Ethnic Studies

# Defining and contextualizing multiculturalism This topic explores the nuanced concept of multiculturalism, examining its descriptive and normative applications, its core thematic elements, and its intellectual roots in postcolonial thought. ## 1. Defining and contextualizing multiculturalism Multiculturalism is understood in both descriptive and normative ways [1](#page=1). ### 1.1 Descriptive multiculturalism As a descriptive term, multiculturalism refers to the existence of cultural diversity within a society, specifically when two or more groups, with beliefs and practices leading to a distinct collective identity, coexist. This diversity is typically associated with racial, ethnic, and language differences. The term can also describe governmental responses to such diversity, including public policies and institutional design [1](#page=1). * **Multicultural public policies:** These are characterized by formal recognition of the specific needs of particular cultural groups and aim to ensure equality of opportunity among them across various social policy areas like education, healthcare, and housing [1](#page=1). * **Multicultural institutional design:** This approach goes further by attempting to structure government institutions around the ethnic, religious, and other societal divisions. Examples include consociationalism in the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium, as well as power-sharing arrangements in Northern Ireland and multilevel governance in Bosnia-Herzegovina [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Normative multiculturalism As a normative term, multiculturalism signifies a positive endorsement, even a celebration, of communal diversity. This is usually grounded in either the right of different cultural groups to respect and recognition or in the perceived benefits of moral and cultural diversity for society as a whole. However, multiculturalism is considered more of an ideological "space" than a distinct political ideology with a comprehensive vision for a "good society". Instead, it serves as an arena for debates on balancing cultural diversity and civic unity in modern societies [1](#page=1). > **Tip:** While multiculturalism itself isn't a singular ideology, it presents a set of core themes and debates central to understanding contemporary societal structures and challenges. ### 1.3 Core themes of multiculturalism The most significant themes within multiculturalism include: * Postcolonialism [1](#page=1). * Politics of recognition [1](#page=1). * Culture and identity [1](#page=1). * Minority rights [1](#page=1). * Togetherness in difference [1](#page=1). ### 1.4 Historical origins in postcolonial thought The political and intellectual foundations of multiculturalism emerged from postcolonial theories developed after World War II, following the collapse of European empires [1](#page=1). * **Postcolonialism:** This intellectual movement originated in literary and cultural studies and aimed to address the cultural conditions of newly independent societies. Its primary purpose was to expose and dismantle the cultural and psychological impacts of colonial rule, recognizing that subjugation could persist long after political structures were removed. Postcolonialism sought to legitimize non-Western political ideas and provide the developing world with a distinct political voice, challenging the universalist claims of liberalism and socialism [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2). * **Colonialism:** The practice or theory of establishing control over a foreign territory and transforming it into a "colony," typically involving settlement, dispossession, and economic domination [2](#page=2). * **Neo-colonialism:** Primarily an economic phenomenon where capital is exported from an advanced country to a less developed one [2](#page=2). * **Edward Said and Orientalism:** Edward Said's concept of "Orientalism" highlighted how Western cultural and political hegemony was maintained through stereotypical fictions that belittled non-Western people and cultures. Examples include stereotypes like the "mysterious East" or "Asian inscrutability". Said identified these as structures of discourse and manifestations of Eurocentrism [2](#page=2). > **Key Figure:** Edward Said (1935–2003), a US academic and literary critic, was a founding figure of postcolonial theory. He critiqued the Western Enlightenment for its links to colonialism and highlighted "narratives of oppression" that disempower colonized peoples [2](#page=2). * **Black nationalism and Black Lives Matter:** Black nationalism, an early offshoot of postcolonialism, aimed to promote black consciousness and dates back to movements like "back to Africa". It gained prominence in the 1960s through civil rights movements led by figures like Martin Luther King and the more separatist Black Power movement, including groups like the Black Panthers and Black Muslims. The Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement, founded in 2013, revived the idea of black consciousness, focusing on anti-racist advocacy and global concerns like decolonizing culture and education [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ### 1.5 The politics of recognition versus rights and redistribution Multiculturalism advocates argue that minority cultural groups face disadvantages and that addressing this requires societal and institutional changes. This contrasts with other approaches to social advancement [3](#page=3): * **Politics of rights (Republicanism):** This approach focuses on legal and political exclusion, aiming for formal equality and banning discrimination. It views difference as a problem leading to unfair treatment and seeks to transcend it for the sake of equality [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * **Republicanism:** Defined as a preference for a republic over a monarchy, emphasizing the people's say in public affairs and a focus on "freedom as non-domination," combining liberty with participation [4](#page=4). * **Politics of redistribution (Social reformism):** This stance, rooted in modern liberalism and social democracy, argues that universal citizenship and formal equality are insufficient to combat subordination. It emphasizes addressing social disadvantages like poverty and lack of education through the principle of **equality of opportunity**. This involves redistributing wealth to overcome disadvantage, acknowledging difference only to identify and reform unfair structures [4](#page=4). * **Equality of opportunity:** Defined as life chances or the existence of a "level playing-field" [1](#page=1). * **Formal equality:** Equality based on people's status, particularly their legal and political rights [4](#page=4). * **Citizenship:** Membership of a state, a relationship based on reciprocal rights and responsibilities [4](#page=4). * **Politics of recognition (Multiculturalism):** Multiculturalism posits that group marginalization stems from deeper cultural origins, operating through stereotypes and values that shape self-perception and perception by others. It argues that universal citizenship and equality of opportunity are insufficient and may even obscure cultural marginalization. This approach emphasizes difference over equality, advocating for a positive endorsement of cultural difference and allowing marginalized groups to assert themselves by reclaiming their cultural identity [4](#page=4). ### 1.6 Culture and identity Multiculturalism's politics of recognition is influenced by the idea that culture is fundamental to political and social identity. It represents a politics of cultural self-assertion, where pride in one's culture provides a sense of social and historical rootedness [5](#page=5). * **Culturalism:** An extreme view portraying humans as purely culturally defined beings [5](#page=5). * **Communitarianism:** A critique of liberal universalism, which posits that individuals across all societies and cultures share a similar inner identity. Communitarianism champions a shift from universalism to particularism, focusing on group distinctiveness. It suggests that only groups and communities can provide a genuine sense of identity and moral purpose [5](#page=5). * **Communitarianism:** The belief that the self is constituted by the community, emphasizing the debt individuals owe to their communities. It has various forms: left-wing (unrestricted freedom and social equality), centrist (reciprocal rights and responsibilities), and right-wing (respect for authority and established values) [5](#page=5). * **Culture:** Beliefs, values, and practices passed down through learning, distinct from nature [5](#page=5). * **Identity politics:** A broad term for political trends that critique liberal universalism, viewing it as a source of oppression and cultural imperialism that marginalizes subordinate groups. It asserts that dominant group values shape the identities of marginalized groups. Identity politics seeks to challenge oppression by reshaping a group's identity through politico-cultural self-assertion, fostering pride and self-respect [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). > **Example:** The "black is beautiful" slogan and "gay pride" movements are examples of identity politics aimed at transforming negative societal perceptions into sources of pride and liberation [6](#page=6). * **Liberal multiculturalism:** A form committed to toleration and upholding freedom of choice, particularly concerning culture or religion [5](#page=5). * **Pluralist multiculturalism:** A form committed to "deep" diversity, emphasizing the benefits of cultural entrenchment and resisting cultural imperialism [5](#page=5). ### 1.7 Different perspectives on culture Various ideological perspectives hold distinct views on culture: * **Liberals:** May be critical of traditional culture, seeing it as conformist, but value "high" culture for stimulating intellectual development [6](#page=6). * **Conservatives:** Emphasize culture's role in strengthening social cohesion and political unity, linking generations through tradition. They support monocultural societies for shared values [6](#page=6). * **Socialists (Marxists):** View culture as part of the ideological superstructure conditioned by the economic base, reflecting ruling-class interests and reconciling subordinate classes to oppression [6](#page=6). * **Fascists:** Distinguish between rationalist and "organic" culture, the latter embodying a people's spirit and crucial for national or racial identity and political will. They advocate for strict monoculturalism [6](#page=6). * **Populists (Right-wing):** See culture as a battleground between the elite and the people, with elites favoring liberal values and the people favoring traditionalist ones. Issues like gender equality and racial justice are key "wedge issues" [6](#page=6). * **Feminists:** Can be critical of patriarchal culture for reflecting male interests and demeaning women. However, cultural feminists use culture to strengthen female values and safeguard women's interests [6](#page=6). * **Multiculturalists:** View culture as central to personal and social identity, providing orientation and belonging. They believe cultural diversity, when recognized, underpins social cohesion, though it must be balanced with common civic allegiances [6](#page=6). ### 1.8 Key concepts for understanding multiculturalism * **Equality of opportunity:** The idea of equal life chances or a "level playing-field" [1](#page=1). * **Consociationalism:** A power-sharing arrangement among parties, often used in deeply divided societies [1](#page=1). * **Colonialism:** The practice of establishing control over foreign territories, typically involving settlement, dispossession, and economic domination [2](#page=2). * **Neo-colonialism:** Economic domination by an advanced country over a less developed one through capital export [2](#page=2). * **Orientalism:** Stereotypical and demeaning Western depictions of Eastern cultures [2](#page=2). * **Eurocentrism:** The application of European values and theories to other cultures, implying a biased worldview [2](#page=2). * **Republicanism:** A preference for a republic over a monarchy, emphasizing citizen participation and freedom from domination [4](#page=4). * **Formal equality:** Equality in legal and political rights [4](#page=4). * **Citizenship:** Membership in a state, involving reciprocal rights and responsibilities [4](#page=4). * **Communitarianism:** The belief that the individual is formed by their community and owes it respect and consideration [5](#page=5). * **Culture:** Transmitted beliefs, values, and practices [5](#page=5). * **Liberal multiculturalism:** Multiculturalism upholding toleration and freedom of choice in moral spheres [5](#page=5). * **Pluralist multiculturalism:** Multiculturalism valuing deep diversity and resisting cultural imperialism [5](#page=5). * **Identity politics:** A form of politics that seeks to challenge oppression by reshaping group identity through self-assertion [6](#page=6). --- # Approaches to social advancement: rights, redistribution, and recognition This section contrasts different ideological approaches to addressing social disadvantage, focusing on the distinct contributions of republicanism, social reformism, and multiculturalism's emphasis on recognition and group assertion [3](#page=3). ### 2.1 Contrasting approaches to social advancement Three distinct approaches to social advancement can be identified: the politics of rights, the politics of redistribution, and the politics of recognition [3](#page=3). #### 2.1.1 The politics of rights (republicanism) The "politics of rights" is primarily concerned with legal and political exclusion, where certain groups are denied rights enjoyed by others. This approach is rooted in republicanism, often associated with liberalism. It views difference as the source of discriminatory treatment and advocates for its banishment or transcendence in the name of equality. The key reforms and policies involve establishing formal equality, banning discrimination, and prohibiting ethical, cultural, or racial profiling [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * **Formal equality:** This refers to equality based on people's status in society, particularly their legal and political rights [4](#page=4). * **Citizenship:** This signifies membership in a state, a relationship between an individual and the state based on reciprocal rights and responsibilities [4](#page=4). First-wave feminism, with its focus on suffrage and equal access to education, careers, and public life, exemplified the republican stance [4](#page=4). #### 2.1.2 The politics of redistribution (social reformism) The "politics of redistribution" is rooted in a social reformist stance, encompassing traditions like modern liberalism and social democracy. It emerged from the belief that universal citizenship and formal equality are insufficient to address subordination and marginalization. This approach contends that people are held back by social disadvantages such as poverty, unemployment, poor housing, and lack of education, not just legal and political exclusion. The core principle is equality of opportunity, aiming for a "level playing-field" where success is determined by personal ability and work ethic. This necessitates a shift from legal to social egalitarianism through social engineering, redistributing wealth to alleviate poverty and overcome disadvantage. While acknowledging difference to expose unfair practices, this acknowledgement is provisional, intended to identify and remove unjust structures [4](#page=4). * **Key theme:** Equality of opportunity [3](#page=3). * **Reforms and policies:** Social rights, welfare and redistribution, and positive discrimination [3](#page=3). #### 2.1.3 The politics of recognition (multiculturalism) Multiculturalism posits that group marginalization stems from deeper cultural origins, operating through stereotypes and values that shape self-perception and how individuals