A form of PR in multi-member districts where voters rank candidates. Seats are won by candidates who reach a quota, and surplus votes are transferred. * **Mixed Systems:** Combine elements of both plurality/majoritarian and proportional representation systems. ### 1.4 Factors influencing voting behavior Understanding why people vote the way they do involves examining various theoretical frameworks: #### 1.4.1 Structural theories These theories emphasize the role of enduring social structures and group affiliations in shaping voting decisions. * **Sociological Theory (Group Membership):** * Voting choices and party loyalty are heavily influenced by an individual's membership in various social groups (e.g., class, religion, ethnicity, occupation). * Parties are often seen as representing the interests of specific societal groups. * However, traditional group-based voting patterns can shift over time due to societal changes and evolving party alignments. #### 1.4.2 Attitudinal and emotional factors This perspective highlights the impact of individual attitudes, opinions, values, and emotions on voting behavior. * **Attitudes, Opinions, and Values:** A voter's personal beliefs and judgments about political issues, candidates, and parties are significant determinants of their choice. * **Emotions:** Feelings such as anger, fear, hope, or enthusiasm can strongly influence how individuals cast their ballots. #### 1.4.3 Rational-choice theories These theories posit that voters make decisions based on a calculated assessment of their own interests and the potential outcomes of their vote. * **Rational Calculation of Self-Interest:** Voters are assumed to make choices that maximize their personal benefit, based on the available information. * **Strategic Voting:** This occurs when a voter casts their ballot not for their most preferred candidate, but for a less preferred candidate who has a better chance of winning, in order to prevent a less desirable outcome. * **Issue Voting:** Voters choose candidates or parties based on their stances on specific policy issues that are important to the voter. #### 1.4.4 Short-term factors These are factors that can influence voting decisions in a particular election cycle, often irrespective of long-term loyalties or attitudes. * **Role of Candidates:** The personal qualities, charisma, media presence, and perceived competence of individual candidates can significantly impact voter choice. * **Role of Campaign:** The effectiveness of party campaigns, including their visibility, communication strategies, and mobilization efforts, can sway voters. * **Economic Factors:** The state of the economy, such as periods of growth or recession, often plays a critical role in how people vote. * **Contingent Events:** Unforeseen or random events, whether domestic or international, can have a considerable impact on the electoral landscape and voter sentiment. --- # Parliamentary organization and functions Parliaments are central political assemblies, typically elected by the populace, that play a crucial role in the governance of a state by exercising legislative power and fulfilling various other functions. ### 2.1 Parliamentary organization Parliaments can be organized in two primary structures: unicameral or bicameral. #### 2.1.1 Unicameralism A unicameral parliament consists of a single legislative chamber. #### 2.1.2 Bicameralism A bicameral parliament comprises two legislative chambers. This system exists in various forms: * **Strong bicameralism:** Both chambers possess roughly equal power. Examples include Argentina, Brazil, Italy, Mexico, and the United States. * **Weak bicameralism:** One chamber is constitutionally and politically subordinate to the other. Examples include Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Austria, and Spain. > **Tip:** The choice between unicameralism and bicameralism often reflects historical development, political compromise, and desired checks and balances within the governmental system. #### 2.1.3 Factions and committees Within parliaments, two important organizational structures facilitate their work: * **Factions (or parliamentary groups):** These are organized groupings of members of parliament (MPs) belonging to the same political party. In many European countries, MPs are subject to strict party discipline, meaning their voting behavior often aligns with the party's stance. * **Parliamentary committees:** These are thematic bodies established to prepare legislation, scrutinize the executive branch, and investigate matters of public interest. They allow for in-depth examination of specific policy areas. ### 2.2 Functions of parliaments Parliaments fulfill four key functions within a political system: #### 2.2.1 Representation Parliaments act as representatives of the people, the nation, or the electorate. MPs are expected to advocate for the interests of their constituents, which may include local communities, socio-economic groups, or specific age demographics. Ideally, parliament should serve as a "reflection" of the society it governs. However, parliaments are often not fully representative, with overrepresentation of men, the upper-middle class, middle-aged individuals, ethnic majorities, and career politicians. * **Gerrymandering:** This practice involves redrawing electoral district boundaries for strategic political advantage. While it can theoretically be used to ensure minority representation, it is frequently employed to disadvantage political minorities. #### 2.2.2 Legislative function This is the core function of a parliament, involving the initiation, amendment, rejection, and voting on legislation. While parliament holds this power, the government also frequently initiates legislation. The legislative process, as exemplified in a unicameral system like Belgium's, typically involves: 1. **Introduction and committee stage:** Bills are introduced, discussed, amended, and voted upon within parliamentary committees. 2. **Plenary session stage:** The bill is then presented for debate, amendment, and a final vote in the full parliamentary assembly. 