English_ exam summary.docx

# Verb tenses and their usage Verb tenses and their usage cover the structure and application of different verb forms in English to convey meaning related to time and aspect. ## 1. Verb tenses and their usage Verb tenses are crucial for communicating when an action takes place. English has several tenses, broadly categorized into present, past, and future, each with simple, continuous, and perfect forms. ### 1.1 Present tenses #### 1.1.1 Present simple The present simple tense is formed using the base form of the verb (or the base form + -s/-es for third-person singular subjects). * **Usage:** * For things in general or things that happen repeatedly. * For permanent situations. * For habits and routines. * **Example:** > My parents live in London. They have lived there all their lives. > I do this. #### 1.1.2 Present continuous The present continuous tense is formed with `am/is/are + verb-ing`. * **Usage:** * For things happening around the time of speaking; the action is not complete. * For temporary situations. * **Example:** > I am doing. > I’m living with some friends at the moment. * **Present continuous vs. Present simple:** * Present continuous (`I am doing`) is used for temporary situations, while present simple (`I do`) is used for permanent situations or things that happen repeatedly. * The phrase "always doing" is used to express irritation about something done too often, whereas "always do" means it happens every time. #### 1.1.3 Specific verbs not normally used in the continuous Certain verbs are typically not used in continuous forms when they express states rather than actions. These include verbs related to thoughts, senses, possession, and feelings: * **Verbs of thinking:** * `think` (meaning "believe" or "have an opinion") is used in the simple form: *I think Mary is Canadian.* * `think` (meaning "consider") can be used in the continuous form: *I’m thinking about what happened.* * **Verbs of senses:** * `see`, `hear`, `smell`, `taste` are normally used in the simple form. * `look` and `feel` can be continuous to describe how someone looks or feels *now*: *He is looking at the painting.* * **`be` vs. `be-ing`:** * `He is being` is used to describe behavior: *He’s being so selfish right now.* (This is not his usual character). * `He is` is used to describe a character trait: *He’s selfish.* ### 1.2 Past tenses #### 1.2.1 Past simple The past simple tense is formed with the past tense of the verb (regular verbs add -ed; irregular verbs have unique past forms). * **Usage:** * For completed actions in the past. * For actions that happened at a specific time in the past. * **Example:** > We walked home after the party last night. > When Karen arrived, we had dinner. #### 1.2.2 Past continuous The past continuous tense is formed with `was/were + verb-ing`. * **Usage:** * For an action that was in progress at a specific moment in the past. * When something happened in the middle of another action. * **Example:** > We were walking home when I met Dan. > When Karen arrived, we were having dinner. * **Past continuous vs. Past simple:** * Past continuous (`I was doing`) describes an action that was in progress (unfinished) at a certain point in the past. * Past simple (`I did`) describes a completed action in the past. #### 1.2.3 Past perfect simple The past perfect simple tense is formed with `had + past participle`. * **Usage:** * To talk about an action that happened before another action in the past. * **Example:** > When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul had already gone home. * **Past perfect vs. Present perfect:** * Present perfect (`have seen`) connects the past to the present. * Past perfect (`had seen`) describes an action completed before another past action. #### 1.2.4 Past perfect continuous The past perfect continuous tense is formed with `had been + verb-ing`. * **Usage:** * To describe an activity that had been happening for a period of time before another event in the past. * **Example:** > At last the bus came. I’d been waiting for twenty minutes. ### 1.3 Present perfect The present perfect tense is formed with `have/has + past participle`. * **Usage:** * To give new information where the action happened in the past but is relevant now. * When the action in the past has a result now. * To talk about a period of time from the past until now (an unfinished period). * To talk about experiences, especially when it's the first time something happens. * **Examples:** > I’ve cut my finger. > Tom has lost his keys (he doesn’t have them now). > I have never been to Italy. > It’s the first time he has driven a car. * **`Just`, `Already`, and `Yet`:** * `Just`: A short time ago. *I’ve just had lunch.* * `Already`: Sooner than expected. *I’ve already paid it.* * `Yet`: Until now (used in questions and negatives expecting something to happen). *Has it stopped raining yet?* * **Present perfect vs. Past simple:** * Present perfect is used for new or recent happenings that have a present result or connection. * Past simple is used for completed actions that are not recent or new, telling us only about the past. * If you continue talking about the event, you often switch to the past simple. *Ow! I’ve burnt myself. How did you do that? I picked up a hot dish.* * Present perfect is used for unfinished periods (e.g., *today, this week, since 2010*) with present results. Past simple is used for finished periods (e.g., *yesterday, last year*) or when asking "When?" or "What time?". ### 1.4 Present perfect continuous The present perfect continuous tense is formed with `have/has been + verb-ing`. * **Usage:** * For an activity that has recently stopped or just stopped. * To talk about something that began in the past and is still going on. * To stress the duration of an activity. * **Example:** > Why are you out of breath? Have you been running? > They have been married for twenty years. * **Present perfect continuous vs. Present perfect simple:** * Present perfect continuous (`have been doing`) emphasizes the activity and its duration, whether finished or not. * Present perfect simple (`have done`) focuses on the completion of the action and its result, or the quantity done. ### 1.5 For and Since * `For` + a period of time (e.g., *two hours, a long time, ten years*). * `Since` + the start of a period (e.g., *8 o’clock, Monday, 2001, lunchtime*). * In negative sentences, `for` is generally required, though `in` can sometimes be used. `For` is not used with `all` (e.g., *all my life*). ### 1.6 `Have` and `Have got` * For possession, relationships, illnesses, and appointments, `have` and `have got` are interchangeable: *They have a new car / They have got a new car.* * In the past, only `had` is used. * Continuous forms are not typically used for these meanings: *We are having a nice room* is incorrect; it should be *We have (got) a nice room.* * For actions or experiences, `have` (not `have got`) is used, and continuous forms are possible: *We’re having a great time.* * Questions can be formed with `do you have` or `have you got`. `Have you` is less common. ### 1.7 `Used to` * **Usage:** * For habits or situations that were true in the past but are no longer true. * **Formation:** * Affirmative: `used to + base verb` (*I used to smoke*). * Question: `Did you use to + base verb` (*Did you use to smoke?*). * Negative: `didn’t use to + base verb` (*I didn’t use to smoke*). * Note: The present form is not `use to`. ### 1.8 Future tenses #### 1.8.1 Present continuous with future meaning * **Usage:** * For decided and arranged plans, especially for social arrangements or meetings. * **Example:** > What is Ben doing next week? He is playing tennis on Monday afternoon. > What time are you meeting Kate tomorrow? * **Distinction from `going to`:** Present continuous implies a firmer arrangement than `going to`. #### 1.8.2 Present simple with future meaning * **Usage:** * For timetables, schedules, and programs (e.g., transport, cinema, meetings). * For people's plans if they are fixed like a timetable. * **Example:** > The train leaves at 11:30. > I start my new job on Monday. #### 1.8.3 `Going to` * **Usage:** * When you have already decided to do something. * To predict something that is going to happen based on present evidence. * **Example:** > Are you going to eat something? She is going to buy a new car. > That man isn’t looking where he’s going. He’s going to walk into the wall. * **`Going to` in the past:** * `Was/were going to` indicates an intention that was not fulfilled: *We were going to travel by train, but decided to drive instead.* * `Was/were going to` can also refer to something that was expected to happen but didn't. #### 1.8.4 `Will` and `Shall` (Future Simple) * **`Will`:** * **Usage:** * When you have just decided to do something (announcing a decision). * Offering to do something (`I'll help you`). * Agreeing to do something (`Yes, I'll give him the book`). * Promising to do something (`I'll pay you back`). * To say what you know or believe about the future (predicting without proof). * To talk about now, predicting a present situation: *Don’t phone Amy. She’ll be busy now.* * **Examples:** > Oh, the door is open. I’ll go and shut it. > Karen believes that he will pass his driving test. * **`Shall`:** * **Usage:** * Mainly in questions: `Shall I...?` / `Shall we...?