are viewed by others. It argues that universal citizenship and equality of opportunity are insufficient and that egalitarianism, in both its legal and social forms, may even conceal deeper structures of cultural marginalization. Consequently, multiculturalists emphasize difference over equality, leading to the "politics of recognition." This involves a positive endorsement and celebration of cultural difference, enabling marginalized groups to assert themselves and reclaim their cultural identity [4](#page=4). * **Main obstacle to advancement:** Cultural-based marginalization [3](#page=3). * **Key theme:** Group self-assertion [3](#page=3). * **Reforms and policies:** Right to respect and recognition, minority rights, and group self-determination [3](#page=3). ##### 2.1.3.1 Culture and identity in multiculturalism Multiculturalism's politics of recognition is informed by the idea that culture is fundamental to political and social identity, serving as a source of social and historical rootedness. A weak or fractured cultural identity can lead to feelings of isolation and confusion. In its modern form, cultural politics has been influenced by communitarianism and identity politics [5](#page=5). * **Communitarianism:** This perspective critiques liberal universalism, arguing that individuals are shaped by their communities and owe them respect and consideration, challenging the notion of the "unencumbered self." Communitarians champion particularism, focusing on group distinctiveness rather than shared traits. They believe that only groups and communities can provide a genuine sense of identity and moral purpose [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** Communitarianism has diverse political forms, including left-wing (unrestricted freedom and social equality), centrist (reciprocal rights and responsibilities), and right-wing (respect for authority and established values) [5](#page=5). * **Identity politics:** This broad term encompasses various trends that critique liberal universalism, viewing it as a source of oppression and cultural imperialism that marginalizes subordinate groups. It argues that dominant group values shape how marginalized groups perceive themselves and are perceived by others, leading to a sense of inferiority. Identity politics proposes challenging subordination by reshaping identity to foster pride and self-respect, often through acts of defiance and liberation like "black is beautiful" or "gay pride." [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * **Culture:** Defined as beliefs, values, and practices passed down through learning, distinct from nature [5](#page=5). * **Liberal multiculturalism:** A form committed to toleration and upholding freedom of choice, particularly regarding culture or religion [5](#page=5). * **Pluralist multiculturalism:** A form committed to "deep" diversity, valuing cultural entrenchment and resisting cultural imperialism [5](#page=5). ##### 2.1.3.2 Minority rights The rise of multiculturalism has been accompanied by the recognition of "minority rights" or "multicultural rights." These are special rights specific to cultural groups, acknowledging their diverse needs for recognition based on religion, traditions, and way of life. Will Kymlicka identified three types of minority rights [7](#page=7): * **Self-government rights:** These apply to national minorities, indigenous, or tribal peoples who are territorially concentrated, share a language, and have a "meaningful way of life." Examples include Native Americans and First Nations in Canada. These rights may involve devolution of political power, federalism, or even the right to secession and sovereign independence [7](#page=7). * **Polyethnic rights:** These rights assist ethnic and religious minorities, often immigrants, in expressing and maintaining their cultural distinctiveness. Examples include legal exemptions from animal slaughtering laws for Jews and Muslims or exemptions from school dress codes for Muslim girls [7](#page=7). * **Special representation rights:** These aim to address the under-representation of minority or disadvantaged groups in education, politics, and public life. Kymlicka justified "reverse" or "positive" discrimination to ensure full and equal participation of all groups, ensuring public policy reflects diverse interests [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** Positive discrimination refers to preferential treatment for a group to compensate for past disadvantage or structural inequality. Affirmative action policies are designed to benefit disadvantaged minority groups through special assistance [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). Minority rights have been justified on several grounds: 1. **Guarantee of individual freedom and personal autonomy:** Liberal multiculturalists view culture as a vital tool for autonomous living. Charles Taylor argues that individual self-respect is intrinsically linked to cultural membership, making individual rights entangled with minority rights [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). 2. **Countering oppression:** Societies can harm citizens by trivializing or ignoring their cultural identities, a "failure of recognition." The state, despite pretensions of neutrality, is inevitably aligned with a dominant culture. This concerns the issue of "offence," particularly for religious groups with sacred beliefs, where criticism or ridicule is seen as an attack on the group itself. This relates to the phenomenon of "cultural appropriation." [8](#page=8). 3. **Redressing social injustice:** Minority rights are seen as compensation for unfair disadvantages and under-representation, often addressed through positive discrimination. This is exemplified in the USA by "affirmative action" for African-Americans, such as the Supreme Court's upholding of "reverse" discrimination in educational admissions in *Regents of the University of California v. Bakke* [8](#page=8). > **Key Figure:** Charles Taylor, a Canadian philosopher, developed a theory of multiculturalism as "the politics of recognition," emphasizing equal dignity and respect rooted in cultural situatedness [8](#page=8). > **Key Figure:** Will Kymlicka, a Canadian political philosopher, is a leading theorist of liberal multiculturalism, arguing that collective rights of minority cultures are compatible with liberal democracy [8](#page=8). --- # Types and tensions of multiculturalism This topic examines the different models of multiculturalism, including liberal, pluralist, and cosmopolitan approaches, and discusses the inherent tensions and debates surrounding their implementation and effectiveness. ## 3. Types and tensions of multiculturalism Multiculturalism, at its core, advocates for the reconciliation of cultural diversity with civic cohesion, asserting that cultural recognition is essential for individual identity, societal stability, and vibrancy. It proposes that diversity, akin to biodiversity, strengthens a society and fosters cross-cultural understanding and toleration, serving as an antidote to social polarization. However, criticisms of multiculturalism suggest it can sometimes prioritize diversity over unity, leading to the emergence of "interculturalism" which emphasizes dialogue and interaction, but some fear it risks diluting group identities into a "shallow" sense of belonging [11](#page=11). There is no single, universally agreed-upon model of multiculturalism; instead, it encompasses a variety of ideological stances and competing visions for balancing diversity and unity. The primary types of multiculturalism discussed are liberal, pluralist, and cosmopolitan approaches [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). ### 3.1 Liberal multiculturalism Liberal multiculturalism navigates a complex relationship with liberalism, sometimes viewed as rivals due to liberalism's emphasis on individualism and freedom of choice versus multiculturalism's focus on collectivism and group identity. However, liberal thinkers have developed a form of liberal multiculturalism that shifts from universalism to pluralism [12](#page=12). **Core tenets of liberal multiculturalism:** * **Commitment to toleration and freedom of choice:** This approach strongly upholds toleration and the freedom of individuals to make moral and cultural choices, aligning with the liberal idea of the state being "neutral" on conceptions of the good life. John Rawls' concept of liberalism establishing conditions for individuals to define their "good life" without prescribing specific values aligns with this [12](#page=12). * **Limited endorsement of diversity:** Toleration is extended only to views, values, and practices that are themselves tolerant and compatible with personal freedom and autonomy. This means liberal multiculturalism cannot accommodate "deep" diversity, such as practices like female genital mutilation or forced marriages, even if they are central to a group's cultural identity, as individual rights and freedom of choice take precedence over group rights [12](#page=12). * **Distinction between private and public life:** Liberal multiculturalism separates private life, where cultural, religious, and linguistic identities can be expressed freely, from public life, which requires a bedrock of shared civic allegiances. Citizenship is thus detached from cultural identity, making the latter a private matter. This stance is compatible with civic nationalism and "hyphenated nationality," as seen in the USA, where integration in the public sphere is emphasized, with preconditions like English proficiency and knowledge of political history for citizenship [12](#page=12). * **Primacy of liberal democracy:** Liberal multiculturalism views liberal democracy as the only legitimate political system, as it is based on consent and guarantees personal freedom and toleration. However, liberal democracy acts as its own gatekeeper; groups whose goals are incompatible with liberal-democratic principles can be prohibited. Groups are only entitled to toleration if they, in turn, tolerate others [13](#page=13). > **Tip:** Liberal multiculturalism prioritizes individual autonomy and freedom of choice within a liberal-democratic framework. It allows for cultural expression in the private sphere but expects adherence to shared public values and principles. ### 3.2 Pluralist multiculturalism Pluralist multiculturalism offers stronger support for difference than liberalism. While liberals endorse diversity within a framework of toleration, leading to "shallow" diversity, pluralism acknowledges the legitimacy of various value systems [13](#page=13). **Key aspects of pluralist multiculturalism:** * **Value pluralism:** Influenced by thinkers like Isaiah Berlin, this perspective posits that there are multiple, equally legitimate conceptions of the "good life" and that moral conflict is inherent to human existence. It suggests that liberal or Western beliefs do not hold superior moral authority over illiberal or non-Western ones [13](#page=13). * **Implications of value pluralism:** Berlin's stance implies a "live-and-let-live" approach, but it struggles to explain how liberal and illiberal beliefs can coexist harmoniously within the same society, especially as accepting moral pluralism can be difficult to contain within a purely liberal framework. John Gray argued that pluralism leads to a "post-liberal" stance where liberal values no longer hold a monopoly of legitimacy [13](#page=13). * **Bhikhu Parekh's defense:** Bhikhu Parekh argues that cultural diversity reflects the interplay between human nature and culture. He asserts that any single culture expresses only a part of what it means to be human, thus forming the basis for a politics of recognition. This perspective views Western liberalism as expressing only certain aspects of human nature and suggests that "variegated" treatment, including affirmative action, is needed to equalize minority groups [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). * **Particularist multiculturalism:** A subtype of pluralist multiculturalism, particularist multiculturalism highlights that cultural diversity occurs within a context of unequal power dynamics where certain groups have historically held privileges denied to others. It aligns with the needs of marginalized groups, often attributing their plight to the corrupting influence of Western culture, colonialism, racism, materialism, or permissiveness. Emphasis on cultural distinctiveness here acts as political resistance [14](#page=14). * **Tensions with particularism:** An excessive focus on cultural "purity" and an unwillingness to engage in cultural exchange can raise concerns about civic cohesion, potentially leading to social fragmentation as groups gravitate towards isolated communal ideals [14](#page=14). > **Tip:** Pluralist multiculturalism embraces a broader spectrum of values and beliefs, acknowledging that different cultures offer legitimate, albeit sometimes conflicting, ways of life. It moves beyond the liberal emphasis on individual autonomy to recognize the intrinsic worth of diverse cultural frameworks. ### 3.3 Cosmopolitan multiculturalism Cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism are often seen as distinct, with cosmopolitanism advocating for a global consciousness and ethical responsibility that transcends national borders, while multiculturalism tends to particularize moral sensibilities to specific groups. However, some theorists, like Jeremy Waldron, equate them, viewing multiculturalism as a transitional phase towards a broader reconstruction of political sensibilities [15](#page=15). **Key characteristics of cosmopolitan multiculturalism:** * **Fluid and responsive cultures:** Culture is seen as dynamic, adapting to changing social circumstances and personal needs, rather than being fixed and historically embedded [16](#page=16). * **"Melting pot" versus "cultural mosaic":** Cosmopolitan multiculturalism envisions a society as a "melting pot" of different ideas, values, and traditions, rather than a "cultural mosaic" of separate groups [16](#page=16). * **Embrace of hybridity:** This approach positively embraces hybridity, recognizing that modern identity is a "melange" of commitments, affiliations, and roles, not confined by a single cultural structure. Immersion in one particular culture is seen as insufficient to understand the nature of culture itself [16](#page=16). * **"Pick-and-mix" multiculturalism:** It encourages interculturalism and cultural mixing, where individuals might combine elements from various cultures, such as enjoying different cuisines, music, or spiritual practices [16](#page=16). * **Broadened sensibilities and global citizenship:** The benefit lies in broadening moral and political perspectives, leading to a "one world" perspective and fostering global citizenship. Jeremy Waldron's work emphasizes the fluid, multifarious nature of the self, challenging rigid liberal views of autonomy and communitarian tendencies to confine individuals within single cultures [16](#page=16). > **Tip:** Cosmopolitan multiculturalism champions the idea that in an interconnected world, identities are increasingly hybrid and fluid. It sees cultural exchange and mixing not as a threat but as a positive force for individual growth and global understanding. ### 3.4 Tensions within multiculturalism Significant tensions exist between the different models of multiculturalism, highlighting divergent approaches to diversity and unity [15](#page=15). **Key tensions include:** * **Liberal multiculturalism vs. Pluralist multiculturalism:** * Toleration versus difference [15](#page=15). * Fundamental values versus value pluralism [15](#page=15). * Individual rights versus cultural rights [15](#page=15). * "Shallow" diversity versus "deep" diversity [15](#page=15). * Cultural fluidity versus cultural embeddedness [15](#page=15). * Liberal-democratic framework versus plural political forms [15](#page=15). * Universalism versus particularism [15](#page=15). * **Critiques of