LECTURE 4_MRF_QUALITATIVE RESEARCH_2025-2026.pdf

# Qualitative research methods Qualitative research methods are unstructured, exploratory approaches used to gain insights and understanding of a problem setting through small samples, contrasting with quantitative research's aim to quantify data and generalize findings [5](#page=5). ### 1.1 Understanding qualitative versus quantitative research Qualitative research focuses on gaining a qualitative understanding of underlying reasons and motivations, using a small number of non-representative cases and unstructured data collection, resulting in initial understanding development. In contrast, quantitative research aims to quantify data and generalize results from a sample to a population of interest, employing a large number of representative cases, structured data collection, and statistical analysis to recommend a final course of action. Mixed-method research integrates both approaches to leverage their respective advantages [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** Qualitative research is excellent for exploratory phases to uncover initial ideas and understand the "why" behind consumer behavior, while quantitative research is for validating hypotheses and generalizing findings to a larger market. ### 1.2 Focus groups Focus groups are small groups of individuals guided by a moderator through unstructured, spontaneous discussions to gather information relevant to a research problem [7](#page=7). #### 1.2.1 Types of focus groups * **Traditional focus group:** Involves 6 to 12 people meeting in a dedicated room with a moderator guiding the discussion [7](#page=7). * **Online focus group:** Participants interact on an internet platform under the guidance of a moderator [7](#page=7). #### 1.2.2 Applications of focus groups Focus groups are used for various purposes in marketing research: * Understanding consumer perceptions, preferences, and behaviors [12](#page=12). * Obtaining impressions of new product concepts [12](#page=12). * Generating new ideas for existing products [12](#page=12). * Developing creative concepts and copy for advertisements [12](#page=12). * Securing price impressions [12](#page=12). * Gaining preliminary consumer reactions to specific marketing programs [12](#page=12). * Defining problems more precisely [12](#page=12). * Generating alternative courses of action [12](#page=12). * Gathering information to structure consumer questionnaires [12](#page=12). * Generating hypotheses for quantitative testing [12](#page=12). * Interpreting previously collected quantitative results [12](#page=12). > **Example:** A company might use a focus group to brainstorm new features for a software application based on user feedback and observed needs. ### 1.3 In-depth interviews An in-depth interview involves a one-on-one discussion using a series of probing questions to uncover deep insights into underlying motives, beliefs, and attitudes. These interviews require a trained interviewer and an interview guide and typically last from 30 minutes to over an hour [13](#page=13). #### 1.3.1 Applications of in-depth interviews In-depth interviews are particularly useful in several situations: * Detailed probing of a respondent's experiences [16](#page=16). * Discussing confidential, sensitive, or embarrassing topics [16](#page=16). * When strong social norms exist and respondents might be swayed by group opinions [16](#page=16). * For a detailed understanding of complicated behaviors [16](#page=16). * Interviews with experts in a field [16](#page=16). * Interviewing competitors, who are unlikely to share information in a group setting [16](#page=16). * Exploring product consumption experiences that are sensory and affect mood states and emotions, such as with perfumes or bath soaps [16](#page=16). > **Tip:** The probing questions like "Why do you say that?" or "Can you tell me more?" are crucial in in-depth interviews to uncover deeper insights [13](#page=13). ### 1.4 Ethnographic research Ethnographic research involves describing a person, group, or culture in their natural environment over an extended period [17](#page=17). #### 1.4.1 Types of ethnographic research * **Shopalongs:** Researchers accompany shoppers on their trips, observing and recording their activities with permission [17](#page=17). * **Mobile ethnography:** Respondents use their mobile phones to document their own experiences [17](#page=17). * **Netnography:** An ethnographic study specifically of online activities [17](#page=17). ### 1.5 Observation methods Observation involves systematically recording people's behaviors to gather information about a problem of interest, without direct questioning or communication with the observed individuals. Information is typically recorded as events occur [19](#page=19). #### 1.5.1 Characteristics of observation methods * **Overt versus covert observation:** In **covert observation**, respondents may not be aware they are being observed, though informing them is mandatory. In **overt observation**, respondents are aware they are being watched [21](#page=21). * **Natural versus contrived observation:** **Natural observation** occurs in the behavior's actual