` to ask for permission or suggestions. * With `I` and `we` to express the future (less common now than `will`). * **Examples:** > Shall I open the window? > I shall be late. (or I'll be late.) * **`Will` vs. `Going to`:** * Both can be used to predict the future. `Will` is often based on general knowledge or belief, while `going to` is often based on present evidence. * `Will` is used for decisions made at the moment of speaking. `Going to` is used for decisions made before speaking. #### 1.8.5 `Will be doing` (Future Continuous) * **Usage:** * To talk about an action that will be in progress at a specific time in the future. * **Example:** > This time next week I’ll be lying on the beach. #### 1.8.6 `Will have done` (Future Perfect) * **Usage:** * To talk about an action that will be completed before a specific time in the future. * **Example:** > By 9 o'clock, she’ll have gone to work. #### 1.8.7 `When`, `If`, and `As soon as` clauses * After `when`, `if`, `while`, `before`, `after`, `as soon as`, and `until`, use the present simple or present perfect, *not* `will`. * `If + present simple + will`: Used for things that might happen. * `When + present simple/perfect + will`: Used for things that are sure to happen. * **Examples:** > I’ll call you when I arrive. (NOT *when I will arrive*) > I’ll call you when I’ve arrived. > If we take the bus, it will be cheaper. > When I go out, I’ll get some bread. ### 1.9 Conditionals and `Wish` #### 1.9.1 `If` clauses (Type 1 and 2) * **Type 1 (Real/Possible conditions):** `If + present simple + will + base verb` * Example: *If we take the bus, it will be cheaper.* * **Type 2 (Unreal/Hypothetical conditions):** `If + past simple + would + base verb` * Example: *If we took the bus, it would be cheaper.* * Used for hypothetical questions: *If there was an election tomorrow, who would you vote for?* * Never say `If I would be you...`; always use `If I were/was you...`. #### 1.9.2 `Would do` vs. `Would have done` * `Would do` is used for hypothetical situations in the present or future. * Example: *If I’d gone to the party last night, I would be tired now.* * `Would have done` is used for hypothetical situations in the past (unreal past). * Example: *If I’d gone to the party last night, I would have met lots of people.* #### 1.9.3 `Could have`, `Might have` * These express possibility in the past. * `could have gone`: we were able to go. * `might have gone`: maybe we would have gone. #### 1.9.4 `Wish` * **`Wish + would + base verb`:** Used to express what you want to happen (often with a sense of impatience or complaint). * Example: *I wish Sarah would come.* * **`Wish + past simple`:** Used to express how you would like things to be (regret about the present). * Example: *I wish I had a car.* * **`Wish + past perfect`:** Used to express regret about something in the past. * Example: *I wish I’d known that Gary was ill.* * Note: Do not say `I wish something happens` or `I wish I would have`. Use `I hope` for future wishes. ### 1.10 Questions within sentences When a question becomes part of a longer sentence (e.g., after `do you know`, `could you tell me`), the word order changes, and `do/does/did` are not used in the question part. * **Example:** > Direct question: What time is it? > In a sentence: Do you know what time it is? > Direct question: Where has Tom gone? > In a sentence: Do you know where Tom has gone? ### 1.11 Auxiliary verbs Auxiliary verbs (`have`, `do`, `can`, etc.) are used to avoid repetition, to form questions, and for negatives. * **`So` and `Neither`:** Used with auxiliary verbs to agree or disagree. * `So + auxiliary verb + subject` for positive agreement (*I am tired. So am I.*). * `Neither + auxiliary verb + subject` for negative agreement (*I never read newspapers. Neither do I.*). * **`I think so`, `I hope so`, etc.:** Used to avoid repeating a statement. * Negative forms include `I don’t think so` and `I hope not`. ### 1.12 Countable and Uncountable Nouns * **Countable nouns:** Have singular and plural forms. Can be used with numbers, `a/an`, `some/any`, `many`, `few`. * Examples: *a song, a beach, songs, beaches*. * **Uncountable nouns:** Have only one form. Cannot be used with numbers or `a/an`. Can be used with `some/any`, `much`, `little`. * Examples: *music, sand, rice, luck*. * **Nouns that can be both:** Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on the context. * Example: `paper` (material) vs. `a paper` (a newspaper); `hair` (material) vs. `a hair` (one single hair). ### 1.13 Articles: `a/an` and `the` * **`a/an`:** Used with singular countable nouns for the first mention or when referring to any one of a group. * **`the`:** Used with singular or plural nouns (countable or uncountable) when the noun is specific or has already been mentioned. * `the` is used with names of oceans, seas, rivers, canals, plural country names (e.g., *the Netherlands*), plural place names (e.g., *the Alps*), compass points. * `the` is generally *not* used with most city streets, roads, squares, parks, most public buildings (airports, stations, universities), most companies, most churches starting with 'St', or names of continents and most countries. * `the` is often used with hotels, theatres, cinemas, museums, and names with `of`. * **`School`, `Hospital`, `Prison`, `Church`:** No `the` when referring to the general concept or purpose (e.g., *going to school as a student, in hospital as a patient*). `The` is used when referring to the specific building or as a visitor. ### 1.14 Noun + Noun Two nouns can be placed together, where the first noun functions like an adjective modifying the second. * **Examples:** *a bus driver, income tax, a television camera, language problems, washing machine, hotel reception desk.* * Sometimes compound nouns are written as one word (*headache, toothpaste*) or two (*car park, road sign*). * The first noun is usually singular, even if the meaning is plural (*a car park* for multiple cars). ### 1.15 Possession: `-'s` and `of` * **`-'s`:** Used mostly for people and animals, and for time-indicating words. * Singular noun: `Tom's computer`. * Plural noun ending in -s: `my sisters' room`. * Plural noun not ending in -s: `children's book`. * **`of`:** Usually used for things and ideas. * Examples: *the temperature of the water, the beginning of the book*. * Both can sometimes be used: *The government's decision* or *the decision of the government*. ### 1.16 Reflective Pronouns * Formed by adding `-self` (singular) or `-selves` (plural) to possessive adjectives or object pronouns. * Used when the subject and object of a verb are the same person or thing. * Not usually used after verbs like `feel`, `relax`, `concentrate`, `meet`, `wash`, `shave`, `dress` when they have a direct object or the meaning is clear. * Can be used for emphasis: *I repaired it myself.* ### 1.17 `Each other` and `One another` * Used to describe a reciprocal action between two or more people. * `Each other` is typically used for two people, while `one another` is used for three or more, though they are often interchangeable. * Reflective pronouns are used when individuals look at themselves (e.g., *They looked at themselves in the mirror*), whereas `each other` refers to looking at the other person(s) (*They looked at each other*). ### 1.18 Possessive Pronouns * `Mine`, `yours`, `his`, `hers`, `ours`, `yours`, `theirs` replace a possessive adjective + noun. * Example: *This book is mine.* ### 1.19 `My own`, `On my own`, `By myself` * `My own`, `your own`, etc., express possession and can be used for emphasis or to highlight independence. * Example: *I want my own room.* * `On my own` and `by myself` both mean `alone`. ### 1.20 `There` and `It` * **`There`:** Used to introduce something for the first time, or to state existence. * Example: *There is a new restaurant in town.* * **`It`:** Used to refer to a specific place, thing, or fact already mentioned or understood. * Example: *I’ve heard it’s very good.* (referring to the restaurant). ### 1.21 `Some` and `Any` * **`Some`:** Used in positive sentences, and in offers and requests. Also used with `somebody`, `someone`, `something`. * **`Any`:** Used in negative sentences and questions. Also used with `anybody`, `anyone`, `anything`. * `Any` can also mean "it doesn't matter which" or be used in conditional clauses (`if`). ### 1.22 `No`, `None`, `Nothing`, `Nobody` * **`No`:** Used before a noun (`no reason`). * **`None`:** Used without a noun (`How much money? None.`). Can be followed by `of + plural noun` (verb can be singular or plural). * **`Nothing`, `Nobody`, `Nowhere`:** Used in affirmative sentences to create a negative meaning. Cannot be used with a negative verb. Equivalent to `didn't + anybody/anything/anywhere`. ### 1.23 `Much`, `Many`, `Little`, `Few`, `A lot of`, `Plenty of` * `Much` and `little` are used with uncountable nouns. * `Many` and `few` are used with plural countable nouns. * `A lot of`, `lots of`, and `plenty of` can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. * `Plenty` means "more than enough". * `Much` is unusual in positive sentences unless with `too much`, `so much`, `as much`. ### 1.24 `All`, `Most`, `No`, `None` * These can be followed by a noun or by `of + pronoun/determiner`. * `All`, `half`, `some`, `most` can also be used without a noun or `of`. ### 1.25 `Both`, `Neither`, `Either` * Used with or without a noun. * `Both... and...`, `Neither... nor...`, `Either... or...` for conjunctions. * `Both of`, `neither of`, `either of` followed by `the/these/my/Tom's...` or `us/you/them`. * Verbs after `neither of` and `either of` can be singular or plural. ### 1.26 `Everybody`, `Everyone`, `Everything` * These are singular words and take singular verbs. * However, `they/them/their` are often used as gender-neutral pronouns after `everybody` and `everyone`. ### 1.27 `Each` and `Every` * **`Each`:** Used when thinking of things separately, one by one. Can be used with or without a noun, or with `of`. Often used for smaller numbers or two items. * **`Every`:** Used when thinking of things as a group (similar to `all`). Always used with a noun (or `one`). Often used for larger numbers or to indicate frequency. * `Each of...