cosmopolitanism:** Rival traditions criticize cosmopolitan multiculturalism for prioritizing togetherness and learning from other cultures, potentially at the expense of distinct group identities and civic cohesion. It can be seen as promoting a "pick-and-mix" approach that may lack depth [16](#page=16). > **Example:** The tension between liberal and pluralist multiculturalism can be illustrated by debates over religious freedom. Liberal multiculturalism might permit private religious practices but would likely restrict those that infringe on individual autonomy (e.g., forced religious conversions). Pluralist multiculturalism might be more inclined to accept a wider range of practices, even those challenging liberal norms, if they are considered legitimate within a particular cultural value system. Cosmopolitan multiculturalism would see individuals freely adopting and adapting elements from various religious traditions, forming their own unique spiritual paths. --- # The future and critique of multiculturalism This section explores the evolving relevance of multiculturalism in a globalized world, examining its criticisms regarding potential divisiveness and introducing alternative concepts like interculturalism. ### 4.1 Critiques and challenges of multiculturalism Multiculturalism, while aiming to accommodate diversity, faces significant critiques regarding its potential to foster division and its implications for vulnerable groups. #### 4.1.1 The problem of minorities within minorities A prominent critique of multiculturalism, particularly concerning the rights of minority cultural groups, arises from its potential to preserve and legitimize patriarchal and traditionalist beliefs that disadvantage women and other vulnerable groups, such as the LGBTQ community. This is sometimes referred to as the 'minorities within minorities' problem. Practices like restrictive dress codes, traditional family structures, and limited access to elite positions within minority groups can create structural gender biases, leading some to argue that multiculturalism may inadvertently reinforce male power structures. Contemporary liberal political philosophers attempt to address this paradox by seeking to reduce injustice both between minority groups and the wider society, and within minority groups themselves [10](#page=10). #### 4.1.2 Cultural appropriation Cultural appropriation, defined as the adoption of customs, practices, or ideas from one culture by members of another, typically more dominant, culture, is a significant point of contention. It is often viewed negatively by indigenous peoples and marginalized or minority cultures because it can lead to stereotypical portrayals that demean or trivialize their heritage, thereby preserving ignorance and undermining self-esteem. This practice can entrench power imbalances, as dominant cultures may treat less dominant ones as objects of amusement or sources of the 'exotic' [9](#page=9). However, the concept of cultural appropriation itself has faced criticism. Critics argue that it overlooks the fluid and overlapping nature of cultures, rather than viewing them as separate and discrete entities. Additionally, some forms of cultural borrowing might be seen as positive, stemming from genuine admiration and a desire to learn, rather than being inherently negative. The motive behind the borrowing, specifically whether it is done respectfully, is therefore considered more important than the act of borrowing itself. Furthermore, some argue that even insensitive or demeaning representations of other cultures do not constitute genuine social harm or a valid basis for offense [9](#page=9). > **Example:** The controversy surrounding the fashion brand Comme des Garçons using cornrow wigs on white models at Paris Fashion Week, claiming inspiration from an 'Egyptian prince', is cited as an instance of cultural appropriation. Similarly, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau faced criticism for wearing black make-up in his youth, and the wearing of Native American headdresses at festivals is another example [9](#page=9). #### 4.1.3 Fostering division and 'ghettoization' A central critique of multiculturalism is its tendency to prioritize diversity over unity, potentially favoring segregation over integration. Amartya Sen argues that the 'solidaristic' assumptions underpinning multiculturalism, particularly in its pluralist and particularist forms, suggest that human identities are solely shaped by membership in a single social group. This, according to Sen, leads to the 'miniaturization' of humanity and encourages individuals to identify only with their own monoculture, failing to recognize the rights and integrity of people from other cultural groups, ultimately breeding 'ghettoization' [17](#page=17). The most strident critiques often originate from the conservative tradition, which posits that shared values and a common culture are essential preconditions for a stable and successful society. This view is based on the belief that humans are naturally drawn to those who are similar to them, leading to an inherent fear or distrust of strangers, which suggests that multicultural societies are fundamentally flawed and prone to conflict [17](#page=17). > **Tip:** Be aware of the distinction between multiculturalism and assimilation. Assimilation is the process by which immigrant communities lose their cultural distinctiveness by adapting to the values and lifestyles of the host society [17](#page=17). ### 4.2 The future of multiculturalism and alternative concepts The ongoing relevance and potential future of multiculturalism are debated, with globalization presenting new challenges and opportunities. #### 4.2.1 Multiculturalism in a globalized world Globalization, with its significant increase in geographical and cross-border mobility, has made cultural diversity an undeniable reality for many societies. The concept of a relatively homogeneous nation-state is receding, and attempts to reconstruct it through strict immigration controls or forced assimilation appear increasingly impractical. If nationalism was the dominant ideological force of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, some suggest that multiculturalism may be its successor for the twenty-first century, as it directly addresses the challenge of diverse peoples with different moral values and cultural traditions coexisting without strife [17](#page=17). #### 4.2.2 The concept of interculturalism While multiculturalism has been influential, some argue that its time may have passed, with the price for its benefits being too high. This perspective suggests that multiculturalism's focus on diversity can lead to segregation rather than integration. Emerging concepts like interculturalism aim to address these criticisms by fostering genuine interaction and mutual understanding between cultures, rather than simply maintaining separate coexisting groups [17](#page=17). #### 4.2.3 Indigenous rights and 'ancient constitutionalism' Distinct considerations arise for indigenous peoples and national minorities, who Kymlicka argues are entitled to rights beyond those of immigrant groups. This distinction is based on the historical dispossession and subordination faced by indigenous peoples through colonization, a situation they did not choose or consent to. In contrast, immigrants are seen as making a choice to settle in a new country, implying an obligation to accept its core values and governmental arrangements [9](#page=9). James Tully, a Canadian political theorist, champions a pluralist form of political society that accommodates indigenous peoples' needs. He critiques modern constitutionalism for its uniformity and calls for 'ancient constitutionalism', which respects diversity and allows traditional values and practices to be legitimate. Tully advocates for constitutional reform to protect cultural diversity and expand indigenous rights, particularly concerning land ownership and traditional family law. This approach seeks to allow indigenous peoples to participate in wider societal arrangements on their own terms, rather than aspiring to sovereign independence [10](#page=10). > **Tip:** Understand that the rights of indigenous peoples are often viewed differently from those of immigrant groups within multicultural frameworks, due to historical context and the nature of their incorporation into the state. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Multiculturalism | A concept that refers to the presence of diverse cultural groups within a society, and the governmental policies and institutional designs that formally recognize and address the distinct needs of these groups to ensure equality of opportunity. It can also imply a positive endorsement and celebration of communal diversity. | | Postcolonialism | A theoretical framework that emerged from the collapse of European empires, aiming to deconstruct the cultural and psychological impacts of colonial rule and legitimize non-Western political ideas, giving a voice to the developing world. | | Orientalism | A term coined by Edward Said to describe the way Western cultures have historically constructed stereotypical and demeaning fictions about Eastern cultures, maintaining cultural and political hegemony through biased representations. | | Eurocentrism | The practice of viewing the world and its cultures primarily through a European lens, applying European values and theories to other groups and peoples, often resulting in a biased or distorted perspective. | | Politics of Recognition | An approach within multiculturalism that argues that minority cultural groups are disadvantaged due to cultural marginalization, and that addressing this requires societal changes that affirm and validate their distinct identities and rights. | | Politics of Rights | A republican approach focused on overcoming legal and political exclusion by ensuring formal equality and prohibiting discrimination, aiming for universal citizenship and difference-blindness. | | Politics of Redistribution | A social reformist stance that addresses social disadvantage by aiming for equality of opportunity through social engineering and wealth redistribution to overcome poverty and structural inequalities. | | Formal Equality | Equality based on people's status in society, particularly concerning legal and political rights, ensuring that all individuals are treated equally under the law and have equal access to political processes. | | Consociationalism | A system of power-sharing typically employed in deeply divided societies, characterized by close collaboration among multiple political parties or formations to ensure representation and stability. | | Communitarianism | A philosophical perspective that emphasizes the importance of community in shaping individual identity and moral purpose, arguing that individuals are embedded in their communities and owe them respect and consideration, in contrast to liberal individualism. | | Identity Politics | A broad political orientation that seeks to challenge oppression by reshaping group identities through politico-cultural self-assertion, aiming to overcome marginalization and foster pride and self-respect within subordinate groups. | | Minority Rights | Special rights granted to cultural groups to protect their distinctiveness, encompassing self-government rights for national minorities, polyethnic rights for immigrant groups, and special representation rights to address under-representation. | | Positive Discrimination | Preferential treatment given to members of disadvantaged minority groups to compensate for past disadvantages or structural inequalities, aiming to ensure their full and equal participation in society. | | Offence | In the context of multiculturalism, this refers to feeling hurt or humiliated by actions or statements that injure deeply held beliefs, particularly concerning religious or cultural sensitivities, and can be viewed as a failure of recognition. | | Cultural Appropriation | The adoption of customs, practices, or ideas from one culture by members of another, typically a more dominant culture. This can be problematic if it leads to demeaning stereotypes, trivialization, or the perpetuation of power imbalances. | | Liberal Multiculturalism | A form of multiculturalism that emphasizes toleration and upholds freedom of choice, operating within a liberal-democratic framework. It distinguishes between private and public life, with cultural expression largely confined to the private sphere. | | Pluralist Multiculturalism | A perspective that supports ‘deep’ diversity, acknowledging the legitimacy of diverse values and beliefs, including those that may not align with liberal principles. It emphasizes the interplay between human nature and culture, advocating for recognition and often advocating for variegated treatment for minorities. | | Value Pluralism | The theory that multiple, competing conceptions of the ‘good life’ exist, none of which can be definitively proven superior. This implies that moral conflicts are inherent to the human condition. | | Cosmopolitan Multiculturalism | An approach that views cultural identities as fluid and multifaceted, emphasizing hybridity and cultural mixing. It sees these as transitional states leading towards global citizenship and a broader moral and political sensibility. | | Hybridity | A state of social and cultural mixing where individuals develop multiple, often blended, identities resulting from the interaction of various cultural influences. | | Assimilation | The process by which immigrant communities lose their distinct cultural characteristics by adopting the values, allegiances, and lifestyles of the majority or ‘host’ society. | | Ghettoization | The process of segregating a specific group of people into a particular area or within social structures, often leading to social isolation and reduced opportunities. | | Interculturalism | An approach to diversity that prioritizes dialogue and interaction between cultures, viewing cultures as fluid and internally differentiated, and emphasizing commonalities over differences. | | Deep Diversity | Diversity that challenges the notion of absolute or universal standards, often based on moral relativism, and embraces a wider range of cultural practices and beliefs without inherent limitations imposed by a single moral framework. | | Shallow Diversity | Diversity that is accepted within a framework of established values and beliefs considered ‘absolute’ and non-negotiable, such as personal freedom and autonomy. |

# Defining and understanding culture This topic explores the multifaceted nature of culture, encompassing its definition, historical understanding, and its relationship with society, identity, and diversity. ## 1. Defining and understanding culture Culture can be understood as a complex whole of learned behaviors, beliefs, and social patterns. It encompasses a broad spectrum of human activity and knowledge, including language, ideas, customs, laws, art, morals, institutions, tools, and rituals. Essentially, culture shapes a group's identity through unique social patterns. ### 1.1 Early anthropological and sociological perspectives * **Edward Burnett Tylor's classic definition (1871):** Culture is "that complex of whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." This definition emphasizes the learned and societal aspects of culture. * **Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition:** Defines culture as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings that are learned through socialization. This highlights the shared and learned nature of cultural elements. ### 1.2 Cultural studies and evolving concepts * **Subjectivity and Engaged Analysis:** Early cultural studies approached culture through two main features: * **Subjectivity:** Examining culture in relation to individual lives and how changes affect a person's way of life. * **Engaged form of analysis:** Critiquing societal inequalities and advocating for those with fewer resources, recognizing that