11 political thought partiality final.pptx

# The nature of political thought and its historical foundations The nature of political thought and its historical foundations explores the fundamental definition of political thought, its core concerns regarding the polis and the state, and its reliance on varying concepts of human nature. ## 1. The nature of political thought ### 1.1 Defining political thought Political thought concerns itself with the affairs of the "polis" or "res publica," often understood as an idealized representation of public life. This typically implies autonomous political actors, a rational government independent of sectional interests, and a state as a distinct institutional structure separate from its rulers. Political thought also necessitates a corresponding view of a non-political sphere and the relationship between these two spheres. Its aim is to unpack the underlying assumptions within mainstream understandings of government and offer solutions to challenges such as achieving social life without extensive subordination, managing sectional interests, and envisioning the ideal political community. ### 1.2 The role of human nature Normative claims about political life are intrinsically linked to underlying ideas about human nature. Each conception of human nature carries different implications for how political life should be organized. These concepts of human nature, while functional and often clear, are not scientific or empirically testable. Instead, they function as normative "axioms" upon which political thought builds. Some thinkers, however, reject the notion of a fixed human nature. > **Tip:** Understanding the implicit or explicit assumptions about human nature within a political theory is crucial for grasping its broader arguments and implications. ### 1.3 Key debates on human nature Central to discussions of human nature are debates concerning: * Nature versus nurture * Intellect versus instinct * Competition versus cooperation * The relationship between the individual and the community ## 2. Historical foundations of political thought ### 2.1 Greek legacies #### 2.1.1 Aristotle's teleological view Aristotle posited that everything in the world has a "telos," meaning an end or purpose, representing its state of full or final development. A thing is considered good when it achieves its telos. #### 2.1.2 Aristotle's conception of human nature For Aristotle, the telos of human beings is a life of active ethical well-being. He famously argued that humans are "political animals" by nature, and that the "polis" (state) is the only environment conducive to a virtuous and appropriate life. The polis provides the necessary conditions for such a life through its institutions. Consequently, Aristotle was deeply interested in the design and quality of political systems, aiming to identify what makes them good. #### 2.1.3 Aristotle's exclusionary understanding of citizens It is important to note that Aristotle's concept of citizenship and participation in the polis was exclusionary. ### 2.2 Sovereignty and its manifestations The concept of sovereignty, referring to supreme authority, has been attributed to various entities throughout history, including God, the Pope, monarchs, philosophical constructs like Leviathan, and individuals or the people. #### 2.2.1 Thomas Hobbes Hobbes described a "state of nature" as a war of "every man against each other." He argued that individuals rationally choose to abandon their natural right of self-defense and transfer their natural liberty to a sovereign (the Leviathan) as a second-best option for survival and order. Sovereignty in Hobbes' view is modelled on God's omnipotence, but its origin of power ultimately lies with the people who consent to it. #### 2.2.2 John Locke Locke viewed government as an institution established by individuals to protect and preserve their natural rights, particularly life, liberty, and property, which are not fully secured in the state of nature. Natural rights serve as constraints on legitimate governments, guided by natural law. Legitimate government only possesses the rights that individuals have voluntarily transferred to it. #### 2.2.3 Mikhail Bakunin Bakunin contended that the existence of states is inherently immoral and a source of perpetual warfare. #### 2.2.4 Jean-Jacques Rousseau Rousseau's social contract theory posits that individuals cannot alienate their liberty. He argued that the people hold legislative power as the sovereign and are simultaneously subjected to the laws they create as subjects. For Rousseau, democratic sovereignty is absolute, inalienable, and indivisible. The "general will," which represents what all citizens desire as citizens (not as private individuals), is expressed through law. The government's role is to implement the law, with its powers subordinate to the people. ### 2.3 The sexual contract Carol Pateman's concept of the sexual contract critiques the social contract as a political fiction that, while promising progression to liberty, primarily benefits "full" citizens, thereby reinforcing patriarchal structures and inhibiting women's autonomy. It favors men's sexual rights and the subordination