3. **Ratification and promulgation:** The Head of State (e.g., the King in Belgium) ratifies and promulgates the law. 4. **Publication:** The law is officially announced in the State Gazette. #### 2.2.3 Deliberative function Parliament serves as a public forum for discussing the governance of the country. It is a space where diverse viewpoints are aired, arguments are debated, and solutions to public problems are sought in the general interest. Opposition parties can utilize tactics, such as filibustering, to delay or prevent votes on certain proposals. #### 2.2.4 Control function Parliaments exercise oversight over the executive branch (the government). This control is achieved through various institutional mechanisms, including: * **Written and oral questions:** MPs can formally question government ministers. * **Motions of no confidence:** In parliamentary systems, parliament can vote to remove the government from office. * **Impeachment:** In presidential systems, this process can be used to remove the president for serious misconduct. * **Inquiry powers:** Parliaments can establish investigative committees to examine specific issues or government actions. ### 2.3 Relationship between parliament and government The relationship between the parliament and the government varies significantly across different political systems. Three main models are recognized: #### 2.3.1 Parliamentary systems In parliamentary systems, the government is not directly elected by the people but is chosen by and from within the parliament. Ministers are accountable to parliament and depend on its confidence. Parliament can dismiss the government through a motion of no confidence (often a constructive vote of no confidence, requiring a successor to be named). This model is often associated with the "Westminster style." #### 2.3.2 Presidential systems In presidential systems, the president is directly elected by the citizens and derives their authority from this mandate. The legislature (Congress) cannot dismiss the president, except in exceptional circumstances like impeachment for legal transgressions or misconduct. The president does not need to account for their actions to the legislature. The United States is a prominent example, characterized by strong "checks and balances." #### 2.3.3 Semi-presidential systems These systems combine elements of both parliamentary and presidential models. For instance, in the French model, the president is directly elected and operates with significant autonomy from the parliament. The president can dissolve parliament and call for new elections. A Prime Minister heads the government and must maintain the confidence of the parliament. A potential challenge in these systems is "cohabitation," where the president and the Prime Minister belong to different political parties. ### 2.4 Government formation The process of forming a government differs based on the political system: * **Presidential systems:** The directly elected president appoints the ministers. * **Parliamentary systems:** Parliament plays a decisive role in government formation. * **Two-party systems:** Typically result in a single-party government. * **Multi-party systems:** Usually lead to coalition governments formed by two or more parties. > **Tip:** The formation of governments, especially coalition governments, often involves complex negotiations aimed at achieving a parliamentary majority, usually defined as securing at least 50% plus one of the seats in parliament. #### 2.4.1 Coalition government formation strategies Various strategies guide the formation of coalition governments, often seeking to achieve a majority with minimal compromise: * **Minimal winning:** Forming a coalition with just enough parties to secure a majority, without superfluous partners. * **Minimal number:** Opting for a coalition with the smallest possible number of participating parties. * **Minimal weight:** Aiming for a coalition with the smallest possible majority margin. * **Minimal distance:** Selecting coalition partners with the closest ideological alignment. #### 2.4.2 Types of governments Beyond minimal winning coalitions, other government types exist: * **Minority government:** A coalition government that lacks a majority of seats in parliament. * **Oversized coalition:** A coalition that is larger than a minimal winning coalition, including additional parties beyond what is strictly necessary for a majority. * **Grand coalition:** A coalition encompassing nearly all (or the largest) political parties. ### 2.5 Head of State and government The form and function of the Head of State and the government are distinct: #### 2.5.1 Head of State The Head of State can be a constitutional monarch (e.g., Belgium, Netherlands) or a constitutional president (e.g., Germany, Italy). This role typically holds formal authority and symbolic importance, performing ceremonial duties rather than direct political decision-making. In some cases, like in Belgium's federal government formation, the Head of State can play a political role. #### 2.5.2 Government The government is headed by a **Regeringsleider** (Head of Government), who is the chief spokesperson and primary holder of executive power. This position can be a Prime Minister (e.g., Belgium, Netherlands), a Chancellor (e.g., Germany), or an executive president (e.g., USA). * In presidential systems, the Head of State and Head of Government are the same person. * In parliamentary systems, these roles are separate. * In single-party governments, the Prime Minister typically leads their own party. In coalition governments, the Prime Minister may not be the leader of the largest party. The federal government in Belgium, for instance, comprises ministers and state secretaries. The number of ministers is equally divided between linguistic groups. The Prime Minister is neither the Head of State nor the party leader. Government decisions are made either by individual ministers within their own