environment. **Contrived observation** takes place in an artificial environment [21](#page=21). * **Personal versus mechanical observation:** **Personal observation** is conducted by the researcher. **Mechanical observation** uses devices, with or without participant involvement [21](#page=21). * **Direct versus indirect observation:** **Direct observation** witnesses behavior as it happens. **Indirect observation** focuses on the effects or results of behavior rather than the behavior itself [21](#page=21). #### 1.5.2 Pros and cons of observation **Pros:** * Measures actual behavior, not just reports of intended or preferred behavior [22](#page=22). * Avoids reporting bias and interviewer bias [22](#page=22). * Essential for collecting certain types of data that cannot be obtained otherwise [22](#page=22). **Cons:** * Can be time-consuming and expensive [22](#page=22). * Difficult to observe certain behaviors [22](#page=22). * Provides no information on the reasons for behaviors, underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, or preferences [22](#page=22). > **Example:** Observing shopper behavior in a supermarket aisle to understand product selection patterns is a direct application of observation methods. ### 1.6 Other qualitative techniques #### 1.6.1 Projective techniques Projective techniques use unstructured, indirect questioning to encourage respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings about a subject. Participants are placed in simulated activities hoping they will reveal information they might otherwise withhold. Examples include association, completion techniques, picture tests, mood boards, cartoon tests, role-playing, and the third-person technique [23](#page=23). #### 1.6.2 Semiotics Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and their interpretation [23](#page=23). --- # Focus groups and online communities Focus groups and online communities are qualitative research methods used to gather in-depth consumer insights and opinions [7](#page=7). ### 2.1 Focus groups Focus groups are a qualitative research method where a small group of individuals, typically 6 to 12 people, are brought together to engage in a guided, unstructured discussion led by a moderator. The primary goal is to gain information relevant to the research problem [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.1 Types of focus groups * **Traditional focus group:** This format involves participants meeting in a dedicated room, facilitated by a moderator [7](#page=7). * **Online focus group:** Participants interact and exchange ideas on an internet platform, also guided by a moderator [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.2 Applications of focus groups Focus groups are versatile and can be applied in marketing research to: * Understand consumer perceptions, preferences, and behaviors [12](#page=12). * Obtain initial impressions of new product concepts [12](#page=12). * Generate new ideas for existing products [12](#page=12). * Develop creative concepts and copy for advertisements [12](#page=12). * Gauge consumer impressions regarding pricing [12](#page=12). * Gather preliminary consumer reactions to specific marketing programs [12](#page=12). * Define research problems more precisely [12](#page=12). * Generate alternative courses of action for marketing strategies [12](#page=12). * Obtain information useful for structuring consumer questionnaires [12](#page=12). * Generate hypotheses for subsequent quantitative testing [12](#page=12). * Interpret findings from previously conducted quantitative research [12](#page=12). > **Tip:** Focus groups are particularly useful for exploratory research, idea generation, and understanding the nuances of consumer language related to products [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.3 Information gathered from focus groups Focus group discussions can be used to: * Generate ideas [7](#page=7). * Learn the specific vocabulary consumers use when discussing a product [7](#page=7). * Gain insights into basic consumer needs and attitudes [7](#page=7). > **Example:** A focus group might be used to explore consumers' feelings about a new sustainable packaging concept for a beverage brand, helping the company understand what words resonate with consumers and what their underlying concerns are about environmental impact [11](#page=11) [7](#page=7). ### 2.2 Marketing research online communities (MROCs) Marketing research online communities (MROCs) are virtual groups of individuals assembled online to interact, share ideas and opinions, and complete assigned tasks. They represent an evolution of online research methods, leveraging the persistent nature of online engagement [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** While the document outlines the concept of online communities, detailed comparisons between online and traditional focus groups, as well as specific planning and conducting guidelines or moderator outlines, are mentioned but not elaborated upon with textual detail within the provided pages. The focus remains on defining the methods and their applications [10](#page=10) [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). --- # In-depth