societies are not equally structured. * **Critique of "High Culture":** Cultural studies moved away from the idea of culture as solely "high culture" with constant, universal value. Raymond Williams critiqued the separation of culture from society and "high culture" from a "whole way of life," though he acknowledged this separation gave modern culture its unique energy. * **Hegemony:** From the 1970s, culture began to be viewed as a form of "hegemony," a concept associated with Antonio Gramsci. Hegemony describes domination that is not overtly visible, involving both coercion and the consent of the dominated. It explains phenomena like the popularity of fascism despite its curtailment of liberties. Counter-hegemonic strategies must adapt to changing social and cultural conditions. * **Governmentality:** Michel Foucault's concept of "governmentality" relates to culture as a means to produce conforming citizens, often through education. As culture was seen less as local expression and more as a system of domination, cultural studies critiqued its hegemonic effects. * **Semiotic Analysis:** Early critiques heavily utilized semiotic analysis, breaking down culture into discrete messages and practices distributed by institutions and media. For example, analyzing cigarette smoking not just as a practice but as a signifier of masculinity and freedom. * **Ideology:** Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan viewed individuals as constructs of ideology, which refers to widespread knowledge and values that constitute "common sense." Ideology is seen as essential for the reproduction of the state and capitalism, masking political and class differences as natural and universal. ### 1.3 Cultural diversity and its implications * **Definition of Diversity:** Diversity refers to "a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system." It includes culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. * **Global Context:** With a significant global migrant population, societies are increasingly composed of multiple cultures. This diversity offers potential for educational and personal development through mutual enrichment. * **Challenges of Diversity:** Fundamental cultural differences can lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Identity politics can divide groups, leading to feelings of persecution and misunderstanding. * **Interactions and Shared Values:** Despite differences, people from various origins and cultures interact daily in shared environments, often adhering to common values and norms for everyday events. * **Understanding and Coexistence:** Understanding different cultures and identities is crucial for living and collaborating together, reducing misunderstandings and biases. Cultural diversity provides opportunities to transcend one's own perspectives and experience different ways of being. * **Challenges to Compatibility:** Difficulties arise when different identities are not compatible or compete, particularly when underlying prejudices and misconceptions prevent coexistence and cooperation. * **Equity and Justice:** The core themes in discussions of cultural diversity are equity and justice, encompassing respect for cultures, recognition of identities, and transformation of social systems. * **Recognition:** A fundamental human need, recognition involves how people treat each other, fostering a sense of belonging. This can range from elementary recognition and respect to love and friendship. However, there is no universal agreement on what recognition entails, leading to diverse interpretations and applications across political, social, curricular, and personal levels. #### 1.3.1 Forms of multiculturalism * **Multicultural State:** This concept involves: 1. **Repudiation of dominant group ownership:** The state belongs equally to all citizens. 2. **Accommodation of minority groups:** Replacing assimilationist policies with recognition and accommodation, allowing citizens to access state institutions without denying their ethnocultural identity. 3. **Acknowledgment of historic injustice:** Willingness to offer remedies for past assimilation and exclusion policies. * **Trends in Multiculturalism:** * **Indigenous Peoples:** A shift from policies of assimilation and disappearance to recognizing indigenous peoples as distinct societies with rights to land claims, cultural practices, and self-government. * **Substate/Minority Nationalisms:** Moving from suppressing regional groups with distinct national identities to accommodating them through regional autonomy and official language rights, often via federal or quasi-federal structures. * **Immigrant Groups:** A change from assimilationist approaches to a "multicultural" conception of integration, where public institutions accommodate visible ethnic identities. This includes adopting race-neutral admissions criteria. * **Metics:** Long-term residents not admitted as citizens (e.g., undocumented migrants, asylum-seekers, overstayed visa holders). Their primary claim is regularization of status and access to citizenship, though some countries resist this due to their irregular entry or non-compliance with visa terms. ### 1.4 Prejudice and discrimination * **Nature of Prejudice:** Prejudice, meaning "prejudgment," is an attitude toward a social group. A traditional view includes cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and conative (intentions) components. However, other definitions incorporate discriminatory behavior. * **Dehumanization:** A key aspect of prejudice is the dehumanization of an outgroup, making atrocities seem less significant. * **Societal Impact:** Prejudice contributes to significant human suffering, from restricted opportunities to violence and genocide. Despite being socially undesirable, it pervades social life, often masked by justifications. * **Prejudiced Attitudes and Discriminatory Behavior:** Prejudice is often considered an attitude objectified as a social group. It involves derogatory social attitudes, negative affect, and intentions to behave hostilely or discriminatorily towards members of a group due to their membership. --- # Cultural studies and concepts of hegemony This section explores cultural studies as an academic field, emphasizing its subjective and engaged analytical approach, and its interaction with concepts like hegemony and governmentality. ### 2.1 Cultural studies: an engaged and subjective approach Cultural studies is characterized by two primary features: subjectivity and an engaged form of analysis. #### 2.1.1 Subjectivity in cultural studies Subjectivity refers to the study of culture in relation to individual lives. It examines the changes that occur within an individual's life and how these transformations influence their overall way of living. #### 2.1.2 Engaged analysis in cultural studies The second key characteristic is an "engaged form of analysis." This perspective posits that societies are not structured equally, and individuals do not possess the same access to resources such as education, wealth, or healthcare. Cultural studies, through its engaged analysis, champions the interests of those with fewer resources. > **Tip:** Early cultural studies rejected the notion of culture solely as an abbreviation for 'high culture' with a fixed value, instead emphasizing its connection to societal structures and lived experiences. #### 2.1.3 Raymond Williams and the redefinition of culture Raymond Williams, in his work *Culture and Society*, critiqued the separation of culture from society and 'high culture' from a broader understanding of "culture as a whole way of life." However, he also acknowledged that this very separation contributed to modern culture's dynamism and capacity for insight. ### 2.2 Hegemony and governmentality From the early 1970s, culture began to be conceptualized through the lens of "hegemony," a term associated with Antonio Gramsci. #### 2.2.1 Gramsci's concept of hegemony Hegemony describes relations of domination that are not overtly apparent. It involves both coercion and the consent of the dominated. Gramsci developed this concept to explain the popularity of Mussolini's fascism, despite its curtailment of individual liberties. > **Tip:** Because hegemonic forces continuously adapt to changing social and cultural conditions, counter-hegemonic strategies must also be regularly revised. #### 2.2.2 Foucault's concept of governmentality In a similar vein, Michel Foucault introduced the concept of "governmentality," viewing culture as a mechanism for producing conforming or "docile" citizens, largely through educational systems. #### 2.2.3 Cultural studies' critique of hegemonic effects As culture was increasingly understood not merely as an expression of local communities but as an apparatus within a larger system of domination, cultural studies began to offer critiques of culture's hegemonic influences. Initially, this critique heavily relied on semiotic analysis. #### 2.2.4 Semiotic analysis and cultural "messages" Semiotic analysis deconstructs culture into discrete messages, which are seen as practices or discourses distributed by institutions and media. For instance, the analysis of cigarette smoking among workers would not just see it as a life practice but as a signifier associated with images like the "Marlboro Man," symbolizing masculinity, freedom, and escape from mundane work. > **Example:** A semiotic analysis of a particular advertisement might break down its visual elements, text, and sound to understand how it constructs meanings about a product and its target audience, revealing underlying cultural assumptions and desires. #### 2.2.5 Ideology and the reproduction of power Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan proposed that individuals are constructs of ideology. Ideology, in this context, refers not to disapproved beliefs but to the prevalent set of discourses and images that form widespread knowledge and values, often termed "common sense." This ideology is essential for the state and capitalism to perpetuate themselves without facing revolutionary threats. > **Tip:** For thinkers like Hoggart and Williams, the state's claim to neutrality is seen as false because it serves to protect the class differences inherent in capitalist "relations of production." Althusser argued that dominant ideology transforms inherently political, partial, and mutable phenomena into something perceived as "natural," universal, and eternal. --- # Diversity and its social implications Diversity encompasses the vast spectrum of human differences within societies and workplaces, presenting both profound challenges and enriching opportunities. ### 3.1 Understanding diversity Diversity refers to a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system. It encompasses a wide range of differences, including: * Culture * Ethnicity * Physical abilities/qualities * Class * Religious beliefs * Traditions and customs * Sexual orientation * Gender identity This rich tapestry of human experience makes life more interesting and offers significant potential for educational and personal development through mutual enrichment. However, fundamental cultural differences can also lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. > **Tip:** While diversity enriches society, it's crucial to recognize that differences can also be a source of conflict if not managed with understanding and respect. #### 3.1.1 The concept of culture Culture is defined as the complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of society. More broadly, it involves shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings that are learned through socialization, fostering a group's unique identity. Cultural studies, as a field, is characterized by: * **Subjectivity:** Examining culture in relation to individual lives and how changes affect a person's way of life. * **Engaged analysis:** Recognizing societal inequalities in access to resources like education and money, and working to benefit those with fewer resources. Raymond Williams critiqued the separation of "culture" from "a whole way of life" and "high culture" from broader cultural practices, though he acknowledged this separation could lend modern culture energy and insight. #### 3.1.2 Hegemony and governmentality From the early 1970s, culture began to be viewed through the lens of "hegemony," a concept developed by Antonio Gramsci. Hegemony describes subtle relations of domination that involve both coercion and the consent of the dominated. Gramsci used this to explain the popularity of fascism despite its curtailment of liberties. Because hegemonic forces adapt to changing social and cultural conditions, counter-hegemonic strategies must also evolve. Michel Foucault's concept of "governmentality" further expands this idea, viewing culture as a means to produce conforming or "docile" citizens, often through educational systems. As culture was increasingly understood as an apparatus within larger systems of domination, cultural studies began to critique its hegemonic effects. #### 3.1.3 Semiotic analysis and ideology Early critiques of culture often relied on semiotic analysis, which breaks down culture into discrete messages or "discourses" distributed by institutions and media. For example, the act of smoking among workers might be analyzed not just as a practice but as a signifier of masculinity, freedom, and escape from work, often produced by media imagery. Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan viewed individuals as constructs of ideology. Ideology, in this context, refers not to beliefs one disapproves of, but to the pervasive discourses and images that constitute common sense knowledge and values. This dominant ideology is essential for the reproduction of the state and capitalism by preventing revolutionary threats. The state's claim to neutrality is seen as false, as it protects the exploitative "relations of production" and class differences necessary for capitalism. Dominant ideology, according to Althusser, can make political, partial, and changeable aspects of society appear "natural," universal, and eternal. #### 3.1.4 Diversity in contemporary societies In contemporary societies, diversity is a ubiquitous reality in both communities and workplaces. The significant global migration, estimated at about one billion people in 2019, means that societies are increasingly composed of individuals from many cultures. While this diversity is a source of richness, fundamental cultural differences can unfortunately lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. People from diverse origins and cultures interact daily in neighborhoods, workplaces, and educational settings. Despite these differences, individuals often share common values and norms, and engage in similar everyday activities. This coexistence presents an opportunity for mutual enrichment through understanding and experiencing different languages, customs, historical memories, and beliefs. #### 3.1.5 The evolving concept of diversity The term "diversity" is often used ambiguously in discussions of multiculturalism, identity politics, and anti-discrimination policies. It can refer to any approach that recognizes differences, such as distinctions in education based on gender, immigration, or disability. However, an overemphasis on isolated differences can lead to difficulties in addressing other "sources of difference" and their intersections. The concept of "difference," which implies clear distinctions, is gradually being replaced by "diversity," which emphasizes multiplicity, overlap, and the crossing of human variations. This is analogous to the concept of "biodiversity," which refers to biological and ecological variations. Culture is closely linked to identity, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities, bringing both opportunities and challenges. The increasing presence of people from various cultural, racial, ethnic, and religious backgrounds necessitates understanding and learning about other cultures and identities to foster collaboration and