of women to control their sexuality. ### 2.4 Aspects of inequality #### 2.4.1 Mary Wollstonecraft Wollstonecraft argued that rights and freedom are birthrights for both sexes. Being a woman, she asserted, is not a morally relevant criterion for discrimination. She extended standard liberal values and arguments previously applied to men to women, addressing issues of women's intellectual capacities, education, marriage, the sexual division of labor, and citizenship. She advocated for the reform or abolition of institutions that enshrined women's subordination, such as marriage and the sexual division of work and politics, emphasizing the importance of education. #### 2.4.2 Jean-Jacques Rousseau and property Rousseau critiqued the institution of private property, arguing that it amplified natural inequalities. He suggested that a "fake contract" created by the wealthy primarily benefits them, fostering a corrupt society. #### 2.4.3 Frederick Douglass and racism Douglass argued that skin color is not a significant human difference and that alleged degradation is not caused by race but by social conditions, as exemplified by the experiences of slaves. #### 2.4.4 Sojourner Truth/Frances Gage and sexism/misogyny The argument is made that there is no natural basis for women's social position. The church and state are presented as collaborating to place women in inferior positions through norms and laws. #### 2.4.5 Karl Marx and capitalism Marx focused on material conditions and modes of production as determinants of oppression. He argued that capitalism exacerbates exploitation and class antagonism. ## 3. Facets of democracy ### 3.1 Popular sovereignty and normative foundations The concept of democracy requires popular sovereignty, where power is vested in the people. Its normative foundations include: * **Of the people:** Sovereign power resides with the people. * **For the people:** The equal moral worth of individuals means that collective decisions should recognize, respect, and benefit individual interests, needs, and values equally. * **By the people:** The people should make their own laws, either directly or indirectly. A democratic state is thus understood as rule of, for, and by the people. ### 3.2 Conceptions of the people in democracy The understanding of "the people" in democratic theory often relies on a model of disembedded individuals located within the public sphere of states (territorial entities). ### 3.3 Limitations of aggregative conceptions The limitations of aggregative conceptions of liberal representative democracy have led to the emergence of alternative models, such as deliberative democracy, since the 1990s. ### 3.4 Democracy as social-historical imaginary (Cornelius Castoriadis) Castoriadis conceived of democracy as a social-historical imaginary. He argued that democracy should not be defined by institutions or regular voting practices alone. A democratic society is created by autonomous individuals who collectively make laws, as there is no external entity to provide perfect laws. Democracy, in this view, entails an obligation to publicly justify why one law is superior to another, with the state serving as a tool. ### 3.5 Democracy as an agonistic process (Chantal Mouffe) Mouffe posits that democracy is an agonistic process that embraces the role of conflict in shaping the political. She argues that consensus and harmony are impossible. This is distinct from conflict as antagonism, where opponents are legitimate adversaries rather than irreconcilable enemies. Politics, for Mouffe, is an ongoing search for non-antagonistic resolutions. ## 4. The concept of power Political thought has evolved in its understanding of power, moving from power as mere ability to power as a relation that induces effects, and from domination to the social construction of subjects and social order. ### 4.1 Dominant understandings of power Three main understandings of power are dominant in political thought: 1. **Sovereignty model:** Power as the ultimate authority of a sovereign. 2. **Commodity model:** Power as something that can be possessed or exchanged. 3. **Repressive model:** Power as a force that constrains or prohibits. ### 4.2 Dimensions of power There are typically considered to be three or four dimensions of power: 1. The capacity to influence the making of decisions. 2. The capacity to shape the political agenda. 3. The capacity to manipulate and control people's perceptions and preferences. 