LINGUISTIC-LESSONS-05-WORD-FORMATION-PROCESSES-_012232.pdf

# Introduction to word formation processes This section introduces the fundamental concept of word formation processes, highlighting the inherent regularity and continuous evolution of language as evidenced by the creation and adoption of new words. ### 1.1 The dynamic nature of language and word creation Language demonstrates remarkable adaptability in incorporating new terms to describe novel concepts and inventions. The anecdote of the Hoover vacuum cleaner illustrates how a brand name can become a generic verb and noun, supplanting earlier terms and demonstrating the organic growth of vocabulary. This ability to understand and utilize new words (neologisms) and their various forms points to the underlying regularity in word formation processes [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Etymology: the study of word origins * **Definition:** Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words [1](#page=1). * **Origin of the term:** The word "etymology" itself originates from Greek: *etymon* meaning "original form" and *logia* meaning "study of". It is important not to confuse it with "entomology," which is the study of insects [1](#page=1). * **Historical perspective:** The examination of word histories reveals diverse methods of word entry into a language. Historically, many words now considered standard were once viewed as linguistic innovations or even misuses. For instance, terms like "handbook" and "aviation" faced criticism upon their introduction [1](#page=1). * **Language evolution as vitality:** Rather than viewing the creation of new words and meanings as a degradation of language, it can be seen as a positive indicator of vitality and creativity, reflecting the evolving needs of language users [1](#page=1). ### 1.3 Coinage: the invention of new terms Coinage is one of the less common, yet significant, word formation processes where entirely new terms are invented [1](#page=1). * **Typical sources:** A primary source for coinage is the invention of trade names for commercial products. These names often become general terms for any version of that product, usually losing their capitalization over time [1](#page=1). * **Examples:** * Older examples include *aspirin*, *nylon*, *vaseline*, and *zipper* [1](#page=1). * More recent examples include *granola*, *kleenex*, *teflon*, and *xerox* [1](#page=1). * **Potential origins:** Some invented terms may have obscure technical origins, such as *teflon* possibly deriving from *te(tra)-fl(uor)-on*. However, once coined, these terms tend to integrate into everyday language [1](#page=1). * **Contemporary example:** The word *google* serves as a prominent contemporary example of coinage. It originated as a misspelling of *googol*, a term representing the number 10 to the power of 100 ($10^{100}$) [1](#page=1). --- # Major word formation processes This section outlines the primary mechanisms through which new words are created and incorporated into the English language. ### 2.1 Etymology Etymology is the study of the origin and history of a word. It helps us understand how words enter the language and evolve over time. While the term "etymology" comes from Greek roots meaning "original form" and "study of," it is distinct from "entomology" (the study of insects). Historically, new word formations have sometimes been met with resistance, viewed as "tasteless innovations" or "debasements" of the language, but their continued use signifies the language's vitality and adaptability to user needs [1](#page=1). ### 2.2 Coinage Coinage is the invention of entirely new terms, which is a less common word formation process in English. Invented trade names for commercial products are a typical source, often becoming general terms for the product. Examples include *aspirin*, *nylon*, *vaseline*, and *zipper*. More recent examples are *granola*, *kleenex*, *teflon*, and *xerox*. Some of these may have obscure technical origins, like *teflon* (from *tetrafluoroethylene*). The word *google*, originally a misspelling of *googol* (1 followed by 100 zeros), became a widely used expression for searching the internet [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). **Eponyms** are a type of coinage named after a person or place. Examples include *Hoover* (from William H. Hoover's vacuum cleaner), *sandwich* (from the Earl of Sandwich), and *jeans* (from Genoa, Italy). Technical eponyms include *fahrenheit*, *volt*, and *watt* [2](#page=2). ### 2.3 Borrowing Borrowing