interviews In-depth interviews are a qualitative research method employing a series of probing questions to uncover deep insights into respondents' underlying motives, beliefs, and attitudes [13](#page=13). ### 3.1 The nature of in-depth interviews An in-depth interview is characterized by a set of probing questions asked one-on-one between an interviewer and a respondent. This technique is particularly effective in uncovering deep insights into the underlying motives, beliefs, and attitudes of individuals. These interviews require a trained interviewer and are typically guided by an interview guide. The duration of an in-depth interview can range significantly, from 30 minutes to over an hour [13](#page=13). #### 3.1.1 The role of probing questions Probing questions are central to the in-depth interview process, enabling the interviewer to delve deeper into the respondent's responses. Examples of common probing questions include "Why do you say that?", "That's interesting, can you tell me more?", "Would you like to add anything else?", "Any other reason?", "Anything else?", "Could you tell me more about your thinking on that?", "What do you mean?", "Why do you feel that way?", and "Would you tell me what you have in mind?". These questions encourage the respondent to elaborate, clarify, and provide more detailed explanations [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14). > **Tip:** Effective probing is about encouraging the respondent to think more deeply and articulate their thoughts, rather than leading them to a particular answer. #### 3.1.2 Interview guide An interview guide is a structured outline that the interviewer uses to ensure all key areas are covered during the interview. It typically includes sections for background information, exploration of specific decisions or experiences, and a summary of findings [13](#page=13). > **Example:** An interview guide used to explore the decision of working adults to live in the parental home might include sections on: > - **Background:** Age, work, education, relationship status, family structure, living arrangements, and decision timeline [15](#page=15). > - **The decision to stay at home:** How the decision was made, influencing factors (partners, friends, siblings, parents), encouragement vs. pressure, and perceived pros and cons [15](#page=15). > - **Experience of living at home:** Daily routines, use of facilities and services, and responsibilities [15](#page=15). > - **Set-up:** Expectations, rules, conflicts, decision-making, and support within the household [15](#page=15). > - **Sum up:** Overall pros, cons, recommendations, and final thoughts [15](#page=15). ### 3.2 Applications of in-depth interviews In-depth interviews are versatile and can be applied in various situations where detailed understanding is crucial [16](#page=16). * **Detailed probing of respondents:** When a nuanced understanding of individual perspectives is required [16](#page=16). * **Sensitive or embarrassing topics:** Such as personal finances or health concerns, where privacy is essential [16](#page=16). * **Situations with strong social norms:** To avoid respondents being swayed by group opinion, for example, in understanding attitudes towards sports among college students [16](#page=16). * **Understanding complicated behavior:** Such as the intricate process of department store shopping [16](#page=16). * **Interviews with experts:** To gain specialized knowledge and insights [16](#page=16). * **Interviews with competitors:** In situations where competitors are unlikely to share information in a group setting, like travel agents' perceptions of airline package travel programs [16](#page=16). * **Sensory product experiences:** To explore how products like perfumes or bath soaps affect mood states and emotions [16](#page=16). --- # Ethnographic and observation methods Ethnographic and observation methods are qualitative and quantitative research techniques used to gather rich data by observing people and their behaviors in their natural or artificial environments [17](#page=17) [19](#page=19). ### 4.1 Ethnographic research Ethnographic research involves describing a person or group's behavior, characteristics, and culture within their own environment over an extended period. It aims to provide a deep understanding of participants' lives and experiences from their perspective [17](#page=17). #### 4.1.1 Types of ethnographic research * **Shopalongs:** In this method, a researcher accompanies a shopper on a shopping trip with their permission to observe and record their activities [17](#page=17). * **Mobile ethnography:** This technique involves respondents documenting their own experiences using their mobile phones, allowing for real-time insights into their lives. Various platforms and companies specialize in this method [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). * **Netnography:** This refers to the ethnographic study of online activities and communities, observing and analyzing behavior within digital spaces [17](#page=17). ### 4.2 Observation methods Observation methods involve the systematic recording of people's behaviors to gather information relevant to a research