4. (Potentially) The capacity to produce outcomes. ### 4.3 Understandings of power as relations * **Power over:** The ability to dominate or control another. * **Power to:** The capacity to act or achieve something. * **Power with:** The ability to collaborate or achieve collectively. > **Tip:** Distinguishing between different conceptions of power is crucial for analyzing political phenomena and understanding their implications for social and political structures. --- # Social contracts, equality, and systems of oppression This section explores social contract theories, their implications for liberty and rights, and critically examines inequality and systemic oppression, including sexism, racism, and class antagonism. ### 2.1 Social contract theories and their implications Social contract theories propose that political order and legitimate government arise from an agreement among individuals to surrender certain freedoms in exchange for security and order. This section delves into different interpretations of these contracts, highlighting their differential impact on liberty and individual rights. #### 2.1.1 Rousseau's social contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau's social contract theory emphasizes the concept of the "general will" as the basis for legitimate political authority. * **Freedom and Alienation:** Rousseau posits that individuals cannot alienate their liberty. * **Sovereignty of the People:** The people, as a collective, hold legislative power as the sovereign. They are also subject to the laws they create as citizens. * **Absolute, Inalienable, Indivisible Sovereignty:** Democratic sovereignty is characterized as absolute, inalienable, and indivisible. * **The General Will:** The general will represents what all citizens desire as citizens, distinct from their individual preferences. Laws are understood as expressions of this general will. * **Subordination of Government:** The government is tasked with implementing the law but is subordinate to the people's will. #### 2.1.2 Pateman's sexual contract Carole Pateman critiques the traditional social contract, arguing it is a political fiction that, while ostensibly leading to liberty, primarily benefits a select group of "full" citizens. * **Critique of Social Contract as Fiction:** Pateman views the social contract as a fabrication that does not truly extend liberty to all. * **Systemic Sexism and Patriarchy:** The contract reinforces the systemic sexism of patriarchy, hindering women's autonomy. * **Sex-Right of Men:** It favors the sex-right of men, leading to the subordination of women and control over their sexuality and roles. ### 2.2 Aspects of inequality The discussion of social contracts reveals inherent inequalities that have been perpetuated and reinforced by various societal structures and theories. #### 2.2.1 Wollstonecraft's perspective on women's rights Mary Wollstonecraft argues for the inherent rights and freedoms of both sexes, asserting that being a woman is not a valid criterion for discrimination. * **Birthright of Rights and Freedom:** Rights and freedom are presented as birthrights applicable to all, regardless of gender. * **Extension of Liberal Values:** Wollstonecraft extends standard liberal values and arguments traditionally applied to men to women. * **Women's Capacities and Roles:** She addresses women's intellectual capabilities, the importance of education, the institution of marriage, the sexual division of labor, and the nature of citizenship for women. * **Challenging Institutions:** Wollstonecraft advocates for changes to institutions that enshrine women's subordination, including reforms in education and transformations in marriage, work, and political participation. #### 2.2.2 Rousseau's critique of property and inequality Rousseau identifies the institution of private property as a significant amplifier of natural inequalities. * **Amplification of Natural Inequalities:** The establishment of property rights exacerbates existing natural differences among individuals. * **Fake Contract by the Wealthy:** Rousseau suggests that a "fake contract," likely devised by the wealthy, primarily benefits them. * **Development of Corrupt Society:** This unequal system fosters the development of a corrupt society. ### 2.3 Systems of oppression Beyond individual inequalities, the document highlights systemic forms of oppression based on race, gender, and class. #### 2.3.1 Douglass and racism Frederick Douglass addresses the issue of racism, asserting that skin color is not a significant determinant of human difference or degradation. * **Insignificant Human Difference:** Skin color is not presented as a meaningful distinction between individuals. * **Social Conditions as Cause of Degradation:** Degradation is attributed to social conditions, particularly those experienced by enslaved people, rather than inherent racial characteristics. #### 2.3.2 Gage on sexism and misogyny Matilda Joslyn Gage analyzes sexism and misogyny, arguing that there is no natural basis for women's subordinate social position. * **Absence of Natural Source for Social Position:** Gage contends that women's inferior social standing is not rooted in nature. * **Collusion of Church and State:** She identifies the collaboration between religious institutions (church) and political structures (state) in perpetuating women's inferiority through norms and laws. #### 2.3.3 Marx on capitalism and class antagonism Karl Marx's analysis focuses on the material conditions and modes of production as determinants of oppression. * **Material Conditions and Oppression:** The form of oppression is largely determined by material conditions and the prevailing modes of production. * **Capitalism and Exploitation:** Capitalism is seen as a system that exacerbates brute exploitation. * **Class Antagonism:** Marx highlights the simplified but significant class antagonism inherent in capitalist