is the process of taking words from other languages. English has adopted numerous words throughout its history, such as *croissant* (French), *dope* (Dutch), *lilac* (Persian), *piano* (Italian), *pretzel* (German), *sofa* (Arabic), *tattoo* (Tahitian), *tycoon* (Japanese), *yogurt* (Turkish), and *zebra* (Bantu). Other languages also borrow from English, like Japanese *suupaa* (supermarket) or Hungarian *sport*. Borrowed words can sometimes acquire different meanings, as in the German phrase *im Partnerlook* [2](#page=2). **Loan-translation (calque)** is a special type of borrowing where the elements of a word are directly translated into the borrowing language. Examples include the English *skyscraper* being translated from French *gratte-ciel* ("scrape-sky"), Dutch *wolkenkrabber* ("cloud scratcher"), and German *Wolkenkratzer* ("cloud scraper"). The English *superman* is thought to be a calque of the German *Übermensch*. The phrase *moment of truth* is believed to be a calque from Spanish *el momento de la verdad* [2](#page=2). ### 2.4 Compounding Compounding involves joining two separate words to create a single new word. This process is very common in English and German. Examples include *bookcase*, *doorknob*, *fingerprint*, *sunburn*, *textbook*, *wallpaper*, *wastebasket*, and *waterbed*. Compounding can also produce compound adjectives (*good-looking*, *low-paid*) and adjective-noun compounds (*fast-food*, *full-time*). This process is highly productive across different languages, including Hmong [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ### 2.5 Blending Blending combines parts of two separate words to create a new term, typically by taking the beginning of one word and the end of another. Examples include *gasohol* (gasoline + alcohol), *smog* (smoke + fog), and *motel* (motor + hotel). Other blends include *bit* (binary + digit), *brunch* (breakfast + lunch), and *telecast* (television + broadcast). *Telethon* (television + marathon), *infotainment* (information + entertainment), and *simulcast* (simultaneous + broadcast) are also common. Some blends combine the beginnings of both words, such as *telex* (teleprinter + exchange) and *modem* (modulator + demodulator) [3](#page=3). ### 2.6 Clipping Clipping reduces a word of more than one syllable to a shorter form, often originating in casual speech. For instance, *facsimile* is clipped to *fax*. Other common clipped forms include *gas* (from gasoline), *ad* (advertisement), *bra* (brassiere), *cab* (cabriolet), *condo* (condominium), *fan* (fanatic), *flu* (influenza), *perm* (permanent wave), *phone*, *plane*, and *pub* (public house). Names are frequently clipped, such as *Al*, *Ed*, *Liz*, *Mike*, *Ron*, *Sam*, *Sue*, and *Tom*. Educational settings also see many clipped words, like *chem*, *exam*, *gym*, *lab*, *math*, *phys-ed*, *polysci*, *prof*, and *typo* [3](#page=3). **Hypocorisms** are a type of reduction, common in Australian and British English, where a word is reduced to a single syllable and then has "-y" or "-ie" added. Examples include *movie* (moving pictures), *telly* (television), *Aussie* (Australian), *barbie* (barbecue), *bookie* (bookmaker), and *brekky* (breakfast) [3](#page=3). ### 2.7 Backformation Backformation is a specialized reduction process where a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb). For example, the verb *televise* was created from the noun *television*. Other examples include *donate* (from donation), *emote* (from emotion), *enthuse* (from enthusiasm), *liaise* (from liaison), and *babysit* (from babysitter). A common pattern involves creating verbs from nouns ending in "-er," such as *editor* becoming *edit*, *sculptor* becoming *sculpt*, and *burglar* becoming *burgle* [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). ### 2.8 Conversion Conversion, also known as "category change" or "functional shift," involves a change in the function of a word without any reduction in form. For example, nouns like *bottle*, *butter*, *chair*, and *vacation* can be used as verbs. Nouns can also become verbs through conversion, such as *guess*, *must*, and *spy* becoming a *guess*, a *must*, and a *spy*. Phrasal verbs like *print out* and *take over* can become nouns like *a printout* and *a takeover*. Verbs can also become adjectives, as in *see-through material* or a *stand-up comedian*, and adjectives can become verbs or nouns. Compound nouns like *ballpark*, *carpool*, *mastermind*, *microwave*, and *quarterback* can also function as verbs. Conversion can