problem. The key characteristic is that the observer does not interact with or question the individuals being observed, and information is recorded as events unfold. These methods can be used for both qualitative (QUAL) and quantitative (QUANT) data collection [19](#page=19). #### 4.2.1 Characteristics of observation methods Observation methods can be categorized based on several characteristics: * **Overt versus covert observation:** * **Covert observation:** Respondents are unaware they are being observed, although informing them is mandatory in ethical research [21](#page=21). * **Overt observation:** Respondents are aware that they are under observation [21](#page=21). * **Natural versus contrived observation:** * **Natural observation:** Behavior is observed as it naturally occurs in its real-world environment [21](#page=21). * **Contrived observation:** Behavior is observed in an artificial or staged environment, often to elicit specific responses [21](#page=21). * **Personal versus mechanical observation:** * **Personal observation:** The researcher directly carries out the observation [21](#page=21). * **Mechanical observation:** Observation is conducted using devices or technology, potentially without direct participant involvement. An example of mechanical observation is eye-tracking technology [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). * **Direct versus indirect observation:** * **Direct observation:** Behavior is observed as it is happening in real-time [21](#page=21). * **Indirect observation:** The effects or results of past behavior are observed, rather than the behavior itself [21](#page=21). #### 4.2.2 Pros and cons of observation methods **Pros:** * Measures actual behavior, providing more reliable data than self-reports of intended or preferred actions [22](#page=22). * Avoids reporting bias and interviewer bias, as there is no direct interaction [22](#page=22). * Certain types of data, such as consumer movement patterns or product usage, can only be effectively collected through observation [22](#page=22). **Cons:** * Can be time-consuming and expensive, especially for observing rare or infrequent behaviors [22](#page=22). * Difficult to observe certain behaviors that are not outwardly visible [22](#page=22). * Provides no insight into the underlying reasons for behaviors, such as motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences [22](#page=22). > **Tip:** While observation excels at capturing "what" people do, it often needs to be complemented by other qualitative methods like interviews to understand "why" they do it. --- # Analysis and risks of qualitative data This section outlines the primary methods for analyzing qualitative data, the procedural steps involved in conducting analysis, and the inherent risks associated with qualitative research techniques. ### 5.1 Main approaches to qualitative data analysis Qualitative data analysis encompasses several distinct, yet often overlapping, approaches, each with its own focus and methodology. The main approaches include [24](#page=24): * **Thematic analysis:** This method focuses on identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data [24](#page=24). * **Content analysis:** A systematic approach to describe the content of communication. It can be used to quantify qualitative data or to interpret meanings and themes [24](#page=24). * **Discourse analysis:** Examines language in use, focusing on how language constructs social reality and meaning in specific contexts [24](#page=24). * **Narrative analysis:** Involves the study of stories and personal accounts, focusing on the structure, content, and function of narratives [24](#page=24). * **Grounded theory:** A systematic methodology where theory is developed inductively from a data set. The analysis begins with the data and builds theory from it [24](#page=24). ### 5.2 Doing the qualitative data analysis The process of conducting qualitative data analysis involves several key stages to ensure a systematic and rigorous examination of the data. These stages include [25](#page=25): * **Organizing the data:** This initial step involves collecting, transcribing, and organizing all collected qualitative data (e.g., interview transcripts, field notes) in a systematic manner [25](#page=25). * **Getting to know the data:** Before analysis begins in earnest, it is crucial to immerse oneself in the data. This involves reading and re-reading transcripts and notes to gain a comprehensive understanding of the content and context [25](#page=25). * **Coding the data:** Coding is the process of identifying and categorizing segments of data that relate to specific concepts or themes. Codes are typically short labels assigned to data segments [25](#page=25). * **Making links & hypotheses:** Once the data is coded, the next step is to identify relationships between codes and categories. This can lead to the development of hypotheses or preliminary theories that explain the observed patterns in the data [25](#page=25). ### 5.3 Risks of qualitative techniques While qualitative research offers rich insights, it is susceptible to several inherent risks that can affect the validity and reliability of