societies. > **Tip:** When studying social contract theories, pay close attention to how each theorist defines the "state of nature" and the "agreement" itself, as these foundational elements heavily influence their conclusions about individual rights and governmental authority. > **Example:** Rousseau's concept of the "general will" is a crucial distinction. Unlike a simple aggregation of individual desires, it represents a collective good that citizens, acting in their civic capacity, would pursue. This contrasts with theories where individual preferences are directly translated into policy. --- # Democracy and the exercise of power This topic explores the foundational principles, diverse models, and practical exercises of power within democratic systems. ### 3.1 Normative foundations of democracy Democracy, at its core, is founded on two primary normative principles: * **Popular sovereignty:** This principle asserts that supreme political authority ultimately resides with the people. * **Equal moral worth:** This principle posits that all individuals possess equal moral value, meaning that collective decisions should be made in a way that recognizes, respects, and equally benefits the interests, needs, and values of each person. These foundations imply that a democratic state is one that is ruled by, for, and of the people, where individuals directly or indirectly make their own laws. ### 3.2 Models of democracy The understanding of "the people" in democracy has evolved. Traditionally, this was often modelled on disembedded individuals located within the public sphere of states. However, various models of democracy have emerged, each with distinct implications: #### 3.2.1 Aggregative versus deliberative democracy * **Aggregative conceptions:** These models, often associated with liberal representative democracy, tend to view democracy as the aggregation of individual preferences and votes. * **Deliberative democracy:** Emerging prominently since the 1990s, this model emphasizes the importance of public reasoning and discussion in the democratic process. #### 3.2.2 Castoriadis' concept of democracy Cornelius Castoriadis views democracy not solely through its institutions or voting mechanisms, but as a "social-historical imaginary." In this perspective, a democratic society is created by autonomous individuals who collectively forge laws. The emphasis is on the obligation to publicly justify why one law is preferable to another, with the state serving merely as a tool for implementing these collectively derived decisions. #### 3.2.3 Mouffe's concept of agonistic democracy Chantal Mouffe proposes an understanding of democracy as an "agonal process." This model embraces the inherent role of conflict in shaping the political landscape, acknowledging that complete consensus or harmony is unattainable. Crucially, Mouffe distinguishes this conflict from antagonism. In her view, politics involves the ongoing, non-antagonistic resolution of disagreements between adversaries, who are considered legitimate opponents rather than irreconcilable enemies. ### 3.3 Understanding and dimensions of power The concept of power itself is understood in multifaceted ways within political thought: * **From ability to relation:** Power can be seen as a mere capacity or ability, but more significantly, as a relational phenomenon that induces specific effects. * **From domination to social construction:** Power is also understood in terms of its role in domination and its capacity to socially construct individuals and social orders. Dominant understandings of power in political thought include: * **Sovereignty model:** Power as ultimate authority. * **Commodity model:** Power as something that can be possessed or exchanged. * **Repressive model:** Power as a force that constrains or prohibits. The exercise of power is often analyzed through its various dimensions: * **First dimension:** The capacity to influence the making of decisions. * **Second dimension:** The capacity to shape the political agenda and determine what issues are considered. * **Third dimension:** The capacity to manipulate and control people's perceptions and preferences, often through shaping their understanding of their own interests. * **Fourth dimension:** The capacity to produce subjects and social orders, implying a deeper, constitutive power. Allen also distinguishes power in terms of "power over," "power to," and "power with," highlighting different ways individuals and groups exert influence. Mansbridge's work cautions about the necessity and potential dangers of coercion within democratic contexts. ### 3.4 The literature's contribution The readings for this topic offer critical perspectives on existing models of democracy and power. They prompt questions about what specific aspects of current systems are being criticized, whether these criticisms echo themes encountered previously, and how these critiques deepen our understanding of political thought. > **Tip:** When analyzing the literature for this topic, focus on identifying the specific criticisms leveled against dominant democratic models and theories of power. Consider how these critiques challenge traditional notions of