` and `every one of...` are common structures. ### 1.28 Relative Clauses * **Clause:** A part of a sentence containing a subject and a verb. * **Relative Clause:** Adds extra information about a noun, specifying which person or thing is meant. * **`who`:** For people (subject or object). * **`that`:** For people or things (subject or object). * **`which`:** For things (subject or object). * **`whose`:** For possession (people or things). * **`whom`:** For people (object of the verb, more formal than `who`). * **`where`:** For places. * **Defining Relative Clauses:** Provide essential information to identify the noun. Cannot be omitted. `that` can often replace `who` or `which`. * **Non-defining Relative Clauses:** Provide extra, non-essential information. Set off by commas. `that` cannot be used. `who` and `which` can be used. * When `who/which/that` is the object of the clause, it can often be omitted. * Prepositions can come before `whom` and `which`. ### 1.29 `-ing` and `-ed` Clauses * **`-ing` clauses:** Have an active meaning, describing what someone/something is doing or happens all the time. * Example: *The woman talking to Tom.* * **`-ed` clauses:** Have a passive meaning, using the past participle. * Example: *The boy injured in the accident.* ### 1.30 Adjectives ending in `-ing` and `-ed` * **`-ing` adjectives:** Describe the thing or person that causes a feeling (e.g., *boring*). * **`-ed` adjectives:** Describe the feeling someone has (e.g., *bored*). ### 1.31 Order of Adjectives Adjectives generally follow a specific order, particularly when mixing opinion and fact adjectives. A common order is: Opinion -> Size -> Age -> Shape -> Colour -> Origin -> Material -> Purpose. * **Example:** *a beautiful large round wooden table*. ### 1.32 Adverbs * **Formation:** Mostly formed by adding `-ly` to an adjective (e.g., `quick` -> `quickly`). Not all words ending in `-ly` are adverbs (e.g., `friendly`). * **Position:** Adverbs often go before the main verb, after the first auxiliary verb, or after the verb `to be`. * **Adjective vs. Adverb:** `Good` is an adjective; `well` is an adverb. `Fast`, `hard`, `late` can be both adjectives and adverbs. `Lately` means recently. `Hardly` means almost not. ### 1.33 Word Order * **Verb + Object:** These usually stay together. * **Place and Time:** Time often comes after place. * **Adverbs with Verbs:** Single-word verbs usually have the adverb before them. With multi-word verbs, the adverb often goes after the first part. `To be` is followed by the adverb. --- # Conditional sentences and wishes Conditional sentences and wishes are grammatical structures used to express hypothetical situations, possibilities, and regrets. They are essential for conveying nuances of meaning related to unreal conditions and desires. ## 2. Conditional sentences Conditional sentences typically consist of two clauses: an **if-clause** (or conditional clause) and a **main clause** (or result clause). ### 2.1 Type 1 conditional sentences Type 1 conditional sentences refer to a real or very probable situation in the future. * **Structure:** If + present simple, will + base form of the verb. * Example: If it rains, we will stay inside. * **Usage:** To talk about something that is possible to happen in the future. * Example: If I have time tomorrow, I will visit the museum. * **Note:** The order of the clauses can be reversed without changing the meaning, but a comma is not used when the 'if'-clause follows the main clause. * Example: We will stay inside if it rains. ### 2.2 Type 2 conditional sentences Type 2 conditional sentences refer to unreal or improbable situations in the present or future. * **Structure:** If + past simple, would + base form of the verb. * Example: If I won a lot of money, I would buy a house. * **Usage:** To discuss hypothetical situations that are unlikely to happen or are contrary to the present reality. * Example: If I didn't want to go, I wouldn't go. * **'If I were' vs. 'If I was':** * In Type 2 conditionals, **'if I were'** is generally considered more formal and grammatically correct when referring to a hypothetical "I" state. * However, **'if I was'** is also commonly used in informal speech and writing. * Example: If I were you, I wouldn't do that. / If I was you, I wouldn't do that. * **'Could' and 'might' instead of 'would':** * In Type 2 conditionals, 'could' or 'might' can be used instead of 'would' in the main clause to express possibility or ability. * Example: If it stopped raining, we could go out. (Expresses possibility/ability) * Example: If I won a lot of money, I might buy a house. (Expresses possibility) * **'If I were you':** This specific phrase is used to give advice. * Example: If I were you, I would apologize. ### 2.3 Type 3 conditional sentences Type 3 conditional sentences refer to unreal situations in the past. They express regret or a different outcome based on a past condition. * **Structure:** If + past perfect simple, would have + past participle. * Example: If I had known you were in the hospital, I would have gone to visit you. * **Usage:** To talk about what might have happened in the past but did not. * Example: If I'd seen you, I would have said hello. * **Note:** The main clause expresses a past result. The 'if'-clause describes a past condition that did not occur. * **'Would have', 'could have', 'might have':** * **Would have:** Indicates a certain past result if the condition had been met. * Example: If I had gone to the party last night, I would have met lots of people. (Talking about the past) * **Could have:** Indicates a past possibility or ability if the condition had been met. * Example: We could have gone out if it had stopped raining. * **Might have:** Indicates a past possibility if the condition had been met. * Example: If I had known, I might have acted differently. ## 3. Wishes Wishes are used to express regret about the present, past, or to state a desire for something to happen. ### 3.1 Wishing about the present To express a wish about the present, we use 'wish' followed by the past simple. This implies that the current situation is not as desired. * **Structure:** I wish + past simple. * Example: I wish I knew Paul’s phone number. (Implying I don't know it now and want to.) * Example: I wish there weren’t so many people. (Implying there are too many people now.) * **Usage:** To express a desire for a present situation to be different. * Example: Do you ever wish you could fly? * **Note:** Never say 'I wish she would...' for present desires; use 'I wish she was/were...' for a state or 'I wish she would...' for a future action (see below). ### 3.2 Wishing about the past To express regret or a wish about something that happened or did not happen in the past, we use 'wish' followed by the past perfect simple. * **Structure:** I wish + past perfect simple. * Example: I wish I’d known that Gary was ill. (Implying I didn't know and regret it.) * Example: I wish I hadn’t eaten so much. (Implying I ate too much and regret it.) * **Usage:** To express regret for past actions or events. * Example: I wish I had known you were sick, I would have come over. ### 3.3 Wishing for future actions or change To express a desire for a future action or for a change in someone else's behavior, we use 'wish' followed by 'would' + base form of the verb. This often carries a sense of impatience or complaint. * **Structure:** I wish + would + base form of the verb. * Example: I wish it would stop raining. (We want it to stop now.) * Example: I wish you wouldn’t keep interrupting me. (Complaining about the interruption.) * **Usage:** To express a desire for something to happen or for someone to change their behavior, often with an element of frustration. ### 3.4 Wishing someone luck When wishing someone well, we use 'hope' rather than 'wish'. * **Correct:** I hope you feel better soon. * **Incorrect:** I wish you feel better soon. ### 3.5 Using 'wish' with 'was'/'were' for a desired state When expressing a desire for a current situation to be different, particularly about a state of being, 'wish' is followed by 'was' or 'were'. * **Structure:** I wish + was/were. * Example: I wish Sarah was here. (Expressing a desire for her presence now.) * Example: I wish I had a car. (Expressing a desire for ownership now.) * **Note:** This is distinct from 'wish + would' which refers to an action or behavior. --- # Questions and reported speech This section explores the mechanics of question formation and how they transform within indirect speech, alongside the crucial concept of verb tense shifts in reported speech. ## 3. Questions and reported speech ### 3.1 Question word order and indirect questions When a question is embedded within a longer sentence, such as after verbs like "know," "tell," or "ask," the word order changes from direct question form to statement form. This means the auxiliary verb (like *do*, *does*, *did*) used for direct questions is removed, and the subject typically comes before the main verb. * **Direct Question:** Where has Tom gone? * **Indirect Question:** Do you know **where Tom has gone**? Similarly, when forming an indirect question, the subject usually precedes the verb, and the structure reverts to that of a statement. * **Direct Question:** What time do the shops close? * **Indirect Question:** Claire wanted to know **what time the shops closed**. > **Tip:** Remember that with indirect questions, you are essentially reporting a question as a statement. This is why the word order shifts. ### 3.2 Reported speech and verb tense shifts A fundamental principle of reported speech is that verbs generally shift one tense back in time. This