the findings. Key risks include [27](#page=27): * **Complexity in administration and analysis:** Qualitative methods can be complex and time-consuming to administer and analyze, requiring significant resources and expertise [27](#page=27). * **Interpretation bias:** There is a serious risk of interpretation bias, where the researcher's own perspectives, assumptions, or preconceptions unconsciously influence the way data is interpreted. This can lead to selective observation or misrepresentation of participants' meanings [27](#page=27). * **Requirement for highly trained interviewers:** The effectiveness of qualitative data collection, particularly in interviews, often depends on the skill and training of the interviewers. Inexperienced interviewers may fail to elicit rich data or may introduce bias [27](#page=27). > **Tip:** To mitigate interpretation bias, employing multiple coders and using techniques like triangulation (comparing findings from different data sources or methods) can enhance the rigor of qualitative analysis. > **Example:** In a study exploring user experiences with a new app, an interviewer who is personally enthusiastic about the app might subtly steer participants towards positive feedback, leading to biased interpretation of the data. A well-trained interviewer would remain neutral and encourage participants to express both positive and negative aspects freely. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Qualitative research | An unstructured, exploratory research methodology based on small samples that provides insights and understanding of the problem setting. It aims to explore underlying reasons and motivations. | | Quantitative research | A research methodology that seeks to quantify the data and typically applies some form of statistical analysis to generalize findings from a sample to a larger population. | | Mixed method research | The integration of both quantitative and qualitative research methods to leverage the advantages of both approaches. This can involve conducting qualitative research before quantitative, quantitative before qualitative, or both concurrently. | | Focus group | A research method where small groups of people are brought together and guided by a moderator through an unstructured discussion to gain information relevant to a research problem. This can be conducted traditionally in a room or online via an internet platform. | | Marketing research online communities (MROCs) | Groups of individuals who are brought together online to interact, provide ideas and opinions, and complete tasks for the purpose of marketing research. | | In-depth interview | A one-on-one interview where a set of probing questions are posed to uncover deep insights into underlying motives, beliefs, and attitudes of a respondent. These interviews require trained interviewers and typically last longer than standard interviews. | | Ethnographic research | A research method that involves describing a person, a group, or their behavior, characteristics, and culture within their own environment over a period of time. | | Shopalong | A type of ethnographic research where a researcher accompanies a shopper (with permission) on a shopping trip to observe and record their activities and behaviors. | | Mobile ethnography | A form of marketing research where respondents use their mobile phones to document their own experiences, providing insights into their behavior and context. | | Netnography | The ethnographic study of online activities, behavior, and culture conducted within digital environments. | | Observation Methods | Techniques used to systematically record the behaviors of people to obtain information about a problem of interest, without direct questioning or communication with the individuals being observed. | | Overt observation | A type of observation where the respondents are aware that they are being observed by a researcher. | | Covert observation | A type of observation where the respondents may not be aware that they are being observed, although informing them is still considered mandatory. | | Natural observation | Involves observing behavior as it takes place organically in its actual environment without any artificial manipulation. | | Contrived observation | A type of observation where respondents are observed in an artificial or controlled environment, which may influence their natural behavior. | | Personal observation | Observation carried out directly by a human researcher. | | Mechanical observation | Observation conducted using mechanical devices or equipment, which may or may not involve participant participation. | | Projective techniques | Unstructured, indirect questioning methods designed to encourage respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding a topic of concern by placing them in simulated activities. | | Thematic analysis | An approach to qualitative data analysis that identifies, analyzes, and interprets patterns of meaning (themes) within the data. | | Content analysis | A research method used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within qualitative data. It can be used to quantify qualitative data or to identify patterns and relationships. |