sovereignty, representation, and the role of the citizen. > **Example:** A key question raised by the literature might be how conceptions of "the people" in democracy can inadvertently exclude or marginalize certain groups, and how power dynamics contribute to these exclusions. The readings encourage a critical examination of who benefits from existing power structures and democratic arrangements. --- # Course examination information and study advice This topic provides essential details about the upcoming examination and offers strategic advice on how to prepare effectively. ### 4.1 Examination details The course examination is scheduled for **January 16th from 9:00 AM to 12:00 PM**. It will be held at **Scribani**, and students will be assigned to one of three rooms, so it is crucial to check your assigned location. #### 4.1.1 Exam format This is a **written exam conducted on a computer**. #### 4.1.2 Allowed materials and requirements * **Student card:** Essential for logging in. * **Password:** You will need your student number and password to access the exam. * **Texts:** You are permitted to bring course texts. Printed annotations are not allowed; however, underlining, arrows, and exclamation marks are acceptable. * **Dictionary:** You may bring a dictionary if you deem it necessary. #### 4.1.3 Language of examination You have the option to answer the questions in **English, Dutch, French, or German**. #### 4.1.4 Exam structure and time allocation The exam will consist of **three questions**: * One large question, worth 12 points, with a maximum word count of 600 words (approximately 500 words). * Two smaller questions, each worth 4 points, with a maximum word count of 200 words each (approximately 150 words). While the estimated time is 30 minutes per small question and 2 hours for the large question, you have the flexibility to divide your time as you see fit. You are also permitted to switch between questions during the exam. #### 4.1.5 Scope of the examination The exam will cover all topics discussed in class and all mandatory texts. Information pertaining to the biographical details of authors will not be tested. ### 4.2 Study advice Effective preparation for this exam involves a strategic approach focused on understanding core concepts rather than rote memorization. > **Tip:** Carefully read and thoroughly understand the assigned texts in conjunction with the concepts discussed during class sessions. #### 4.2.1 Understanding main ideas and concepts The primary focus of your study should be on grasping the main ideas and core concepts presented throughout the course. Avoid getting bogged down in minor details. > **Tip:** Prioritize conceptual understanding over memorization of specific facts or figures. #### 4.2.2 Practicing reading instructions Engage with the reading materials by actively applying the reading instructions provided, which likely emphasize critical analysis and identification of key arguments. #### 4.2.3 Crafting effective answers Your answers should be well-structured, coherent, and demonstrate critical engagement with the material. * **Full sentences:** Write your answers using complete sentences. * **Avoid lists:** Refrain from using bullet-point lists. * **Draw on literature:** Integrate arguments and perspectives from the course literature into your responses. While precise page citations are not required, ensure you introduce the authors' arguments clearly enough for them to be understood. * **Develop your argument:** Move beyond mere description. Critically engage with the topics, developing and supporting your own arguments. * **Coherence and structure:** Build a logical progression of explanations and arguments. * **Language:** Avoid vague or overly colloquial language. > **Tip:** Aim to construct a well-reasoned and logically flowing text that showcases your understanding and critical thinking. ### 4.3 Course evaluation Students are encouraged to provide any suggestions for improving the course in the form of open comments. > **Tip:** Your constructive feedback is valuable for the ongoing development of the course. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Political thought | A discipline concerned with the intellectual traditions and debates surrounding the nature of politics, the state, and society. It examines concepts, theories, and historical arguments about governance, power, and human nature. | | Polis | An ancient Greek city-state, considered by Aristotle as the natural and essential setting for human flourishing and the pursuit of a virtuous life. It implied a community of citizens engaged in public affairs. | | Telos | In Aristotelian philosophy, the end, purpose, or ultimate goal of a thing. A thing is considered good when it has achieved its telos, representing its state of full or final development. | | Sovereignty | The supreme authority within a territory or political entity. Historically, this authority has been attributed to various sources, including God, the Pope, monarchs, the state itself (like Hobbes' Leviathan), or the people. | | State of nature | A hypothetical condition or concept used in political philosophy to describe the state of humanity prior to the