means that the tense used in the original direct statement or question is converted to its past equivalent in the reported version. * **Present Simple** in direct speech becomes **Past Simple** in reported speech. * Direct: "I **am** tired." * Reported: She said she **was** tired. * **Present Continuous** in direct speech becomes **Past Continuous** in reported speech. * Direct: "Where **are** you going?" * Reported: The Police officer asked us where we **were** going. * **Past Simple** in direct speech becomes **Past Perfect Simple** in reported speech. * Direct: "The shops **close** at 5 PM." * Reported: Claire wanted to know what time the shops **closed**. (Note: While "close" is present simple, the shift occurs to past simple when the reporting verb is in the past, e.g., "wanted to know.") * Direct: "He **left** soon afterwards." * Reported: He said he **had left** soon afterwards. * **Present Perfect Simple** in direct speech becomes **Past Perfect Simple** in reported speech. * Direct: "I **have just had** lunch." * Reported: He said he **had just had** lunch. * **Present Perfect Continuous** in direct speech becomes **Past Perfect Continuous** in reported speech. * Direct: "I **have been waiting** for 20 minutes." * Reported: He explained that he **had been waiting** for 20 minutes. * **Past Continuous** in direct speech becomes **Past Perfect Continuous** in reported speech. * Direct: "We **were having** dinner." * Reported: They said they **had been having** dinner. * **Modal Verbs:** * *Will* becomes *would*. * Direct: "I **will** help you." * Reported: He said he **would** help me. * *Can* becomes *could*. * Direct: "I **can** swim." * Reported: She said she **could** swim. * *May* becomes *might*. * Direct: "It **may** rain." * Reported: He said it **might** rain. * *Must* often remains *must* or becomes *had to*. * Direct: "You **must** be quiet." * Reported: The teacher said we **had to** be quiet. > **Tip:** The reporting verb (e.g., *said*, *asked*, *wanted to know*) often dictates the tense shift. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense shift usually occurs. If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tense generally remains the same. ### 3.3 Auxiliary verbs in short answers and confirmations Auxiliary verbs (*do*, *does*, *did*, *have*, *has*, *had*, *can*, *could*, *will*, *would*, etc.) are crucial for forming short answers and confirmations, avoiding repetition. * **Confirmations and Short Answers:** * "I am tired." - "Yes, I **am**." (using the auxiliary verb *am*) * "I can't drive." - "No, I **can't**." (using the auxiliary verb *can't*) * "He has gone." - "Yes, he **has**." (using the auxiliary verb *has*) * **Using *Do/Does/Did* for Present Simple and Past Simple:** * "I like coffee." - "So **do** I." * "She doesn't read newspapers." - "Neither **do** I." * "Sarah can't drive." - "And neither **can** Mark." * **Using *So* and *Neither/Nor*:** These structures are used to agree with a previous statement or to indicate that a negative statement also applies to the speaker. * Affirmative agreement: "I am tired." - "So **am** I." * Negative agreement: "I never read newspapers." - "Neither **do** I." or "Nor **do** I." * "Sarah can't drive." - "And neither **can** Mark." * **Confirmations with *I think so*, *I hope so*, etc.:** These phrases are used to confirm something without repeating the entire statement. * Affirmative: * "Will it rain?" - "I **think so**." * "Will she come?" - "I **hope so**." * Negative: * "I don't think so." * "I hope not." > **Tip:** Pay close attention to the tense of the auxiliary verb used in the original statement or question, as this will determine the auxiliary verb used in the short answer or confirmation. --- # Articles and determiners This section details the usage of articles and determiners, focusing on the articles 'a', 'an', and 'the', and the determiners 'some' and 'any'. ### 4.1 Articles: 'a', 'an', and 'the' #### 4.1.1 General use of 'a' and 'an' * **'A' and 'an'** are used with singular countable nouns when the noun is not specific and the listener/reader does not know which one you are talking about. * **'A'** is used before words that start with a consonant sound (e.g., a book, a university - "university" starts with a /j/ sound). * **'An'** is used before words that start with a vowel sound (e.g., an apple, an hour - "hour" starts with a vowel sound). #### 4.1.2 Using 'the' **'The'** is used in the following situations: * **Specific places or concepts:** When referring to a specific place or a general concept that is understood by both the speaker and listener. * **Example:** "Ellie goes to school every day." (General concept of being a student). * **Example:** "Ellie's mother went to the school to speak to her daughter's teacher." (Specific school building). * **Example:** We do not use 'the' for university or college when going as a student, or for hospital as a patient, or for prison when being incarcerated. We do use 'the' for these places when visiting or for a specific building. * **Unique entities:** For things that are unique or only one of their kind, such as the sun, the moon, the earth, the internet. * **Superlatives:** Before superlative adjectives (e.g., the tallest, the most interesting). * **Repetition:** When a person or thing has already been mentioned. * **Specific groups:** To refer to a specific group of people or things. #### 4.1.3 'The' with institutions and places * **No 'the'**: * Most city streets, roads, squares, and parks (e.g., Union Street, Abbey Road, Times Square). * Most public buildings and institutions like airports, stations, and universities (e.g., Manchester Airport, Harvard University, Buckingham Palace). * Churches beginning with 'St' (e.g., St John's Church). * Names of companies (e.g., Sony). * **With 'the'**: * Hotels, theatres, cinemas, museums (e.g., the Sheraton Hotel, the Palace Theatre, the Guggenheim Museum, the White House). * Names that include 'of' (e.g., the Bank of England, the Tower of London). * Most newspapers and organizations (e.g., The Washington Post). #### 4.1.4 'The' with names * **Countries**: Generally, no 'the' is used for country names (e.g., Japan, Belgium), unless the name includes words like "Republic" or "States" (e.g., the Czech Republic, the USA). * **People's names**: No 'the' is used before titles like Mr, Mrs, Captain, Doctor, President, when referring to individuals by their name. However, 'the' can be used when referring to a professional role impersonally, e.g., "We called the doctor." * **Geographical features**: 'The' is used before names of oceans, seas, rivers, canals (e.g., the Atlantic Ocean, the Nile, the Suez Canal). * **Plural names**: 'The' is used before plural names of people (families), countries, groups of islands, and mountain ranges (e.g., the Taylors, the Netherlands, the Philippines, the Alps). * **Compass points**: 'The' is used before compass points (e.g., the north of Brasil). #### 4.1.5 Singular and plural nouns with articles * **Singular countable nouns** cannot be used alone without an article (a/an, the) or another determiner (my, your, etc.). * **Plural countable nouns** can be used with 'some' or 'any', or without an article if referring to things in general. * **Uncountable nouns** have only one form and cannot be used with 'a/an' or numbers. They are used with 'some', 'any', 'much', or 'little'. #### 4.1.6 Nouns that can be countable or uncountable Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, depending on the context: * **Example:** * "a noise" (specific sound) vs. "noise" (general sound). * "a paper" (a newspaper) vs. "paper" (material). * "a hair" (one strand) vs. "hair" (all the hair on a head). * "a coffee" (a cup of coffee) vs. "coffee" (the drink in general). #### 4.1.7 Nouns with two parts and plural forms Nouns that have "two parts" are treated as plural and take a plural verb, even if they refer to a single item. * **Examples:** trousers, jeans, shorts, pants, pyjamas, glasses, binoculars, scissors. * **Note:** "a pair of..." is singular (e.g., "a pair of jeans"). #### 4.1.8 Nouns ending in -ics Nouns ending in '-ics' (like economics, mathematics, athletics) are generally not plural and take a singular verb. * **Example:** "Mathematics is my favourite subject." #### 4.1.9 Nouns ending in -s (singular or plural) Some words ending in '-s' have the same form for singular and plural. * **Example:** "sheep," "fish." * **Groups of people/things:** Collective nouns like 'audience,' 'committee,' 'company,' 'family,' 'government,' 'staff,' 'team,' and 'the police' can take a singular or plural verb. The plural verb is often used, especially in British English, to emphasize the individuals within the group. * **Example:** "The government have decided to..." or "The staff are not happy..." * **Periods of time, sums of money, distances:** These are often treated as a single unit and take a singular verb. * **Example:** "Three years is a long time." "Fifty thousand pounds was stolen." #### 4.1.10 Noun + noun compounds Two nouns can be combined to form a compound noun, where the first noun acts as an adjective. * **Examples:** a bus driver, income tax, city centre. * The first noun is usually singular, even if the meaning is plural. * **Example:** "a car park" (for multiple cars), "an apple tree" (with many apples). * Hyphenated compounds are used for time, money, or distance measurements. * **Example:** a three-hour journey, a ten-pound note, a six-mile walk. ### 4.2 Determiners: 'some' and 'any' #### 4.2.1 General usage * **'Some'** is generally used in positive sentences, offering, and requests. * **Example:** "I bought some flowers." "Would you like some tea?" "Can I have some water?" * **'Any'** is