lead to shifts in meaning; for instance, the verb *to doctor* often carries a negative connotation not typically associated with the noun *doctor* [4](#page=4). ### 2.9 Acronyms Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of words. Some are pronounced as individual letters, like CD (compact disk). More commonly, acronyms are pronounced as single words, such as NATO or NASA. Many acronyms become everyday terms, losing their capital letters, such as *laser* (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), *radar* (radio detecting and ranging), *scuba* (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), and *zip* (zone improvement plan) code. Organizations often create acronyms with meaningful names, like MADD (mothers against drunk driving). Acronyms can be used repetitively in common phrases, such as "PIN number" or "ATM machine" [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). ### 2.10 Derivation Derivation is the most common word formation process in English, involving the addition of affixes. Affixes are small "bits" of language not usually listed separately in dictionaries [5](#page=5). #### 2.10.1 Prefixes and suffixes **Prefixes** are affixes added to the beginning of a word, such as *un-*, *mis-*, and *pre-*. **Suffixes** are affixes added to the end of a word, such as *-ful*, *-less*, *-ish*, *-ism*, and *-ness*. Words can be formed with prefixes, suffixes, or both [5](#page=5). #### 2.10.2 Inflectional affixes A third type of affix is an **infix**, which is incorporated inside another word. While not common in English, they appear in emotionally charged exclamations like *Hallebloodylujah!* and *Absogoddamlutely!* [5](#page=5). #### 2.10.3 Kamhmu example In the language Kamhmu, an infix "-rnis" is regularly added to verbs to form corresponding nouns, illustrating a clear pattern of derivation [5](#page=5). ### 2.11 Multiple processes Often, the creation of a single word involves more than one word formation process. For example, *deli* is a clipped form of the borrowed word *delicatessen*. The word *snowballed* involves compounding (*snowball*) followed by conversion into a verb. Acronyms can also undergo other processes, such as *lase* being a backformation from *laser*. The word *waspish* uses the acronym *WASP* which has lost its capitals and gained a suffix [-ish through derivation. *Yuppie*, an acronym for "young urban professional," also incorporated the hypocorism suffix [-ie and was formed through analogy with words like *hippie* and *yippie* [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** The ultimate test for a new word's "arrival" in a language is often its publication in a dictionary, though even this can face criticism from linguistic conservatives [6](#page=6). --- # Specific types of affixes and infixation This section delves into the specifics of derivation, focusing on prefixes, suffixes, and the less common phenomenon of infixes, illustrating their use with examples from English and Kamhmu [5](#page=5). ### 3.1 Derivation: Prefixes and suffixes Derivation is a primary word-formation process in English that utilizes small linguistic units called affixes to create new words. These affixes, which are not typically listed as independent words in dictionaries, attach to a base word to modify its meaning or grammatical function [5](#page=5). * **Prefixes:** These are affixes that are added to the beginning of a word [5](#page=5). * Examples include `un-` in `unhappy`, `mis-` in `misrepresent`, and `pre-` in `prejudge` [5](#page=5). * **Suffixes:** These are affixes that are added to the end of a word [5](#page=5). * Examples include `-ful` in `joyful`, `-less` in `careless`, `-ish` in `boyish`, `-ism` in `terrorism`, and `-ness` in `sadness` [5](#page=5). Words formed through derivation may contain a prefix, a suffix, or both. For instance, `mislead` has only a prefix, `disrespectful` has both a prefix and a suffix, and `foolishness` has two suffixes [5](#page=5). ### 3.2 Infixes Infixes are a type of affix that is incorporated *inside* another word, rather than at the beginning or end. While not a standard feature of English morphology, infixes can be observed in certain informal or emotionally charged English expressions [5](#page=5). > **Example:** Exclamations like `Hallebloodylujah!`, `Absogoddamlutely!`, and `Unf**kinbelievable!