diminish misunderstandings, stereotypes, biases, and discrimination. Cultural diversity can offer opportunities to transcend one's own perspectives and engage with different ways of being, making societies more dynamic. ### 3.2 Challenges and opportunities of diversity Difficulties arise when different identities are not compatible and must compete. Overcoming these challenges is particularly hard when underlying prejudices and misconceptions prevent people from different backgrounds from living or cooperating together. For those who have fought against exclusion, the continuation of wars and conflicts fueled by misunderstandings and hatred toward different cultures and identities is disorienting and disheartening. #### 3.2.1 Recognition and justice Cultural diversity is often discussed in terms of equity and justice. The meaning of these terms can range from showing equal respect for all cultures to maintaining cultural diversity, recognizing all identities associated with cultures, and transforming social systems. Cultural diversity extends beyond the mere coexistence of various human attributes to how people react to this reality and choose to live together. Pioneering movements, such as the civil rights movements, have recognized different cultures and identities as a major approach to acknowledge and rectify past injustices where the contributions of certain groups were denied or ignored. In countries with a history of immigration, such as the United States, Australia, and Canada, denying the contributions of specific groups and their cultures is dishonest and undermines the shared past of citizens. Rectifying past injustices and creating a just and inclusive environment requires admitting these wrongs. Human beings require recognition from each other to live with dignity, especially in diverse societies. Recognition, viewed as a courtesy and a fundamental human need, involves how people treat each other. Providing everyone with a sense of belonging is crucial in diverse public and private spheres, and recognized culture is indispensable for cultivating this sense. However, there is no universal agreement on what "recognition" entails. It can encompass elementary respect, esteem, love, friendship, acknowledgment, and the allowance of coexistence and interplay. This multifaceted nature makes recognition a concept that is difficult to define and implement universally. #### 3.2.2 Forms of recognition To better understand recognition in the context of diversity, several categories have been proposed: * **Political recognition:** This refers to the recognition of cultures in legal and political spheres, such as citizenship and voting rights. It emphasizes combining recognition with redistribution to ensure equal participation in public life, even if not supported by the majority in everyday life. * **Social recognition:** This requires different groups to recognize and respect each other's cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular recognition:** This is vital because minority cultures and identities are often denigrated. Curricular recognition promotes an inclusive national narrative in educational curricula to unite people from different cultural backgrounds. It insists that fundamental diverse cultures and identities should be reflected in curricula. #### 3.2.3 Multiculturalism and state reforms The struggles for multiculturalism involve common principles across different countries, even though the precise details vary. These general principles include: 1. **Repudiation of the dominant group's ownership of the state:** The state is viewed as belonging equally to all citizens, not just a single national group. 2. **Rejection of assimilationist policies:** Nation-building policies that assimilate or exclude minority groups are rejected. Instead, individuals should have equal access to state institutions and political life without having to conceal their ethnocultural identity. The state has an obligation to accord the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups the same recognition and accommodation as the dominant group. 3. **Acknowledgment of historic injustice:** Recognition is given to past injustices done to minority/non-dominant groups by policies of assimilation and exclusion, with a willingness to offer remedies or rectification. #### 3.2.4 Different trends in multiculturalism While abstract principles of multiculturalism are common, specific approaches vary significantly across countries and between different minority groups. Three general trends can be observed, primarily in Western democracies: ##### 3.2.4.1 Indigenous peoples Historically, countries like Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia, and the United States aimed for the eventual disappearance of indigenous peoples as distinct communities through assimilation or intermarriage. Policies often involved stripping lands, restricting traditional practices, and undermining self-government. However, a significant reversal began in the 1970s, with a general acceptance, in principle, that indigenous peoples will continue as distinct societies with land claims, cultural rights, and self-government rights. ##### 3.2.4.2 Substate/minority nationalisms Groups such as the Québécois in Canada, Scots and Welsh in Britain, Catalans and Basques in Spain, Flemish in Belgium, and minorities in Italy and the United States see themselves as distinct nations within larger states. Historically, these nationalisms were suppressed through measures like restricting minority language rights and abolishing regional self-government. Today, there is a shift towards accommodating these identities through "multination and multilingual federalism," often involving federal subunits with self-government and official language rights. France is a notable exception, though recent legislation has aimed to provide autonomy to Corsica. ##### 3.2.4.3 Immigrant groups In traditional "countries of immigration" like the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, the historical approach was assimilationist, expecting immigrants to adopt the prevailing way of life. Discriminatory policies excluded certain ethnic groups. Since the late 1960s, there has been a move towards race-neutral admissions criteria and a more "multicultural" conception of integration, where immigrants are encouraged to express their ethnic identities, and public institutions are expected to accommodate them. #### 3.2.5 Metics: Residents excluded from citizenship "Metics" is a term borrowed from Ancient Greece to describe long-term residents who are excluded from citizenship. This category includes individuals who enter a country illegally, as asylum-seekers, students, or "guest-workers" who have overstayed their visas. They were not initially conceived as future citizens but have settled permanently. Metics face significant obstacles to integration and often live on the margins of society. Their primary claim is for regularization of their status and access to citizenship. Western democracies have responded differently to this demand. Some countries, particularly those with a history of immigration, have granted permanent residence and citizenship to asylum-seekers and guest-workers, or offered periodic amnesties to illegal immigrants. Other countries, often those less accustomed to immigration, have resisted these demands due to legal complexities, a lack of integration infrastructure, or xenophobia. ### 3.3 Prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination represent significant challenges to humanity, often leading to profound hatred, torture, and murder. Understanding their causes and consequences is a critical endeavor. Despite technological advancements, preventing wars and conflicts fueled by prejudice remains a major hurdle. #### 3.3.1 Dehumanization and its consequences A particularly harmful aspect of prejudice is the dehumanization of outgroups, making atrocities against them seem akin to harming insects. Historical examples include Europeans viewing Asians as "strange and wondrous creatures" and a Chinese scholar describing Europeans as "tall beasts." Dehumanization can range from restricted opportunities to physical violence and genocide. #### 3.3.2 The paradox of prejudice Despite being socially undesirable and often leading to severe insults like "racist" or "bigot," prejudice pervades social life. Even in societies where prejudice is institutionalized, sophisticated justifications are used to mask it. The apartheid system in South Africa, for instance, was publicly presented as a recognition of cultural differences, while in reality, it was a system of institutionalized prejudice. Researchers view prejudice as doubly social: it involves people's feelings and actions towards others, guided by group memberships and historical intergroup relations. #### 3.3.3 Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behavior The term "prejudice" literally means "prejudgment." Traditionally, prejudice is understood as an attitude with three components: * **Cognitive:** Beliefs about the attitude object (a social group). * **Affective:** Strong feelings (usually negative) about the attitude object and its perceived qualities. * **Conative:** Intentions to behave in certain ways towards the attitude object. However, some definitions of prejudice also include discriminatory behavior. For example, one definition includes the holding of derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs, the expression of negative affect, or the display of hostile or discriminatory behavior towards members of a group solely because of their group membership. --- # Multiculturalism and recognition of diverse groups Multiculturalism and the recognition of diverse groups analyze how societies accommodate and integrate individuals and communities with varied cultural backgrounds, focusing on principles of recognition and accommodation. ### 4.1 Defining Diversity and Cultural Diversity Diversity refers to the coexistence of different group identities within the same social system, encompassing a wide range of differences including culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. Cultural diversity, in particular, is defined as a reality of coexistence of diverse knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, religions, languages, abilities and disabilities, genders, ethnicities, races, nationalities, and other human variations. It is not merely the existence of these differences but also how individuals and societies react to and choose to live with this reality. #### 4.1.1 The Nature of Cultural Diversity * **A Rich Tapestry:** Cultural diversity is often described as a beautiful tapestry that makes life rich and interesting, offering potential for educational and personal development through mutual enrichment. * **Interactions and Shared Values:** While people from different cultures interact daily in shared environments with common values and norms, their distinct languages, customs, and beliefs can also lead to misunderstandings, stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. * **Shift from Difference to Diversity:** The concept of "difference" (e.g., feminist, intercultural, integrative education focusing on gender, immigration, or disability) is evolving towards "diversity," which emphasizes multiplicity, overlapping, and crossing between sources of human variation, similar to how "biodiversity" refers to biological and ecological variations. * **Culture and Identity:** Culture is closely linked to identity, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities, presenting both opportunities and challenges for education and society. > **Tip:** Understanding cultural diversity requires acknowledging that it is not just about the presence of different groups but also about the dynamic interactions and the accommodation of varied perspectives and experiences. ### 4.2 Recognition and Belonging Human beings require recognition from one another to live with dignity, especially in a culturally diverse society. Recognition, in this context, relates to how people should treat each other and is considered a fundamental human need akin to courtesy. In societies where people with different cultures mix, providing everyone with a sense of belonging is crucial, and recognized culture is an indispensable element for cultivating this feeling. #### 4.2.1 The Ambiguity of "Recognition" While recognition is generally agreed upon as desirable for teaching about cultural diversity, there is no universal agreement on its precise meaning. It can encompass elementary recognition, respect, esteem, love, friendship, acknowledging and being acknowledged, and allowing coexistence and interplay. This ambiguity makes it challenging to define and implement recognition consistently. #### 4.2.2 Dimensions of Recognition Recognition can be understood through several dimensions: * **Political Recognition:** Focuses on the legal and political spheres, including citizenship and voting rights. It often involves combining recognition with redistribution to ensure equal participation in public life, irrespective of majority opinion. * **Social Recognition:** Requires different groups to recognize and respect each other's cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular Recognition:** Essential when minority cultures and identities are denigrated. It promotes an inclusive national narrative within curricula to foster unity among people from diverse backgrounds. It insists that fundamental diverse cultures and identities should be reflected in educational content. * **Personal Recognition:** Operates at individual and psychological levels, pertaining to how individuals are perceived and valued personally. ### 4.3 Principles of a Multicultural State The struggles for multiculturalism, though varied in their specific demands, generally share common principles: 1. **Shared State Ownership:** The repudiation of the idea that the state belongs to a single national group. Instead, the state must be viewed as belonging equally to all citizens. 2. **Recognition and Accommodation:** The rejection of assimilationist or exclusionary nation-building policies. Individuals should be able to access state institutions and participate in political life as full and equal citizens without denying their ethnocultural identity. The state has an obligation to accord the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups the same recognition and accommodation provided to the dominant group. 