formation of organized societies or governments. It is often used to justify the need for political authority. | | Natural rights | Rights that are believed to be inherent to human beings and not dependent on laws or customs of any particular society or government. Locke famously identified life, liberty, and property as natural rights. | | Social contract | A theory in political philosophy that suggests individuals implicitly or explicitly consent to surrender certain freedoms and submit to the authority of a ruler or government in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or maintenance of social order. | | General will | A concept developed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, referring to the collective will of the citizens that aims at the common good. It is distinct from the sum of individual private wills and is considered the basis for legitimate law-making in a democracy. | | Patriarchy | A social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. It often involves the subordination of women. | | Public sphere | In political theory, the realm of social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and influence public affairs, often contrasted with the private sphere of the home and family. | | Private sphere | The domain of personal life, family, and domesticity, typically considered separate from public political and economic life. The division between public and private spheres has been a significant topic in feminist political thought. | | Deliberative democracy | A model of democracy that emphasizes the importance of public deliberation and reasoned argumentation among citizens as a basis for making political decisions. It is often presented as an alternative to purely aggregative models. | | Agonistic democracy | A concept of democracy, particularly associated with Chantal Mouffe, that views political life as an ongoing process of conflict and contestation between opposing viewpoints, while distinguishing legitimate political conflict (agonism) from destructive antagonism. | | Power | In political thought, power can be understood in various ways, including the ability to influence decisions, shape agendas, manipulate perceptions, and construct social order. It is often analyzed as a relationship rather than an attribute. | | Domination | A form of power characterized by the imposition of the will of one group or individual over another, often involving coercion and the maintenance of unequal social structures. | | Commodity model of power | One of the dominant understandings of power in political thought, viewing power as something that can be possessed, transferred, or exchanged, similar to economic commodities. | | Repressive model of power | Another dominant understanding of power, which sees power primarily as a force that prohibits, restricts, or punishes, often associated with state institutions and their capacity to enforce laws and norms. | | Agonism | In political theory, a concept referring to legitimate conflict or contestation between adversaries who recognize each other’s right to differ, as opposed to antagonism, where opponents are seen as enemies to be destroyed. | | Social imaginary | A term, notably used by Cornelius Castoriadis, referring to the shared sets of beliefs, values, symbols, and institutions that shape a society's understanding of itself and its possibilities, particularly in how it constitutes itself politically. | | Teleological view | A philosophical perspective that explains phenomena in terms of their ultimate purpose or final cause (telos), rather than solely by their efficient causes. Aristotle's view of nature and the state is teleological. | | Disembedded individuals | A concept often used to critique liberal political thought, referring to the idea of individuals as independent, self-interested, and disconnected from social contexts or communities, which is seen as an unrealistic abstraction. | | Normative claims | Statements that express value judgments about what ought to be, rather than what is. In political thought, normative claims are central to arguments about justice, rights, and the ideal political order. | | Functional concept | In the context of human nature, a concept that describes human beings based on their observable behaviors and roles within society, rather than inherent, immutable essences. Such concepts are often pragmatic but not scientifically testable. | | Sexism | Discrimination or prejudice based on sex, typically against women. It involves the belief that one sex is superior to the other and manifests in social, economic, and political inequalities. | | Racism | Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one's own race is superior. In political thought, it is examined as a system of oppression. | | Capitalism | An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and market competition. Political theorists analyze its role in social and economic oppression. | | Class antagonism | In Marxist theory, the inherent conflict of interest between different social classes, particularly between the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat (workers), arising from their differing economic positions. |