competencies or collegially by the entire government. The **Ministerraad** (Council of Ministers) is the meeting of all ministers, while the **Kernkabinet** (Core Cabinet) involves discussions among the Prime Minister and Vice-Premiers. #### 2.5.3 Functions of the government The government's primary functions include: * **Governing and administering:** The government directs the state's affairs. * **Policy implementation:** The government oversees, manages, and bears ultimate responsibility for implementing policies. * **Coordination:** It coordinates the activities of various state institutions. * **Crisis powers:** The government may exercise special powers during times of crisis. ### 2.6 Conclusion The principle of the separation of powers dictates that state authority should be divided among three relatively autonomous branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. While this separation varies in strictness across countries, it is never absolute. Parliaments can be unicameral or bicameral, each structure presenting distinct advantages and disadvantages. Factions and committees are vital sub-organizations within parliaments. The four fundamental functions of parliaments are representation, legislation, deliberation, and control. In presidential systems, parliament and government are independently elected, whereas in parliamentary systems, the government is chosen by and from parliament, requiring its confidence. Coalitions are common in multi-party systems, often aiming for a minimal parliamentary majority, though minority and oversized coalitions also occur. The executive power is primarily vested in the government (or its leader), while the Head of State typically holds a ceremonial role. --- # Separation of powers and government formation This section delves into the fundamental concept of the separation of powers and its practical implications for the formation and functioning of governments across various political systems. ### 3.1 The separation of powers The principle of the separation of powers, famously articulated by Montesquieu in *De l'esprit des lois* (1748), posits that political power should be divided among distinct institutions to prevent its concentration, abuse, and the rise of absolutism. This division typically involves three branches: the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. The core idea is that these powers should operate autonomously to ensure a balance of authority. #### 3.1.1 Trias politica and its limitations The concept of the trias politica suggests that political power is exercised by three separate institutions: the government (executive), the parliament (legislative), and the courts (judiciary). However, this separation is rarely absolute or watertight in practice. The interdependence between these branches can lead to inefficiencies, and the degree of separation between the legislative and executive powers varies significantly across different countries. ### 3.2 Parliamentary organization Parliaments are political assemblies primarily vested with legislative power. They are usually elected by the populace following an election. #### 3.2.1 Unicameralism versus bicameralism Parliaments can be structured in two main ways: * **Unicameralism:** The parliament consists of a single chamber. * **Bicameralism:** The parliament comprises two chambers. * **Strong bicameralism:** Both chambers possess roughly equal power. Examples include Argentina, Brazil, Italy, Mexico, and the USA. * **Weak bicameralism:** One chamber is constitutionally and politically subordinate to the other. Examples include Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Austria, and Spain. #### 3.2.2 Internal organization of parliaments Within parliaments, several organizational structures are crucial: * **Factions (or parliamentary groups):** These are organized groups of Members of Parliament (MPs) representing specific political parties. In most European countries, MPs are bound by strict party discipline. * **Parliamentary committees:** These are thematic organizations that prepare legislation, oversee the executive branch, and investigate matters of public interest. ### 3.3 Functions of parliaments Parliaments fulfill several vital functions within a political system: #### 3.3.1 Representation Parliaments represent the people, the nation, and the electorate. MPs are expected to advocate for the interests of their constituents, whether they represent local communities, socio-economic groups, or specific age demographics. However, parliaments are often not truly "representative" in a demographic sense, with certain groups like men, the upper-middle class, middle-aged individuals, ethnic majorities, and career politicians being overrepresented. Gerrymandering, the redrawing of electoral districts for strategic advantage, can influence representation, sometimes to the benefit of minorities but often to their detriment. #### 3.3.2 Legislative function This involves the initiation, amendment, rejection, and voting on legislation. While parliaments are the primary legislative bodies, governments also initiate legislation. **Legislative Procedure (Example: Monocameral system in Belgium):** 1. **Introduction and committee treatment:** Legislation is introduced, discussed, amended, and voted upon in committee. 2. **Plenary session treatment:** The legislation is then presented in the full parliamentary session for further discussion, amendment, and voting. 