3. **Rectification of Past Injustices:** Acknowledging historical injustices committed against minority or non-dominant groups through older policies of assimilation and exclusion, and demonstrating a willingness to offer remedies or rectification. > **Tip:** These three principles form the bedrock of multicultural state aspirations: shared belonging, equal participation through recognition and accommodation, and making amends for historical wrongs. ### 4.4 Different Forms of Multiculturalism While abstract principles guide multiculturalism, their practical application varies significantly across countries and even among different minority groups within a single country. Three general trends, primarily observed in Western democracies, illustrate these variations: #### 4.4.1 Indigenous Peoples Historically, countries like Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia, Greenland, and the United States pursued policies aimed at the eventual disappearance of indigenous peoples as distinct communities through assimilation, land dispossession, cultural suppression, and undermining self-governance. However, starting in the early 1970s, a significant policy reversal occurred. Today, these nations generally recognize indigenous peoples as distinct societies within the larger country, with rights to land claims, cultural preservation (including customary law), and self-government to sustain their distinctiveness. #### 4.4.2 Substate/Minority Nationalisms This trend concerns regionally concentrated groups that perceive themselves as nations within larger states, such as the Québécois in Canada, Scots and Welsh in Britain, Catalans and Basques in Spain, Flemish in Belgium, South Tyroleans in Italy, and Puerto Ricans in the United States. Historically, these substate nationalisms were suppressed through measures like restricting minority language rights and abolishing regional self-government, as they were seen as threats to state integrity. The modern approach, however, involves accommodating these nationalist aspirations. This often manifests as multination and multilingual federalism, where minority groups gain self-government in federal or quasi-federal subunits, and their language is recognized as an official state language, at least regionally. France is noted as an exception, although recent legislation indicates a move towards granting autonomy to Corsica. #### 4.4.3 Immigrant Groups Immigrants are individuals and families who choose to relocate to another society, typically with the right to become citizens after a specified period, subject to minimal conditions like language proficiency and knowledge of the country. Traditional "countries of immigration" like the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand historically pursued assimilationist policies, expecting immigrants to adopt the dominant society's speech, dress, and way of life. Exclusionary laws, such as those barring Africans and Asians, reflected this approach. Since the late 1960s, there has been a shift towards race-neutral admissions criteria, leading to greater diversity in immigrant origins, and a multicultural conception of integration, where public institutions are expected to accommodate ethnic identities. #### 4.4.4 Metics Metics are migrants not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens. This heterogeneous group includes individuals who enter a country illegally, seek asylum, or overstay student or guest-worker visas. They are not initially intended as permanent residents but often settle long-term. While facing the threat of deportation, they form communities, engage in employment, and may form families. Borrowing from ancient Greek terminology, Michael Walzer uses "metics" to describe these long-term residents excluded from full political participation. Metics face significant legal, political, economic, social, and psychological obstacles to integration, often existing on the margins of society. Their primary claim is usually to regularize their status as permanent residents and gain access to citizenship. Some countries, particularly traditional immigrant nations, have responded by granting permanent residence and citizenship to asylum-seekers and offering amnesties to illegal immigrants. Conversely, countries without a tradition of immigration may resist these demands due to a lack of integration infrastructure and a more xenophobic outlook. --- # Prejudice, discrimination, and their nature Prejudice and discrimination are deeply ingrained social problems that involve negative attitudes and behaviors towards social groups, despite their pervasive presence and socially undesirable nature. ### 5.1 The nature of prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are considered significant challenges to humanity, hindering progress and causing immense suffering. Their impact ranges from limiting opportunities to instigating violence and genocide. #### 5.1.1 Defining prejudice The term "prejudice" literally means "prejudgment." Traditionally, prejudice is understood as an attitude towards a social group characterized by three components: * **Cognitive:** Beliefs held about the social group. * **Affective:** Strong feelings, typically negative, about the social group and its perceived qualities. * **Conative:** Intentions to behave in specific ways towards the social group. However, not all attitude theorists agree with this tripartite model. Some definitions of prejudice explicitly include discriminatory behavior. For example, one definition describes prejudice as holding derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs, expressing negative affect, or displaying hostile or discriminatory behavior towards members of a group due to their group membership. #### 5.1.2 Discriminatory behavior Discriminatory behavior is the outward manifestation of prejudice, involving actions taken against members of a social group based on their group affiliation. This can range from subtle exclusions to overt acts of hostility and violence. #### 5.1.3 The paradox of prejudice A key paradox concerning prejudice is its pervasive nature despite being widely considered socially undesirable. In liberal democratic societies, terms like "racist" and "bigot" are used as severe insults, indicating strong social disapproval. Nevertheless, most individuals encounter prejudice in various forms, from minor assumptions to blatant bigotry and violence. People often make assumptions about others' abilities and aspirations based on factors like age, ethnicity, race, or sex, and frequently find themselves making similar assumptions about others. This social undesirability coupled with widespread occurrence highlights the complex and deeply embedded nature of prejudice in social life. Even in societies where prejudice is institutionalized, sophisticated justifications are often employed to deny its existence. #### 5.1.4 Dehumanization as a component of prejudice A critical aspect of prejudice is the dehumanization of an outgroup. When individuals or groups are perceived as less than human, atrocities committed against them can be rationalized, akin to squishing an insect. This process of dehumanization has been historically prevalent, with examples of Europeans viewing people from China as "strange and wondrous creatures" and a Confucian scholar describing "Ocean Men" as beastly beings lacking human mental faculties. #### 5.1.5 The social context of prejudice For researchers, prejudice is inherently social. It involves people's feelings about and actions towards others, and these are shaped and contextualized by the groups to which individuals belong and the historical circumstances of intergroup relations. ### 5.2 Diversity and its relation to prejudice The increasing diversity in societies, characterized by a mixture of people with different group identities, presents both opportunities for mutual enrichment and challenges that can lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. #### 5.2.1 Cultural diversity Cultural diversity encompasses a wide range of differences, including culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. It is seen as a "beautiful tapestry of human experience" that enriches life. While diversity can foster personal and educational development through mutual enrichment, fundamental differences between cultures can also give rise to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. #### 5.2.2 The impact of identity politics and group divisions The division of people into various categories and partitions, such as through identity politics, can exacerbate feelings of being attacked, bullied, or discriminated against. This can create difficulties when different identities are not compatible and begin to compete, particularly when underlying prejudices and misconceptions exist, leading to resistance in living or cooperating together. #### 5.2.3 The need for understanding and recognition In increasingly diverse societies, understanding different cultures and identities is crucial for living and collaborating. This involves learning about others, diminishing misunderstandings, stereotypes, and biases, and transcending one's own perspectives to interact with and understand different ways of being. The denial of contributions from certain groups and their cultures and identities is viewed as dishonest and undermines the shared past of citizens. Recognition of one another is presented as a fundamental human need for dignity, especially in diverse societies. #### 5.2.4 Forms of recognition Recognition, as a courtesy and a courtesy, is crucial for fostering a sense of belonging in diverse societies. While there is agreement on its desirability, the specific meaning of recognition is debated and can range from elementary respect to actions of acknowledging and being acknowledged, allowing coexistence and interplay. Different levels of recognition are identified: * **Political recognition:** Focuses on legal and political areas, emphasizing equal participation in public life through combining recognition and redistribution. * **Social recognition:** Requires mutual recognition and respect for cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular recognition:** Advocates for inclusive national narratives in curricula to unite people of different cultures and identities, ensuring fundamental diverse cultures and identities are reflected. * **Personal recognition:** Operates at individual and psychological levels. #### 5.2.5 Multiculturalism and state policies The concept of a multicultural state involves repudiating the idea that the state belongs to a single national group and instead views it as belonging equally to all citizens. This leads to the rejection of assimilationist or exclusionary nation-building policies, promoting policies of recognition and accommodation for minority and non-dominant groups. Acknowledging historic injustice and offering amends is also a key element. ##### 5.2.5.1 Indigenous peoples Historically, policies aimed to assimilate or eliminate indigenous peoples as distinct communities. However, there has been a reversal, with a current principle accepting the indefinite existence of indigenous peoples as distinct societies and recognizing their rights to land, culture, and self-government. ##### 5.2.5.2 Substate/minority nationalisms Groups with a regional concentration and a sense of nationhood within a larger state have historically faced suppression. Modern approaches involve accommodating these identities through regional autonomy and official language rights, often through multination and multilingual federalism. ##### 5.2.5.3 Immigrant groups Traditional "countries of immigration" have shifted from assimilationist approaches to a more multicultural conception of integration. This involves race-neutral admissions criteria and an expectation that public institutions will accommodate visible ethnic identities. ##### 5.2.5.4 Metics Metics are migrants not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens, including those who entered illegally, as asylum-seekers, or as temporary workers who overstayed their visas. They often face deportation threats but form communities and engage in societal functions. Their primary claim is for regularization of status and access to citizenship, seeking an immigrant path to integration. Responses vary, with some countries grudgingly accepting these demands through amnesties or pathways to permanent residence and citizenship, while others resist due to a lack of integration infrastructure or xenophobia. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Culture | A complex whole encompassing knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by individuals as members of society. It includes shared patterns of behaviors, interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings learned through socialization. | | Subjectivity | In cultural studies, this refers to the examination of culture in relation to individual lives and the changes that occur within those lives, impacting an individual's overall way of life. | | Engaged Form of Analysis | An approach in cultural studies that recognizes societal inequalities in access to resources like education and healthcare, and actively works in the interests of those with fewer resources. | | Hegemony | A term describing relations of domination that are not overtly visible, involving both coercion and the consent of the dominated, often used to explain the popularity of certain political systems. | | Governmentality | A concept, associated with Michel Foucault, referring to a means by which conforming or "docile" citizens are produced, often through educational systems, acting as a form of governance. | | Semiotic Analysis | A method of analyzing culture by breaking it down into discrete messages, practices, or discourses that are distributed by institutions and media, treating cultural elements as signifiers with symbolic meanings. | | Ideology | The set of discourses and images that constitute the most widespread knowledge and values within a society, often perceived as "common sense," and which helps reproduce social and economic systems. | | Diversity | A mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system, encompassing variations in culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, and customs. | | Cultural Diversity | The coexistence of diverse knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, religions, languages, abilities and disabilities, genders, ethnicities, races, and nationalities of human beings, and the way people react to and live with this reality. | | Recognition | The act of acknowledging and valuing different cultures and identities, seen as a fundamental human need and a courtesy, essential for cultivating a sense of belonging and rectifying past injustices. | | Political Recognition | The acknowledgment and integration of cultures within legal and political frameworks, such as citizenship and voting rights, emphasizing equal participation in public life through combining recognition and redistribution. | | Social Recognition | The mutual recognition and respect of each other’s cultures and identities by different groups of people within the public sphere of a society. | | Curricular Recognition | The inclusion of diverse cultures and identities within educational curricula to promote an inclusive national narrative and foster a sense of unity among people from different backgrounds. | | Multicultural State | A state that rejects the idea of belonging to a single national group and instead is seen as belonging equally to all citizens, repudiating assimilationist policies and accommodating the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups. | | Indigenous Peoples | Distinct communities, such as Native American tribes, Aboriginal Australians, and the Maori of New Zealand, who have historically faced assimilationist policies but are increasingly recognized for their rights to land, culture, and self-government. | | Substate Nationalisms | The aspirations of regionally concentrated groups who conceive of themselves as nations within larger states, seeking recognition of their nationhood through independence or territorial autonomy, such as the Québécois in Canada. | | Immigrant Groups | People who move to another society with the intention of becoming citizens, traditionally expected to assimilate but increasingly accommodated within a multicultural conception of integration that embraces ethnic identity expression. | | Metics | Long-term residents who are not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens, including individuals present illegally, asylum-seekers, or guest-workers who have overstayed their visas, often excluded from full societal participation. | | Prejudice | Prejudgment or a negative attitude towards a social group, often involving cognitive beliefs, strong negative feelings, and intentions to behave in certain ways towards members of that group based on their membership. | | Discrimination | The act of treating individuals or groups unfairly based on their membership in a particular social group, often stemming from prejudiced attitudes and leading to restricted opportunities and violence. | | Dehumanization | The process of viewing individuals or groups as less than human, which can enable atrocities and violence against them by removing moral inhibitions and making harmful actions seem less significant. | | Prejudiced Attitudes | Beliefs, feelings, and intentions concerning a social group that are formed prior to thorough examination, often negative and leading to biased perceptions