` demonstrate the insertion of elements (like `bloody`, `goddamn`, `f**kin`) into existing words to convey strong emotion or emphasis [5](#page=5). A more systematic and illustrative example of infixation comes from the Kamhmu language [5](#page=5). #### 3.2.1 Examples from Kamhmu In Kamhmu, a language spoken in Southeast Asia, the infix `-rn-` is regularly used to transform verbs into corresponding nouns [5](#page=5). > **Example:** > > * The verb `toh` (to drill) becomes the noun `srnee` (a drill) [5](#page=5). > * The verb `hiip` (to chisel) becomes the noun `hrniip` (a chisel) [5](#page=5). > * The verb `hoom` (to eat with a spoon) becomes the noun `hrnoom` (a spoon) [5](#page=5). > * The verb `tie` (to tie) becomes the noun `hrniip` (a thing with which to tie) [5](#page=5). This regular pattern allows linguists to infer the base verb form from a derived noun. For example, if `krnap` is the Kamhmu noun for "tongs," and the infix is `-rn-`, then the corresponding verb "to grasp with tongs" can be deduced as `kap` [5](#page=5). --- # Multiple word formation processes and language evolution This section examines how various word formation processes can interact to create new words and explores the role of analogy in linguistic innovation, as well as the mechanisms and resistance surrounding the acceptance of new vocabulary. ### 4.1 Combination of word formation processes New words can emerge from the intricate interplay of multiple word formation processes. For instance, an acronym might shed its capital letters and undergo affixation to become a new word. A prime example is the word "waspish," derived from the acronym WASP (white Anglo-Saxon Protestant) which has been made to appear less like an acronym by losing its capitalization and gaining the suffix "-ish" to form an adjective. Similarly, "yuppie," originating from "young urban professional" and the hypocorism suffix "-ie," exemplifies how acronyms can be integrated into the language [6](#page=6). ### 4.2 The role of analogy in word creation Analogy plays a significant role in the formation of new words by making them similar in form or function to existing words. The creation of "yuppie" was facilitated by analogy with earlier terms like "hippie". "Yippie," also having an acronym basis ("youth international party"), was used for protesting students and is humorously suggested to have evolved into "yuppies" as these individuals matured. Further, the word "yap" (to make shrill noises) was used analogously to label some noisy young professionals as "yappies" [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** Analogy allows new words to fit more easily into the existing linguistic system by mirroring established patterns. ### 4.3 Acceptance of new words and resistance to change The journey of new words into a language often culminates in their appearance in dictionaries, serving as a generally accepted test of their integration. However, this process is not always smooth and can face opposition from conservative voices. Noah Webster, for example, encountered criticism for his first dictionary in 1806, which included words like "advocate" and "test" used as verbs, and deemed "vulgar" words such as "advisory" and "presidential". This historical instance highlights that some individuals may possess a keener foresight regarding which linguistic innovations will endure and become established [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** Resistance to new words is a common phenomenon, often rooted in a desire to preserve perceived linguistic purity or tradition. ### 4.4 Study questions and examples The document includes several study questions to reinforce understanding of word formation processes, including identifying them in specific examples [6](#page=6). * **Question 3(a):** "Don’t you ever worry that you might get AIDS?" - AIDS is an initialism, a type of acronym where each letter is pronounced individually. * **Question 3(b):** "Do you have a xerox machine?" - "Xerox" is a brand name used as a common noun, a process known as eponymy (though in this specific case, it's a generalized brand name). * **Question 3(c):** "That’s really fandamntastic!" - "Fandamntastic" is a blend, combining "fantastic" and "damn" (used for emphasis). * **Question 3(d):** "Shiel still parties every Saturday night." - "Parties" is a conversion, where the noun "party" has been used as a verb. * **Question 3(e):** "These new skateboards from Zee Designs are kickass." - "Kickass" is a compound word, formed by combining "kick" and "ass." * **Question 3(f):** "When I’m ill, I want to see a doc, not a vet." - "Doc" and "vet" are clippings, shortened forms of "doctor" and "veterinarian," respectively. * **Question 3(g):** "The house