3. **Ratification and promulgation:** The King (and relevant minister) ratifies and promulgates the law. 4. **Publication:** The law is officially published in the Belgian State Gazette. #### 3.3.3 Deliberative function The parliament serves as a forum for open and public discussion on the governance of the country. It is a space for debating issues, seeking sound arguments, and finding solutions for problems of general concern. Opposition parties may employ delaying tactics, such as a filibuster, to prevent a vote on a particular proposal. #### 3.3.4 Control function Parliaments exercise oversight over the executive branch (the government). This is achieved through institutional mechanisms like written and oral questions. Parliaments can also remove a government through a motion of no confidence (in parliamentary systems) or impeachment (in presidential systems). Furthermore, parliaments have the power to establish investigative committees to examine specific issues. ### 3.4 The relationship between parliament and government The relationship between the legislative and executive branches varies significantly across different political systems: #### 3.4.1 Parliamentary systems In parliamentary systems (often termed "Westminster style"), the government is not directly elected but is chosen by and from within the parliament. Ministers are accountable to parliament, and the government depends on its confidence. Parliament can dismiss the government through a motion of no confidence, which can be constructive, meaning a new government must be proposed simultaneously. The diagram shows voters electing the parliament, which then forms the government. #### 3.4.2 Presidential systems In presidential systems (exemplified by the USA), the president is directly elected by the citizens and derives authority from this mandate. The president and the legislature (Congress) operate with strong checks and balances. Congress cannot remove the president except in cases of illegal conduct or misconduct, which can lead to impeachment. The president does not need to account for their actions to parliament. The diagram illustrates voters directly electing both the president and the Congress, with a system of checks and balances between them. #### 3.4.3 Semi-presidential systems These systems blend elements of both parliamentary and presidential models. In the French model, the president is directly elected and has significant autonomy from parliament. The president can dissolve parliament and call for new elections. The prime minister heads the government and must maintain the confidence of parliament. A potential for "cohabitation" arises when the president and the prime minister belong to different political parties. The diagram shows voters electing both the president and the parliament, with the president appointing a prime minister who is accountable to parliament. ### 3.5 Government formation The process of forming a government differs based on the political system. #### 3.5.1 Formation in presidential versus parliamentary systems * **Presidential system:** The president, directly elected, appoints the ministers. * **Parliamentary system:** The parliament plays a decisive role in forming a new government. #### 3.5.2 Coalition dynamics In multi-party systems, government formation often involves coalitions of two or more parties. The aim is typically to form a majority government, meaning one that commands at least 50% plus one of the seats in parliament. #### 3.5.3 Types of coalitions Several strategies guide coalition formation: * **Minimal winning coalition:** A majority coalition formed without unnecessary partners. * **Minimal number coalition:** A majority coalition with the smallest possible number of partners. * **Minimal weight coalition:** A majority coalition with the smallest possible majority margin. * **Minimal distance coalition:** A majority coalition with the smallest ideological distance between partners. #### 3.5.4 Other government types * **Minority government:** A (coalition) government that does not hold a majority of seats in parliament. * **Oversized coalition:** A coalition government that is larger than a minimal coalition, including "surplus" partners. * **Grand coalition:** A coalition that includes almost all (the largest) parties. ### 3.6 Head of state and head of government The roles and forms of the head of state and head of government are distinct and depend on the system of government. #### 3.6.1 The head of state The head of state can be a constitutional monarch (e.g., Belgium, Netherlands) or a constitutional president (e.g., Germany, Italy). This position holds formal authority with symbolic importance. The head of state primarily performs ceremonial duties and lacks direct political decision-making power, although they can play a political role in government formation, particularly in countries like Belgium. #### 3.6.2 The government leader The head of government is the leader and spokesperson of the government, wielding the most significant executive power. This role can be a Prime Minister (e.g., Belgium, Netherlands), a Chancellor (e.g., Germany), or an executive President (e.g., USA). In presidential systems, the head of state and head of government are the same person, whereas in parliamentary systems, they are distinct. In single-party governments, the prime minister often leads their own party, which is not always the case in coalition governments. #### 3.6.3 The government in Belgium The federal government in Belgium consists of ministers and state secretaries. The number of ministers is typically equally divided between the Dutch-speaking and French-speaking communities. The Prime Minister is not the head of state nor the party leader. Decisions are made either within the minister's own competencies or collegially by the entire government. The Council of Ministers comprises all ministers, while the core cabinet involves discussions between the prime minister and vice-prime ministers. #### 3.6.4 Functions of the government The government's primary functions include: * **Governing and administering:** The government is responsible for the day-to-day running of the country. * **Policy implementation:** The government oversees, manages, and bears ultimate responsibility for the execution of policies. * **Coordination:** It coordinates the activities of various state institutions. * **Emergency powers:** Governments may assume special powers during times of crisis. ### 3.7 Conclusion The separation of powers principle advocates for dividing state power into legislative, executive, and judicial branches that operate with a degree of autonomy. The strictness of this separation varies globally, and it is never fully absolute. Parliaments can be unicameral or bicameral, each with its advantages and disadvantages, and are organized internally through factions and committees. Key parliamentary functions include representation, legislation, deliberation, and control. In presidential systems, the executive and legislature are elected independently, whereas in parliamentary systems, the government is dependent on parliamentary confidence. Coalition governments are common, often aiming for minimal winning configurations, though minority and oversized coalitions also occur. The head of state typically has a ceremonial role, while the head of government leads the executive branch, with the specific structure and powers varying across presidential, parliamentary, and semi-presidential systems. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Democratic elections | A process where citizens vote to choose their representatives, typically involving universal suffrage and the formation of a government accountable to the electorate. | | Electoral systems | The rules that govern how votes are cast, counted, and translated into seats in a legislature, influencing party representation and government formation. | | Voting behavior | The study of the factors that influence an individual's decision on how to vote, encompassing psychological, social, economic, and political considerations. | | Sociological theories of voting | Explanations of voting behavior that emphasize the influence of social group membership, such as class, religion, or ethnicity, on party choice and loyalty. | | Rational-choice theories | Theories that posit voters make decisions based on a rational calculation of their own self-interest, weighing the perceived benefits and costs of each candidate or party. | | Strategic voting | A voting behavior where an individual votes for a candidate or party they do not prefer, in order to prevent a less desirable outcome or to help a preferred candidate win. | | Issue voting | A voting behavior where individuals cast their ballots based on a candidate's or party's stance on specific policy issues that are important to the voter. | | Separation of powers | A governmental principle, most famously articulated by Montesquieu, that divides state authority into three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial, to prevent the concentration of power and potential abuse. | | Trias politica | The doctrine of the separation of powers, dividing governmental authority among three distinct institutions: the legislature (parliament), the executive (government), and the judiciary (courts). | | Bicameralism | A legislative system consisting of two chambers or houses, often designed to provide checks and balances within the legislative process. | | Unicameralism | A legislative system consisting of a single chamber or house. | | Parliamentary committees | Specialized sub-groups within a parliament, often organized by thematic areas, responsible for preparing legislation, scrutinizing the executive, and investigating public policy issues. | | Representation (parliamentary) | The function of a parliament to act as a voice for the people, the nation, or specific constituencies, with members of parliament advocating for the interests of their constituents. | | Legislative function | The primary role of a parliament to create, amend, reject, and vote on laws, thereby shaping the legal framework of the state. | | Deliberative function | The role of parliament as a forum for open and public discussion of the country's governance, seeking sound arguments and solutions for issues of general public interest. | | Control function | The oversight role of parliament over the executive branch, employing mechanisms such as questioning ministers, motions of no confidence, and investigative powers. | | Motion of no confidence | A parliamentary procedure by which the legislature can express its lack of confidence in the government, potentially leading to its resignation or dismissal. | | Impeachment | A formal process by which a legislative body can bring charges against a public official, including the head of state, for misconduct or violation of laws. | | Parliamentary system | A system of government in which the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from and is held accountable to the legislature; the executive and legislative branches are thus interconnected. | | Presidential system | A system of government where the head of government is also the head of state and leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch, with a system of checks and balances. | | Semi-presidential system | A hybrid system of government that blends features of both parliamentary and presidential systems, typically with a directly elected president and a prime minister responsible to the legislature. | | Coalition government | A government formed by an alliance of two or more political parties, typically in a multi-party system, to achieve a parliamentary majority. | | Majority government | A government formed by a political party or coalition that holds more than half of the seats in the legislature, ensuring legislative support. | | Minority government | A government that is formed by a party or coalition that does not hold a majority of seats in the legislature and therefore relies on the tacit support of other parties to govern. | | Head of state | The ceremonial leader of a country, who may be a monarch or a president, and whose role is largely symbolic and protocol-oriented, though they may have specific constitutional duties. | | Head of government | The chief executive officer of a government, responsible for leading the cabinet and overseeing the day-to-day administration of the state, often referred to as a prime minister or chancellor. | | Minister council | A meeting of all ministers in a government, where collective decisions are made on matters falling under collegial responsibilities. |