generally used in negative sentences and questions. * **Example:** "I didn't buy any flowers." "Did you buy any apples?" * **'Some' and 'any'** can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns. #### 4.2.2 'Any' in positive sentences 'Any' can be used in positive sentences to mean "it doesn't matter which" or "no matter how much/many." * **Example:** "You can come any time." "Take any book you like." * 'Any' is also used in sentences with negative meaning, even if they are grammatically positive. * **Example:** "She went out without any money." (Negative meaning). * "Hardly anybody fails." (Hardly indicates a negative meaning). * 'Any' is used in conditional clauses (if). * **Example:** "Let me know if you need anything." #### 4.2.3 'Somebody', 'someone', 'anybody', 'anyone' * These are singular words and take singular verbs. * **Example:** "Someone is here to see you." "Has anybody called?" * 'Somebody/someone' are generally used in positive sentences, while 'anybody/anyone' are used in negative sentences and questions. #### 4.2.4 'No' and 'None' * **'No'** is used before a noun. * **Example:** "There was no bus." "No reason was given." * **'None'** is used without a noun, often as a pronoun. It can also be used with "of." * **Example:** "How much money do you have?" "None." "None of it is mine." * When using "none of" followed by a plural noun, the verb can be singular or plural. * **Example:** "None of the students were happy." or "None of the students was happy." #### 4.2.5 'Nothing', 'Nobody'/'No-one', 'Nowhere' * These words are used at the beginning of a sentence or alone. * **Example:** "Nobody knows." "What happened?" "Nothing." * These words are often placed after the verb "to be." * You cannot use a negative verb with these words; they already carry the negative meaning. * **Incorrect:** "I didn't say nothing." * **Correct:** "I said nothing." or "I didn't say anything." * After 'nobody'/'no-one', 'they/them/their' can be used. * **Example:** "Nobody did their homework." #### 4.2.6 'Much', 'Many', 'Little', 'Few', 'A lot of', 'Plenty of' * **Much and Little:** Used with uncountable nouns. * "Much" is unusual in positive sentences but common in negative ones or with 'too', 'so', 'as'. * **Example:** "We didn't spend much money." "We spent too much money." * "Little" means "not much." * **Example:** "I have little work to do." * **Many and Few:** Used with countable plural nouns. * "Many" can be used in all sentence types. * "Few" means "not many." * **Example:** "We didn't take many pictures." "I have a few things to do." * **A lot of, Lots of, Plenty of:** Used with both countable and uncountable nouns. * "Plenty of" means "more than enough." #### 4.2.7 'All', 'Most', 'Some', 'Any', 'No' with nouns and 'of' * These determiners can be used directly with a noun or with "of" followed by a noun (or pronoun like 'it', 'us', 'them'). * **Example:** "All cars have wheels." vs. "All of the cars had wheels." * **Example:** "Some of the people I work with are..." * 'All', 'half', 'some', 'most' can also be used without a noun or 'of'. * **Example:** "Some cars have four doors, and some have two." #### 4.2.8 'Both', 'Neither', 'Either' * These determiners can be used with or without a noun. * **With a noun:** "Both restaurants are good." * **Without a noun:** "I like both." * They can be used with "of" followed by "these," "those," "my," "Tom's," etc., or 'us', 'you', 'them'. * **Example:** "Both of these are good." "Neither of Tom's coworkers is nice." * The verb following "neither of" can be singular or plural. * **Example:** "Neither of them is home," or "Neither of them are home." * "Both" can be used without "of" when referring to two specific things already mentioned. * **Example:** "Both these restaurants are good." * **Comparison:** * "Both...and..." joins two elements. * "Neither...nor..." negates two elements. * "Either...or..." offers a choice between two elements. * **Distinction from 'any', 'none', 'all':** 'Both/neither/either of' refer to specific pairs, whereas 'any/none/all of' refer to a larger group. #### 4.2.9 'All', 'Every', 'Whole' * **'Everybody', 'Everyone', 'Everything'**: These are singular words and take singular verbs, but 'they/them/their' are often used as pronouns. * **Example:** "Everybody said they enjoyed themselves." * **'All'**: Used alone, it often refers to "all the things" previously mentioned. It's less common to use "all" alone compared to "everybody/everything." * **Example:** "All about it." "All my friends..." * **'Whole'**: Means "complete" or "entire" and is usually used with singular nouns. It is not typically used with uncountable nouns. * **Example:** "The whole book was interesting." * **'All'** is used with uncountable nouns: * **Example:** "Did you spend all the money?" #### 4.2.10 'Each' and 'Every' * **'Each'**: Refers to things or people separately, one by one. It can be used with or without a noun, and can be used for two or more items. It can also be used in the middle of a sentence or after a price. * **Example:** "Each sentence is different." "Each of the books was unique." "The students were each given a book." "A dollar each." * **'Every'**: Refers to things or people as a group, similar to "all." It is used with a noun and is more common for larger numbers. It can also indicate frequency. * **Example:** "Every window was open." "I use my car every day." * **'Every one'**: Used to refer to all members of a group, often following "all these books." * **Example:** "Have you read all these books? Yes, every one." ### 4.3 Articles and determiners in specific contexts #### 4.3.1 Noun + noun vs. of + noun * **Noun + noun**: Used to specify something related to the first noun. * **Example:** "a bus driver," "income tax," "a television camera." * **'Of'**: Usually used for things or ideas. * **Example:** "The temperature of the water," "the owner of the restaurant." * Sometimes both can be used, e.g., "the government's decision" or "the decision of the government." #### 4.3.2 Possessive forms: -'s and of * **'s**: Used mostly for people or animals, and for time-indicating words and places. * **Singular noun:** 's (e.g., Tom's computer). * **Plural noun ending in -s:** + ' (e.g., my sisters' room). * **Plural noun not ending in -s:** 's (e.g., children's book). * **Of**: Usually used for things or ideas. * **Example:** "the beginning of the book," "the top of the table." #### 4.3.3 Reflective pronouns: -self/-selves * **Singular:** myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself. * **Plural:** ourselves, yourselves, themselves. * Used when the subject and object of a verb are the same person or thing. * **Emphasis:** Can be used to emphasize the subject. * **Example:** "I repaired it myself." * **Not used after certain verbs:** feel, relax, concentrate, meet, wash, shave, dress (unless emphasizing). #### 4.3.4 'Each other' vs. 'Themselves' * **'Themselves'**: Refers back to the subject when the subject is plural, indicating reciprocal action upon themselves. * **Example:** "Kate and Joe looked at themselves (Kate looked at Kate, Joe looked at Joe)." * **'Each other' / 'One another'**: Used to indicate reciprocal action between two or more people. * **Example:** "Kate looked at Joe, and Joe looked at Kate. They looked at each other." #### 4.3.5 Possessive pronouns and determiners * Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. * Possessive determiners: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their. * **'A friend of mine'**: Expresses possession. * **'My own', 'Your own'**: Used for possession or emphasis, meaning "belonging to oneself." * **Example:** "I want my own room." "He cut his own hair." * **'On my own' / 'By myself'**: Both mean "alone." #### 4.3.6 'There' vs. 'It' * **'There'**: Used to introduce something for the first time, indicating existence. * **Example:** "There is a new restaurant in town." * **'It'**: Used to refer to a specific place, thing, or fact already mentioned. * **Example:** "I've heard it's very good." (referring to the restaurant). * **Example:** "There used to be a cinema here. It used to be a supermarket." #### 4.3.7 'All', 'Half', 'Some', 'Most', 'Any', 'Few', 'Little', 'Much', 'Many', 'No' These determiners quantify nouns and can be used with or without a noun, or followed by 'of'. * **With noun:** "All cars," "some money." * **With 'of' + noun/pronoun:** "All of the cars," "some of us." * **Without noun/of:** "Some cars have four doors, and some have two." #### 4.3.8 'Both', 'Neither', 'Either' with 'of' * Used with "of" followed by a determiner (the, these, my, Tom's) and a noun or pronoun (us, you, them). * **Example:** "Both of these are good." "Neither of them is home." "Either of you can come." #### 4.3.9 'Whole' vs. 'All' * **'Whole'**: Means complete or entire, typically used with singular nouns. * **Example:** "The whole book was fascinating." * **'All'**: Used with uncountable nouns and can refer to quantity or extent. * **Example:** "Did you read all the book?" (This usage is less common than with countable nouns). #### 4.3.10 'Each' vs. 'Every' * **'Each'**: Refers to individuals in a group separately. Can be used with or without a noun, and for two or more items. * **Example:** "Each student received a book." "Each of them was unique." * **'Every'**: Refers to all members of a group collectively. It is used with a noun and often implies a larger number. * **Example:** "Every student passed the exam." "Every window was open." * **'Each one' vs. 'Every one'**: 'Each one' is similar to 'each'. 