next door was burgled when I was babysitting the Smiths’ children." - "Burgled" is a backformation, derived from the noun "burglar." "Babysitting" involves compounding and derivation. * **Question 3(h):** "I like this old sofa – it’s nice and comfy." - "Comfy" is a clipping of "comfortable." * **Question 6(a):** "Are you still using that old car-phone?" - "Car-phone" is a compound word. * **Question 6(b):** "Can you FedEx the books to me today?" - "FedEx" is a brand name used as a verb (verbing of a proper noun). * **Question 6(c):** "Police have reported an increase in carjackings in recent months." - "Carjackings" is a compound word formed from "car" and "jacking" (itself a derived form). * **Question 6(d):** "Welcome, everyone, to karaokenight at Cathy’s Bar and Grill!" - "Karaokenight" is a compound word formed from "karaoke" and "night." * **Question 6(e):** "Jeeves, could you tell the maid to be sure to hoover the bedroom carpet?" - "Hoover" is a brand name used as a verb. * **Question 6(f):** "Would you prefer a decaf?" - "Decaf" is a clipping of "decaffeinated." --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Etymology | The study of the origin and history of a word, tracing its development and changes over time, originating from Greek terms for 'original form' and 'study of'. | | Neologism | A newly coined word or expression that has been recently introduced into the language and is not yet in common use. | | Coinage | The invention of entirely new terms, often originating from invented trade names for products that become general terms for their kind, or new concepts and activities. | | Eponyms | New words that are based on the name of a person or a place, often derived from inventors, discoverers, or geographical locations where something was first made or developed. | | Borrowing | The process of adopting words from other languages into English, contributing significantly to the vocabulary and history of the language throughout its existence. | | Loan-translation (Calque) | A type of borrowing where the elements of a word from one language are directly translated into the borrowing language, creating a phrase with a similar structural meaning. | | Compounding | The process of joining two separate words to produce a single new word, common in languages like English and German, creating nouns, adjectives, and other word classes. | | Blending | A word formation process where parts of two different words are combined to create a new word, typically by taking the beginning of one word and the end of another. | | Clipping | The process of reducing a word with more than one syllable to a shorter form, usually originating in casual speech, with common examples like "gas" from "gasoline". | | Hypocorisms | A specific type of reduction, common in Australian and British English, where a longer word is shortened to a single syllable and "-y" or "-ie" is added, creating affectionate or informal forms. | | Backformation | A specialized reduction process where a word of one type, usually a noun, is reduced to form a word of another type, typically a verb, by removing an imagined affix. | | Conversion (Category Change/Functional Shift) | A process where a word changes its grammatical category or function without any reduction or change in form, such as a noun being used as a verb. | | Acronyms | New words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words, which can be pronounced as individual letters or as a new single word, like NATO or scuba. | | Derivation | The most common word formation process in English, accomplished by adding small meaningful units called affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to existing words to create new ones. | | Affixes | Small "bits" of language that are added to a word to modify its meaning or grammatical function; they can be prefixes (added to the beginning) or suffixes (added to the end). | | Prefixes | Affixes that are added to the beginning of a word to create a new word, such as "un-" in "unhappy" or "mis-" in "misrepresent". | | Suffixes | Affixes that are added to the end of a word to create a new word, such as "-ful" in "joyful" or "-ness" in "sadness". | | Infixes | A type of affix that is incorporated inside another word, not typically used in English but found in some other languages, sometimes appearing in emotionally charged English exclamations. | | Analogy | A process whereby new words are formed to be similar in some way to existing words, often influencing the creation and acceptance of neologisms. |