'Every one' often follows a quantifier and refers to all individuals in a set. * **Example:** "Every one of those shirts is on sale." ### 4.4 Summary of Determiner Usage | Determiner | Countable (Singular) | Countable (Plural) | Uncountable | Notes | | :--------- | :------------------- | :----------------- | :---------- | :----------------------------------------- | | **a/an** | ✓ (general) | ✗ | ✗ | Consonant/vowel sound. | | **the** | ✓ (specific) | ✓ (specific) | ✓ (specific)| Unique, mentioned, superlative, general. | | **some** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | Positive sentences, offers, requests. | | **any** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | Negative sentences, questions, conditionals.| | **no** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | Used before a noun. | | **none** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | Used alone or with 'of'. | | **much** | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | Negative, questions, 'too much'. | | **many** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | All sentence types. | | **little** | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | Not much. | | **few** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Not many. | | **a little**| ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | Some, a small amount. | | **a few** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Some, a small number. | | **all** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | With or without noun/of. | | **most** | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | With or without noun/of. | | **both** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Refers to two. With or without noun/of. | | **neither**| ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Refers to two (negative). With or without noun/of. | | **either** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | Refers to two (choice). With or without noun/of. | | **every** | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | Used with a noun. | | **each** | ✗ | ✓ | ✗ | With or without a noun. Refers individually.| | **whole** | ✓ (singular) | ✗ | ✗ | Complete, entire. | --- # Noun structures and possessives This section focuses on how nouns can be combined, how possession is indicated, and the formation of plural nouns in English. ### 5.1 Noun + noun structures Two nouns can be combined to form a single concept, where the first noun acts like an adjective, modifying the second noun. This creates a compound noun or a noun phrase where the initial noun provides more specific information. * **Structure:** The first noun describes the type or purpose of the second noun. * **Singular first noun:** Even if the first noun has a plural meaning, it is typically singular when used in this structure. * **Example:** `a car park` (for multiple cars), `an apple tree` (with many apples). * **Compound words:** Some noun + noun combinations are written as a single word (e.g., `a headache`, `toothpaste`), while others are written as two separate words (e.g., `a car park`, `a road sign`). * **Phrases with numbers:** When combining numbers with units of time, money, or distance to form adjectives, a hyphen is used, and the number-unit combination is singular. * **Example:** `a three-hour journey`, `a ten-pound note`, `a four-week course`, `a six-mile walk`. * **Contrast:** For two or more such units acting as adjectives for a noun, they are not pluralized: `two 14-year-old girls`. ### 5.2 Plural noun forms English has regular and irregular ways of forming plurals, with specific rules for nouns ending in -s or -ics. #### 5.2.1 Nouns with two parts Some nouns consist of "two parts" and are treated as plural, even if they refer to a single item. These nouns take a plural verb. * **Examples:** `trousers`, `jeans`, `shorts`, `pants`, `pyjamas`, `glasses`, `binoculars`, `scissors`. * **Verb agreement:** `My trousers are too long.` * **"A pair of..." structure:** When used with `a pair of`, these nouns become singular. * **Example:** `a pair of jeans`, `a pair of glasses`. #### 5.2.2 Nouns ending in -ics Nouns ending in `-ics` (e.g., `economics`, `athletics`, `mathematics`, `maths`, `gymnastics`) are generally not plural, even though they end in -s. They take a singular verb. * **Example:** `Gymnastics is my favourite sport.` #### 5.2.3 Nouns ending in -s (singular and plural) Some nouns end in -s but can be either singular or plural, maintaining the same form for both. * **Singular nouns with a plural verb:** In certain cases, particularly with collective nouns or groups, a singular noun ending in -s can take a plural verb. * **Examples:** `audience`, `committee`, `company`, `family`, `firm`, `government`, `staff`, `team`, `the police`. * **Usage:** `The government have decided to...` or `The staff are not happy with their working conditions.` * **Note:** It is also possible to use a singular verb (e.g., `The government wants`), but the plural verb is common. Company and sports team names can also take plural verbs (e.g., `Shell have increased...`, `Italy are playing...`). * **Periods of time, sums of money, distances:** These are often treated as a single unit and take a singular verb. * **Example:** `Three years is a long time.`, `Fifty thousand pounds was stolen.`, `Two miles isn’t far to walk.` ### 5.3 Noun + noun structures Two nouns can be used together to create a compound noun or a phrase where the first noun modifies the second. The first noun often acts like an adjective. * **Function:** The first noun specifies the type or purpose of the second noun. * **Examples:** `a bus driver`, `income tax`, `the city centre`, `a television camera`, `language problems`, `marriage problems`, `health problems`, `a frying pan`, `a washing machine`. * **Multiple nouns:** Sometimes, more than two nouns can be combined (e.g., `hotel reception desk`). * **Singular form of the first noun:** The first noun is usually singular, even if the overall meaning is plural. * **Example:** `a car park` (for multiple cars), `an apple tree` (with many apples). * **Phrases with numbers:** When numbers are combined with units of time, money, or distance to form compound adjectives, they are hyphenated and singular. * **Examples:** `a three-hour journey`, `a ten-pound note`, `a four-week course`, `a six-mile walk`. * **Note:** The unit is not pluralized: `two 14-year-old girls`. ### 5.4 Possessives Possession can be indicated using the apostrophe 's (`'s`) or the preposition `of`. #### 5.4.1 Possessives with 's The apostrophe 's (`'s`) is primarily used for people and animals. * **Usage:** `Tom's computer`, `the cat's tail`. * **Omission of the noun:** The possessive can be used without the following noun if it is understood from context. * **Example:** `This isn’t my book, it’s my sister’s.` * **Singular nouns:** Add `'s`. * **Example:** `my sister's book`. * **Plural nouns ending in -s:** Add only an apostrophe (`'`). * **Example:** `my sisters’ room` (if there are two or more sisters). * **Plural nouns not ending in -s:** Add `'s`. * **Example:** `a children's book`. * **Joint possession:** For two or more nouns that share possession, add `'s` to the last noun. * **Example:** `Jack and Karen’s children.` * **Time-indicating words:** `a week's holiday`, `a ten minutes' walk`. #### 5.4.2 Possessives with 'of' The preposition `of` is typically used for things or ideas. * **Usage:** `the temperature of the water`, `the owner of the restaurant`. * **Common phrases:** `the beginning of`, `the middle of`, `the end of`, `the top of`, `the bottom of`, `the front/back/side of`. #### 5.4.3 's vs. of Sometimes, both `of` and `'s` can be used, though there might be a slight difference in emphasis or common usage. * **Example:** `The government's decision` or `the decision of the government`. ### 5.5 Nouns acting as adjectives (Noun + Noun structures) In noun + noun structures, the first noun functions like an adjective, describing the second noun. This forms a single conceptual unit. * **Examples:** `a bus driver`, `income tax`, `the city centre`, `a television camera`, `language problems`, `marriage problems`, `health problems`. * **Hyphenated compounds:** Some combinations are written as one word (e.g., `headache`), others as two (e.g., `car park`). * **Phrases with numbers:** When combining numbers with units of time, money, or distance to form adjectives, use a hyphen and the singular form of the unit. * **Examples:** `a three-hour journey`, `a ten-pound note`, `a four-week course`, `a six-mile walk`. * **Note:** `two 14-year-old girls`. The unit is not pluralized. --- # Adjectives and adverbs Adjectives modify nouns, providing descriptive information, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, indicating how, when, where, or to what extent an action is performed. ### 100.1 Formation of adverbs Adverbs are most commonly formed by adding "-ly" to an adjective. * **Examples:** * *quick* (adjective) + *ly* $\rightarrow$ *quickly* (adverb) * *careful* (adjective) + *ly* $\rightarrow$ *carefully* (adverb) * *heavy* (adjective) + *ly* $\rightarrow$ *heavily* (adverb) **Tip:** Not all words ending in "-ly" are adverbs; some are adjectives, such as *friendly, lively, elderly, lonely, lovely*. These adjectives describe nouns. For instance, "He smiled in a friendly way" uses "friendly" as an adjective modifying "way." ### 100.2 Adjective or adverb The distinction between adjectives and adverbs lies in what they modify. Adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs modify verbs, other adverbs, or adjectives. * **Adjective Usage:** After certain verbs like *to be, feel, look, sound*, an adjective is used to describe the subject. * **Examples:** * "Please be *quiet*." (quiet describes "you") * "My exams were really *bad*." (bad describes "exams") * "Why do you always look so *serious*?" (serious describes "you") * "I feel *happy*." (happy describes "I") * **Adverb Usage:** Adverbs modify verbs or describe adjectives. * **Examples:** * "Please speak *quietly*." (quietly describes how one speaks) * "I did really *badly* in the exam." (badly describes how one performed) * "Why do you never take my *seriously*?" (seriously describes how one takes something) * "The children were playing *happily*." (happily describes how the children were playing) ### 101. Adjectives and adverbs (2) Some common words function as both adjectives and adverbs, and some words ending in "-ly" have specific adverbial meanings. #### 101.1 Good and well * **Good** is an adjective: It describes nouns. * **Example:** "Darren is a *fast* runner." (fast describes the noun "runner") * **Well** is primarily an adverb: It modifies verbs. * **Example:** "Darren can run *fast*." (fast modifies the verb "run") * **Exception:** "Well" can be used as an adjective when it means "in good health." * **Example:** "How are you today?" "I'm very *well*, thank you." * **Usage with past participles:** "Well" is also used with past participles to form compound adjectives. * **Examples:** *well-known, well-educated, well-paid, well-behaved*. #### 101.2 Fast, hard, and late These words can function as both adjectives and adverbs without changing form. * **Fast:** * **Adjective:** "It's *hard* to find a job right now." (hard describes the state of finding a job) * **Adverb:** "Kate works *hard*." (hard modifies the verb "works") * **Late:** * **Adjective:** "Sorry I'm *late*." (late describes the subject) * **Adverb:** "I got up *late*." (late modifies the verb "got up") #### 101.3 Hardly * **Hardly** is an adverb that means "very little" or "almost not." * **Examples:** * "Sarah was very rude; she *hardly* spoke to me." * "We *hardly* know each other." * **Position:** "Hardly" typically goes before the main verb. * **Example:** "We *hardly* know each other." * **Usage with "any," "anybody," "anyone":** "Hardly" can be used with these words. * **Example:** "There's *hardly* any milk left." * **Meaning "certainly not":** * **Example:** "That's *hardly* surprising." ### 100.3 Word order with adverbs The position of adverbs in a sentence can affect meaning and emphasis. * **Verb + Object + Place + Time:** This is a common order for sentence elements. * **Example:** "Ben walks *to work* (place) *every morning* (time)." * **Adverbs with verbs:** * **Before the verb (single-word verbs):** If the verb is a single word, the adverb usually comes before it. * **Example:** "Laura *hardly ever* watches TV." * **After the verb ("to be"):** If the verb is "to be," the adverb generally follows it. * **Example:** "You're *always* late." * **After the first auxiliary verb (multi-word verbs):** With verbs of two or more words, the adverb typically follows the first auxiliary verb. * **Example:** "I *can never* remember." * **"Probably" with negative verbs:** When "probably" is used with a negative verb, the structure is usually verb + "probably." * **Example:** "I'll *probably not* see you." (not "I won't probably see you.") * **Adverbials of Manner, Place, and Time (MPT):** The general order for adverbials is Manner, then Place, then Time. * **Example:** "I saw him *in the pub* (place) *yesterday* (time)." * **Example:** "I saw him sitting *quietly* (manner) *on the stairs* (place) *that morning* (time)." * **Two similar adverbials:** The more specific adverbial usually comes first. * **Example:** "*On the table* (more specific) *in the kitchen*." ### 98. Adjectives ending in -ing and -ed Many adjectives describe feelings or characteristics and are formed from verbs, ending in either "-ing" or "-ed." * **-ing adjectives:** Describe the thing or person that causes the feeling. * **Example:** "My job is *boring*." (The job causes boredom.) * **-ed adjectives:** Describe the feeling that someone experiences. * **Example:** "I'm *bored* with my job." (This describes how the speaker feels.) ### 99. Adjectives: order of adjectives When multiple adjectives are used before a noun, they generally follow a specific order. * **General Order:** Opinion adjectives usually come before fact adjectives. * **Opinion:** *nice, beautiful* * **Fact:** *new, large, round, wooden* * **Order of Fact Adjectives:** The typical order for fact adjectives is: 1. Size/Length 2. Shape/Width 3. Age 4. Color 5. Origin 6. Material 7. Purpose * **Examples:** * "My brother lives in a *nice new* house." (opinion + age) * "I have a *beautiful large round wooden* table." (opinion + size + shape + material) * "a *small black plastic* bag" (size + color + material) * "an *old white cotton* shirt" (age + color + material) * **Size and Length vs. Shape and Width:** Adjectives of size and length (e.g., *big, small, tall, long*) usually precede adjectives of shape and width (e.g., *round, fat, thin, slim*). * **Example:** "a *large round* table." * **Multiple Colors:** When there are multiple colors, they are usually connected by "and." * **Example:** "a *black and white* dress." * **Time Indications:** Certain time-related adjective phrases have a fixed order. * **Examples:** "the *first two days*," "the *next few weeks*," "the *last ten minutes*." (Incorrect: "two first days," "few next weeks," "ten last minutes.") ### 101. Adjectives and adverbs (continued) #### 101.4 Fast, hard, and late (revisited) As mentioned, *fast, hard*, and *late* can be both adjectives and adverbs. * **Fast:** * **Adjective:** "Darren is a *fast* runner." * **Adverb:** "Darren can run *fast*." * **Hard:** * **Adjective:** "It's *hard* to find a job right now." * **Adverb:** "Kate works *hard*." * **Late:** * **Adjective:** "Sorry I'm *late*." * **Adverb:** "I got up *late*." #### 101.5 Lately * **Lately** is an adverb that specifically means "recently." It is not to be confused with "late." * **Example:** "Have you seen Sarah *lately*?" ### Comparative and Superlative Forms While not explicitly detailed on pages 98-101, comparative and superlative forms are a standard aspect of adjectives and adverbs. * **Comparative:** Used to compare two things (e.g., *faster, more beautiful*). * **Superlative:** Used to compare three or more things, identifying the extreme (e.g., *fastest, most beautiful*). > **Tip:** The formation of comparative and superlative forms depends on the length and structure of the adjective or adverb (e.g., adding "-er/-est," using "more/most," or irregular forms). ### Adjectives that look like adverbs Some words are adjectives but have a form that resembles an adverb (ending in "-ly"). These adjectives describe nouns. * **Examples:** * *Friendly* (adjective): "The *friendly* man smiled." * *Cowardly* (adjective): "He behaved in a *cowardly* manner." * *Silly* (adjective) * *Lively* (adjective) If you want to describe how someone performs an action using these words, you need to use an adverbial phrase. * **Example:** Instead of "He laughed friendly," use "He laughed *in a friendly way*." ### Adverbials An adverbial is a word, phrase, or clause that functions like an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb. * **Adverbials of Manner:** Describe how an action is done (e.g., *quietly, beautifully*). * **Adverbials of Place:** Indicate where an action occurs (e.g., *in the pub, on the stairs*). * **Adverbials of Time:** Specify when an action happens (e.g., *yesterday, that morning*). ### Notes on Usage and Word Order * **Verb + Object:** Verbs and their direct objects typically stay together. * **Example:** "I *like my job* very much." * **Verb + Object + Place:** The adverbial of place often follows the object. * **Example:** "We *took the children* (object) *to the zoo* (place)." * **Verb + Place + Time:** When both place and time are present, place usually precedes time. * **Example:** "Ben walks *to work* (place) *every morning* (time)." * **Adverbial placement with verbs:** * **Single verb:** Adverb usually before the verb. * **"To be" verb:** Adverb usually after the verb. * **Multi-word verbs:** Adverb usually after the first auxiliary verb. * **"Probably" with negatives:** Verb first, then "probably." This summary covers the key aspects of adjectives and adverbs presented on pages 98-101, focusing on their formation, usage, order, and common points of confusion. --- # Relative clauses Relative clauses provide additional information about a noun, specifying which person or thing is being referred to. ### 7.1 Formation and use of relative pronouns Relative clauses are formed using relative pronouns such as 'who', 'that', 'which', 'whose', and 'where'. The choice of pronoun depends on whether it refers to a person or a thing, and its function within the clause (subject or object). #### 7.1.1 'Who', 'that', and 'which' * **'Who'** is used for people. * **'That'** can be used for both people and things. * **'Which'** is used for things. > **Tip:** In defining relative clauses, 'that' is often preferred for things and people, especially in informal contexts. #### 7.1.2 'Whose' * **'Whose'** is used to express possession, typically for people, indicating whose possession it is. It shows a relationship of ownership or belonging. * Example: "We helped some people **whose** car had broken down." #### 7.1.3 'Whom' * **'Whom'** is a more formal alternative to 'who' when it functions as the object of the verb in the relative clause. * Example: "George is a person **whom** I admire very much." * It can also be used after a preposition: "It’s important to have friends with **whom** you can relax." #### 7.1.4 'Where' * **'Where'** is used to refer to a place. * Example: "I recently went back to the town **where** I grew up." #### 7.1.5 'When' and 'Why' * While not strictly relative pronouns, 'when' and 'why' can function similarly in relative clauses to specify time or reason. * Example for 'when': "The day **when** we got married..." (can also be "The day we got married...") * Example for 'why': "The reason **why** I'm calling you..." (can also be "The reason that I'm calling you...") ### 7.2 Defining and Non-defining Relative Clauses Relative clauses can be categorized into two main types: defining and non-defining. #### 7.2.1 Defining relative clauses * **Purpose:** These clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence. They identify which specific person or thing is being discussed, distinguishing them from others. * **Punctuation:** They are not separated by commas. * **Pronoun usage:** * 'Who' or 'that' for people. * 'Which' or 'that' for things. * 'Whose' for possession. * 'Where' for places. * **Omitting pronouns:** 'Who', 'that', and 'which' can be omitted if they are the object of the relative clause. * Example: "We stayed at the hotel (**that** / **which**) you recommended." (The pronoun can be omitted here). * Example: "Do you know the woman (**who** / **that**) Tom is talking to?" (The pronoun can be omitted here). #### 7.2.2 Non-defining relative clauses * **Purpose:** These clauses provide extra, non-essential information about a person or thing that has already been clearly identified. Removing the clause does not change the fundamental meaning of the sentence. * **Punctuation:** They are set off by commas. * **Pronoun usage:** * 'Who' for people. * 'Which' for things. * 'Whose' for possession. * 'Where' for places. * **Restrictions:** * **'That' cannot be used** in non-defining clauses. * The pronoun **cannot be omitted**. * Example: "My brother Ben, **who** lives in Hong Kong, is an architect." (Removing the clause "who lives in Hong Kong" still leaves "My brother Ben is an architect.") * Example: "We stayed at the Park Hotel, **which** a friend recommended." > **Tip:** If you can remove the clause without changing the core meaning and it provides additional detail, it's likely a non-defining clause. Pay close attention to the use of commas. #### 7.2.3 Prepositions in relative clauses * **Formal English:** Prepositions typically come *before* 'whom' or 'which' in non-defining clauses. * Example: "...friends with **whom** you can relax." * Example: "...the place **to which** he travelled." * **Spoken English:** In spoken English, prepositions are often kept *after* the verb, and 'who' is used instead of 'whom' when it refers to people. * Example: "Katherine told me she works for 'Latoma', **which** I’d never heard of before." (Preposition 'of' is after 'heard'). * Example: "Mr Lee, **who** I spoke to at the conference..." ('who' is used instead of 'whom', and 'to' is after 'spoke'). * Quantifiers like 'all of', 'most of', 'some of', 'neither of', 'both of', etc., can be followed by 'whom' or 'which'. * Example: "Helen has three brothers, all of **whom** are married." * Example: "They asked me a lot of questions, most of **which** I couldn’t answer." #### 7.2.4 Using 'Which' for extra information about a whole sentence * **'Which'** can be used to refer to the entire preceding clause, not just a single noun. This is a common feature of non-defining clauses. * Example: "Joe got the job, **which** surprised everybody." (Here, 'which' refers to the fact that Joe got the job). * Example: "The weather was good, **which** we hadn’t expected." * **Note:** **'What' is not used** in this context; only 'which' is appropriate. ### 7.3 Reduced Relative Clauses (-ing and -ed clauses) Relative clauses can often be shortened by removing the relative pronoun and the auxiliary verb ('be'), leaving a participle phrase. #### 7.3.1 -ing clauses (active meaning) * These clauses have an active meaning and are formed by using the present participle (-ing form of the verb). * They can be used to describe an ongoing action at a particular time or an action that happens all the time. * Example: "The woman **talking** to Tom..." (This is a shortened form of "The woman who is talking to Tom...") * Example: "Police **investigating** the crime are looking for three men." (Short for "Police who are investigating...") * Example: "The road **connecting** the two villages is very narrow." (Short for "The road which connects...") #### 7.3.2 -ed clauses (passive meaning) * These clauses have a passive meaning and are formed using the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed, but many are irregular. * Example: "The boy **injured** in the accident was taken to the hospital." (Short for "The boy who was injured...") * Example: "The Police never found the money **stolen** in the robbery." (Short for "The money which was stolen...") > **Tip:** Reduced relative clauses are a concise way to add descriptive information and are common in formal writing. * **With 'there is/was'**: These constructions can also be used with '-ing' or '-ed' clauses. * Example: "There were some children **swimming** in the river." * Example: "There was a big red car **parked** outside the house." * **'Left'**: The past participle 'left' can also be used in this way to mean 'remaining' or 'still there'. * Example: "We’ve eaten nearly all the chocolates; there are only a few **left**." --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Present continuous | Used for actions happening around the time of speaking that are not yet complete, often indicating temporary situations. It is formed with am/is/are + -ing. | | Present simple | Used for general truths, facts, habits, and things that happen repeatedly. It is formed with the base verb or the verb + -s/-es. | | Past simple | Used to describe completed actions in the past. It is formed with the regular -ed ending or irregular past tense forms. | | Past continuous | Used to describe an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past, often interrupted by another shorter action. It is formed with was/were + -ing. | | Present perfect | Used to connect the past with the present, indicating actions with results now or experiences up to the present. It is formed with have/has + past participle. | | Present perfect continuous | Used for activities that have recently stopped or just stopped, or to emphasize the duration of an ongoing activity that started in the past. It is formed with have/has been + -ing. | | Past perfect | Used to describe an action that happened before another action in the past. It is formed with had + past participle. | | Past perfect continuous | Used to describe an action that was in progress before another action in the past, emphasizing its duration. It is formed with had been + -ing. | | Future continuous | Used to talk about an action that will be in progress at a specific time in the future. It is formed with will be + -ing. | | Future perfect | Used to talk about actions that will be completed before a specific time in the future. It is formed with will have + past participle. | | Conditional sentences | Sentences that express a condition and its consequence, typically using 'if'. They are categorized into zero, first, second, and third conditionals, each with distinct structures and meanings. | | Wish | Used to express a desire for a different situation in the present or past, or to complain about something currently happening. It is followed by a past simple or past perfect tense. | | Reported speech | The way of reporting what someone else said without using their exact words. This often involves changes in verb tenses, pronouns, and time expressions. | | Auxiliary verb | A verb used in conjunction with a main verb to form tenses, moods, or voices. Common auxiliary verbs include 'be', 'do', and 'have'. | | Determiner | A word that introduces a noun and indicates quantity, possession, or specificity, such as articles ('a', 'an', 'the'), demonstratives ('this', 'that'), and possessives ('my', 'your'). | | Noun | A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns can be countable or uncountable, singular or plural. | | Article | A type of determiner that precedes a noun and specifies whether the noun is general or specific. The English articles are 'a', 'an', and 'the'. | | Relative clause | A clause that modifies a noun by providing additional information about it. It typically begins with a relative pronoun such as 'who', 'which', 'that', 'whose', or 'whom'. | | Adjective | A word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives typically indicate quality, size, shape, color, or origin. | | Adverb | A word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a whole sentence. Adverbs often indicate manner, place, time, frequency, or degree. | | Word order | The arrangement of words in a sentence. English has a relatively fixed word order, generally Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), with specific rules for adverbs and other sentence elements. | | Possessive | Indicating ownership or belonging. This can be shown using possessive adjectives (my, your), possessive pronouns (mine, yours), or the possessive 's. | | Countable noun | A noun that can be counted and has both singular and plural forms (e.g., 'apple', 'apples'). | | Uncountable noun | A noun that cannot be counted and typically has only one form (e.g., 'water', 'information'). | | Subject | The part of a sentence that performs the action or is described by the verb. | | Object | The part of a sentence that receives the action of the verb. | | Past participle | The form of a verb used in perfect tenses and passive voice. For regular verbs, it typically ends in -ed; irregular verbs have unique past participle forms. | | Preposition | A word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in the sentence, often indicating location, direction, or time (e.g., 'in', 'on', 'at', 'to'). |