and behaviors. | | Discriminatory Behavior | Actions taken towards members of a group that are unfair or biased, directly resulting from prejudiced attitudes or beliefs, leading to unequal treatment and disadvantage. | | Cultural Studies | An academic discipline that examines culture in relation to individual lives, analyzing societal inequalities and advocating for those with fewer resources, moving beyond a narrow focus on "high culture" to encompass "a whole way of life." | | Subjectivity (in Cultural Studies) | A key feature of cultural studies that focuses on analyzing culture in relation to individual experiences and the transformations that occur in people's lives, impacting their overall way of living. | | Ideology (Althusserian/Lacanian) | The set of discourses and images that form the most widespread knowledge and values, considered "common sense," rather than simply beliefs that are disapproved of, essential for societal reproduction. | | Assimilation | An approach where immigrants are encouraged and expected to adopt the customs, speech, dress, and way of life of the pre-existing society, aiming to become indistinguishable from native-born citizens. | | Integration (Multicultural Conception) | A contemporary approach that expects immigrants to visibly express their ethnic identity and obliges public institutions to accommodate these identities, shifting from assimilationist expectations. | | Engaged Form of Analysis (in Cultural Studies) | An analytical approach in cultural studies that acknowledges societal inequalities and unequal access to resources, actively working in the interests of those with fewer resources. | | Stereotypes | Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about particular groups of people, often negative, that can lead to prejudice and discrimination. | | Accommodation | The process of making adjustments or providing support to meet the needs of different cultural groups or individuals, ensuring their full participation in public life. | | Multination Federalism | A governmental structure that creates federal or quasi-federal subunits where minority groups can form a local majority, exercise meaningful self-government, and have their language recognized as an official state language. | | Cognitive Component | In the context of prejudice, this refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and stereotypes individuals hold about a particular social group. | | Affective Component | In the context of prejudice, this refers to the strong feelings, emotions, and attitudes (usually negative) individuals experience towards a social group and the qualities they believe it possesses. | | Conative Component | In the context of prejudice, this refers to the intentions or predispositions to behave in certain ways towards a social group, representing an inclination to act rather than the action itself. | | Social Group | A collection of individuals who share a common identity and interact with each other based on that shared identity, serving as the object of prejudice. | | Prejudgment | The act of forming an opinion or belief about someone or something before having sufficient knowledge or evidence, which is the literal meaning of prejudice. | | Socially Undesirable | Behavior or attitudes that are generally disapproved of by society, such as prejudice, even though they may still be prevalent. | | Institutionalized Prejudice | Prejudice that is embedded within the structures and policies of organizations or societies, leading to systemic unfair treatment of certain groups. | | Intergroup Relations | The interactions and relationships between different social groups, which can be influenced by prejudice and discrimination. |

# Understanding culture and its definitions Culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that can be understood in various ways, ranging from simple behavioral patterns to intricate social constructions that shape group identity and societal structures. ## 1. Understanding culture and its definitions Culture is a complex phenomenon encompassing a wide range of human behaviors, beliefs, and creations. At its most basic, it can be defined as behavior, including language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, and ceremonies. ### 1.1 Core definitions of culture A foundational definition, as articulated by Edward Burnett Tylor, describes culture as "that complex of whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." This broad understanding emphasizes the learned and societal aspects of culture. Expanding on this, culture is also defined as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings that are learned through socialization. From this perspective, culture can be viewed as the development of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to that group. ### 1.2 Cultural studies and its characteristics As an academic field, cultural studies is characterized by two main features: * **Subjectivity:** This aspect examines culture in relation to individual lives and the changes that occur within them, influencing a person's overall way of life. * **Engaged analysis:** Early cultural studies recognized that societies are not structured equally and that individuals do not have uniform access to resources like education, money, or healthcare. This approach often worked in favor of those with fewer resources. Cultural studies distinguishes itself from a narrow definition of 'high culture' that assumes constant value. Raymond Williams, in his work *Culture and Society*, critiqued the separation of culture from society and 'high culture' from 'culture as a whole way of life,' while acknowledging that this separation could imbue modern culture with a unique energy. ### 1.3 Culture as hegemony and governmentality From the early 1970s, culture began to be understood as a form of "hegemony," a concept associated with Antonio Gramsci. Hegemony describes relations of domination that are not overtly visible, involving coercion coupled with the consent of the dominated. Gramsci used this concept to explain the popularity of fascism despite its curtailment of liberties. Because hegemonic forces adapt to changing social and cultural conditions, counter-hegemonic strategies must also be continuously revised. Michel Foucault's concept of "governmentality" also relates to culture, viewing it as a means of producing conforming or "docile" citizens, often through educational systems. As culture was increasingly seen as an apparatus within larger systems of domination rather than an expression of local communal lives, cultural studies offered critiques of its hegemonic effects. #### 1.3.1 Semiotic analysis of culture Initially, these critiques heavily relied on semiotic analysis, breaking down culture into discrete messages or "dignifying practices or discourses" disseminated by institutions and media. For example, a semiotic analysis of cigarette smoking among workers would not just view it as a life practice but as a signifier produced by images (e.g., the "Marlboro Man") that symbolize masculinity, freedom, and escape from daily work life. ### 1.4 Ideology and common sense Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan proposed that individuals are constructs of ideology. Ideology, in this context, refers not to beliefs one disapproves of, but to the set of discourses and images that form the most widespread knowledge and values, often termed "common sense." For the state and capitalism to reproduce themselves without revolutionary threats, ideology is considered essential. This perspective posits that dominant ideology makes political, partial, and changeable matters appear "natural," universal, and eternal, thereby protecting exploitative "relations of production" and class differences necessary for capitalism. ### 1.5 Diversity and its implications Diversity, encompassing culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity, enriches human experience. It is defined as "a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system." In a world with significant global migration, societies are increasingly composed of many cultures, presenting both opportunities for mutual enrichment and challenges related to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. #### 1.5.1 Understanding difference and diversity The term 'diversity' is often used ambiguously. While 'difference' suggests clear distinctions, 'diversity' emphasizes multiplicity, overlap, and intersectionality among sources of human variation. This is analogous to how "biodiversity" refers to biological and ecological variations. Culture is closely linked to identity, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities, creating both opportunities and challenges for education and society. Understanding different cultures and identities is crucial for living together and collaborating, requiring individuals to learn about other perspectives to diminish misunderstandings and biases. #### 1.5.2 Challenges and conflicts arising from diversity Difficulties can arise when different identities are not compatible or compete with each other, especially when underlying prejudices and misconceptions lead to resistance to living together or cooperating. The struggle for social justice and human rights, aimed at rectifying past injustices and promoting equity and inclusion, can be challenging amidst conflicts fueled by misunderstandings and fears towards different cultures and identities. ### 1.6 Cultural diversity as a concept and policy Cultural diversity is used in various contexts: * **Sociology and everyday life:** Sometimes synonymous with ethnic pluralism. * **Philosophy, politics, and education:** Used as a theory, policy, and curriculum. The core theme in discussions of cultural diversity, regardless of its form, is equity and justice. This can range from respecting all cultures to maintaining diversity, recognizing all identities, and transforming social systems. #### 1.6.1 Recognition of cultures and identities Recognizing different cultures and identities is a major approach to acknowledging and rectifying past injustices where the contributions of some groups and individuals, along with their cultures and identities, have been denied or ignored. This is particularly relevant in immigrant-rich nations, where denying these contributions undermines the shared past of citizens. Admitting past wrongs is seen as essential for rectification and creating a just and inclusive environment. Recognition, a fundamental human need, is crucial for fostering a sense of belonging in a diverse society. However, there is no universal agreement on its meaning, which can encompass elementary recognition, respect, esteem, love, friendship, acknowledgment, and allowing coexistence. ##### 1.6.1.1 Forms of recognition Recognition can manifest in several ways: * **Political recognition:** Encompasses legal and political areas like citizenship and voting rights, emphasizing combining recognition with redistribution for equal participation. * **Social recognition:** Requires mutual recognition and respect for cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular recognition:** Advocates for an inclusive national narrative in curricula to unite people with different cultures and identities, ensuring that fundamental diverse cultures and identities are reflected. ##### 1.6.1.2 Multicultural states and policies The concept of a multicultural state involves: 1. **Repudiation of a single national group's ownership:** The state is viewed as belonging equally to all citizens. 2. **Replacement of assimilationist policies:** Nation-building policies that assimilate or exclude minority groups are rejected. Instead, individuals should access state institutions and act as full citizens without denying their ethnocultural identity. 3. **Acknowledgment of historical injustice:** Past assimilationist and exclusionary policies are recognized, with a willingness to offer remedies or rectification. ##### 1.6.1.3 Trends in multiculturalism Different forms of multiculturalism emerge when examining specific countries, but general trends include: * **Treatment of indigenous peoples:** A reversal from assimilationist policies to recognizing their right to exist as distinct societies with land claims, cultural rights, and self-government. * **Substate/minority nationalisms:** A shift from suppressing regionally concentrated groups with distinct nationhood aspirations to accommodating them through regional autonomy and official language rights, often via multination and multilingual federalism. * **Immigrant groups:** A move from assimilationist approaches to race-neutral admissions and a more "multicultural" conception of integration, where public institutions accommodate ethnic identities. * **Metics:** Refers to migrants not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens (e.g., undocumented individuals, asylum-seekers, overstayed visa holders). Their primary claim is often regularization of status and access to citizenship, presenting challenges for countries lacking integration infrastructure or with xenophobic tendencies. ### 1.7 Prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are significant global problems involving dehumanization, leading to restricted opportunities, violence, and genocide. Prejudice, literally meaning "prejudgment," is typically viewed as an attitude with cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and conative (intentions to behave) components. However, some definitions also include discriminatory behavior. Prejudice pervades social life, even when institutionalized and justified through sophisticated arguments, such as the apartheid system being publicly presented as a recognition of cultural differences. Researchers consider prejudice as doubly social, involving feelings and actions towards others, guided by group affiliations and historical circumstances. --- # Culture as a tool of power and analysis Culture is a complex construct that functions not only as a reflection of societal norms and behaviors but also as a potent instrument of power and a subject of critical analysis. ### 2.1 Understanding culture Culture can be broadly defined as shared patterns of behaviors, interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings learned through socialization. It encompasses elements such as language, ideas, beliefs, customs, laws, institutions, art, rituals, and everyday habits acquired by individuals as members of a society. This shared understanding fosters a group identity unique to its members. #### 2.1.1 Early approaches to cultural studies Early cultural studies were characterized by two main features: * **Subjectivity:** This approach examined culture in relation to individual lives and how changes within those lives impact an individual's overall way of being. * **Engaged analysis:** This perspective recognized that societies are not structured equally, and individuals do not possess the same access to resources like education or healthcare. Therefore, cultural studies worked in the interests of those with fewer resources. It is crucial to avoid reducing culture to merely "high culture," which implies a fixed value across time and space. Instead, culture should be understood as a "whole way of life." ### 2.2 Culture as hegemony and governmentality From the early 1970s, culture began to be viewed as a mechanism of "hegemony" and "governmentality," concepts associated with theorists like Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault, respectively. #### 2.2.1 Hegemony Hegemony describes relations of domination that are not overtly coercive but rather involve the consent of the dominated. Gramsci used this concept to explain the widespread popularity of fascism in Italy, even though it curtailed liberties. Because hegemonic forces adapt to changing social and cultural conditions, counter-hegemonic strategies must also be continuously revised. #### 2.2.2 Governmentality Governmentality, as conceptualized by Foucault, views culture as a means to produce conforming or "docile" citizens, often through systems like education. As culture was increasingly seen as an apparatus within larger systems of domination rather than merely an expression of local lives, cultural studies began critiquing its hegemonic effects. ### 2.3 Semiotics and ideology in cultural analysis Initial critiques of culture's hegemonic effects relied heavily on semiotic analysis, which involved breaking down culture into discrete messages or "discourses" disseminated by institutions and media. #### 2.3.1 Semiotics in practice A semiotic analysis might examine practices not as mere ways of life but as signifiers that carry meaning. For instance, smoking could be analyzed not just as a habit but as a signifier associated with masculinity, freedom, or transcendence, often produced through media imagery. #### 2.3.2 Ideology According to thinkers like Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan, individuals are constructs of ideology. Ideology, in this context, refers not to beliefs that are disapproved of but to the widespread knowledge and values that form "common sense." It is essential for the reproduction of the state and capitalism by masking exploitative "relations of production" and class differences. Dominant ideology can transform political, partial, and changeable aspects of society into something that appears "natural," universal, and eternal. ### 2.4 Cultural diversity and its implications Culture is intrinsically linked to identity. The increasing diversity of cultures within societies presents both opportunities and challenges. #### 2.4.1 Defining diversity Diversity refers to "a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system." It encompasses not only culture and ethnicity but also differences in physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. > **Tip:** While "difference" focuses on distinguishing traits, "diversity" emphasizes multiplicity, overlapping, and crossing between sources of human variation. #### 2.4.2 Challenges and opportunities of diversity The coexistence of diverse cultures can lead to mutual enrichment, allowing for the exchange of languages, customs, histories, and beliefs. However, fundamental cultural differences can also result in stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Difficulties arise when different identities are incompatible and compete, especially when underlying prejudices exist, hindering cooperation and coexistence. #### 2.4.3 Recognition and equity Recognizing different cultures and their associated identities is seen as a crucial first step towards addressing past injustices and rectifying the denial of contributions from certain groups. This recognition is a fundamental human need for dignity, fostering a sense of belonging. > **Example:** In multicultural states, recognizing and accommodating the histories, languages, and cultures of non-dominant groups alongside the dominant group is essential for fostering equity and inclusion. ##### 2.4.3.1 Forms of recognition Recognition can manifest in various forms: * **Political recognition:** Acknowledgment of cultures in legal and political spheres, including citizenship and voting rights, emphasizing equal participation in public life. * **Social recognition:** Mutual recognition and respect for cultures and identities in the public sphere by different societal groups. * **Curricular recognition:** Inclusion of diverse cultures and identities in educational curricula to promote an inclusive national narrative and bond people together. * **Personal recognition:** Individual and psychological acknowledgment and respect for different identities. #### 2.4.4 Multiculturalism and state policy The concept of multiculturalism has evolved to address the complexities of diverse societies, influencing policies related to state reforms, nation-building, and the accommodation of minority and non-dominant groups. A multicultural state generally embraces the idea that the state belongs equally to all citizens and repudiates assimilationist or exclusionary nation-building policies. It also acknowledges historic injustices and demonstrates a willingness to offer remedies. ##### 2.4.4.1 Trends in multiculturalism Three general trends in multiculturalism have emerged, primarily observed in Western democracies: 1. **Indigenous Peoples:** A shift from policies aimed at the disappearance of indigenous communities to recognizing their right to exist as distinct societies with land claims, cultural rights, and self-government. 2. **Substate/Minority Nationalisms:** A move from suppressing regionally concentrated groups with a sense of nationhood to accommodating their aspirations through regional autonomy and official language rights. This often involves forms of "multination and multilingual federalism." 3. **Immigrant Groups:** A transition from assimilationist approaches to a more "multicultural" conception of integration, where public institutions accommodate visible ethnic identities. This includes race-neutral admissions and naturalization policies. ##### 2.4.4.2 Metics Metics are migrants who are not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens, including undocumented individuals, asylum-seekers, or temporary workers who have overstayed their visas. Despite facing significant obstacles to integration, they often form settled communities. Their primary claim is to regularize their status and gain access to citizenship, seeking an "immigrant path" to mainstream society. Western democracies have responded to this demand with varying degrees of acceptance, offering amnesties or permanent residence, while others resist due to a lack of established integration processes or xenophobic tendencies. ### 2.5 Prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are significant global challenges, hindering human progress and causing immense suffering. #### 2.5.1 Nature of prejudice Prejudice, meaning "prejudgment," is typically understood as an attitude towards a social group. It is often characterized by three components: * **Cognitive:** Beliefs about the attitude object (the social group). * **Affective:** Strong feelings (usually negative) about the attitude object and its perceived qualities. * **Conative:** Intentions to behave in certain ways towards the attitude object. Some definitions also include discriminatory behavior as part of prejudice. Prejudice involves the dehumanization of an outgroup, making atrocities against them seem less significant. Despite being socially undesirable, prejudice pervades social life, often justified by sophisticated rationalizations. #### 2.5.2 Causes and consequences of prejudice Prejudice is deeply rooted in social psychology and intergroup relations. It can range from minor assumptions to severe bigotry and violence, affecting opportunities, narrowing horizons, and leading to physical harm or genocide. Researchers view prejudice as "doubly social" because it involves feelings and actions towards others, guided by group affiliations and historical contexts. > **Tip:** Understanding the paradoxical nature of prejudice—being socially undesirable yet pervasive—is key to analyzing its role in power dynamics and social structures. #### 2.5.3 Institutionalized prejudice Even in societies where prejudice is institutionalized, justifications are employed to deny its existence. The apartheid system in South Africa is a classic example, publicly presented as a recognition of cultural differences while actually being a system of institutionalized prejudice. --- # The concept and implications of diversity Diversity refers to a broad spectrum of human differences within the same social system, encompassing not only culture and ethnicity but also variations in physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. ### 3.1 Defining diversity Culture itself is broadly defined as behavior, encompassing language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, and ceremonies. More formally, culture can be understood as a complex whole of knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired by individuals as members of society. It is also defined as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings learned through socialization, fostering a group's unique identity. The concept of diversity has become increasingly prominent, particularly with the significant global migration. The presence of diverse cultures in societies and workplaces enriches human experience, creating a "beautiful tapestry of human experience." However, fundamental cultural differences can also lead to challenges. > **Tip:** Diversity is not merely about visible differences; it includes a wide range of characteristics and identities. ### 3.2 The presence and richness of diversity Diversity is a ubiquitous reality in all societies and workplaces. It is characterized by a "mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system." This includes: * Culture and ethnicity * Differences in physical abilities/qualities * Class * Religious beliefs * Traditions and customs * Sexual orientation * Gender identity The interaction of these diverse elements holds significant potential for personal and educational development. Mutual enrichment occurs through the exchange of languages, customs, historical memories, and beliefs. This exchange is often facilitated by shared values and norms that enable coexistence in everyday situations. > **Example:** In a classroom setting, students from various cultural backgrounds bring different perspectives and approaches to learning, enriching the educational experience for everyone. ### 3.3 Challenges presented by diversity While diversity is a source of richness, it also presents challenges. Fundamental differences in cultures can give rise to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. The division of people into various categories, often fueled by identity politics, can lead to feelings of being attacked, bullied, or discriminated against. Difficulties arise when different identities are not compatible or must compete with each other. Underlying prejudices and misconceptions about different cultures can hinder people with diverse identities from coexisting and cooperating effectively. This can be particularly disheartening for those who have fought against exclusion and for social justice and human rights. ### 3.4 The evolution of diversity as a concept The term "diversity" is often used ambiguously in discussions about multiculturalism, identity politics, anti-discrimination policies, and education. It can refer to any approach that recognizes differences, such as distinctions based on gender, immigration, or disability. However, an overemphasis on specific sources of difference can create challenges in including other, less visible "sources of difference" and addressing their intersections. Consequently, the notion of "difference," which suggests clear distinctions, is gradually being replaced by "diversity," which emphasizes multiplicity, overlap, and the crossing of human variations. This concept is increasingly defined in relation to social and cultural variation, analogous to "biodiversity" in biological contexts. Culture is closely linked to identity, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities, which in turn bring both opportunities and challenges. Understanding different perspectives and learning about other cultures and identities are crucial for diminishing misunderstandings, stereotypes, biases, and discrimination. ### 3.5 Multiculturalism and recognition In sociology and everyday life, cultural diversity is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnic pluralism. However, in philosophy, politics, and education, it often functions as a theory, policy, and curriculum. The core themes in discussions of cultural diversity consistently revolve around equity and justice, with varying interpretations ranging from showing equal respect for all cultures to recognizing all identities associated with cultures and transforming social systems. Cultural diversity extends beyond the mere coexistence of diverse human characteristics; it also encompasses how people react to this reality and choose to live together. Movements advocating for cultural diversity, such as civil rights movements, highlight the importance of recognizing different cultures and identities as a means of acknowledging and rectifying past injustices where the contributions of certain groups were denied or ignored. > **Tip:** Recognition is considered a fundamental human need, crucial for fostering a sense of belonging, especially in diverse societies. The idea of recognition, while agreed upon as desirable, lacks a universal definition. It can encompass elementary recognition, respect, esteem, love, friendship, acknowledgment, and the allowance of coexistence and interplay. This multifaceted nature makes recognition a concept that is challenging to define and implement consistently. ### 3.6 Frameworks for understanding diversity Recognizing different cultures and identities is seen as a primary step in teaching about cultural diversity. This recognition can be approached through various levels: * **Political recognition:** This involves the acknowledgment of cultures in legal and political spheres, such as in citizenship and voting rights. It emphasizes combining recognition with redistribution to ensure equal participation in public life. * **Social recognition:** This requires different groups within society to recognize and respect each other's cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular recognition:** This is essential for fostering an inclusive national narrative in curricula, helping to unite people from diverse backgrounds. It advocates for fundamental diverse cultures and identities to be reflected in educational content. #### 3.6.1 Principles of a multicultural state Regardless of the specific context, struggles for multiculturalism generally share common principles: 1. **Repudiation of dominant group ownership:** The state is viewed as belonging equally to all citizens, rather than being the possession of a single national group. 2. **Rejection of assimilationist policies:** Nation-building policies that assimilate or exclude minority or non-dominant groups are rejected. Instead, individuals should have access to state institutions and be able to act as full and equal citizens without compromising their ethnocultural identity. The state has an obligation to accord the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups the same recognition and accommodation as the dominant group. 3. **Acknowledgment of historical injustice:** Past wrongs done to minority/non-dominant groups through assimilation and exclusion are acknowledged, with a willingness to offer remedies or rectification. #### 3.6.2 Trends in multiculturalism Several general trends emerge in how Western democracies deal with diversity: **Indigenous Peoples:** Historically, policies aimed to assimilate or eliminate indigenous peoples as distinct communities. However, there has been a significant reversal, with contemporary policies acknowledging the right of indigenous peoples to exist as distinct societies, including rights to land claims, cultural preservation, and self-government. **Substate/Minority Nationalisms:** Groups that perceive themselves as nations within larger states have historically faced suppression. Modern approaches have shifted towards accommodating these national identities through "multination and multilingual federalism," involving regional autonomy and official language rights. **Immigrant Groups:** Traditionally, immigrant countries (e.g., United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand) adopted assimilationist approaches. However, since the late 1960s, there has been a shift towards race-neutral admissions criteria and a more multicultural conception of integration, where public institutions are expected to accommodate ethnic identities. **Metics (Migrants without permanent residency rights):** This heterogeneous category includes individuals such as illegal immigrants, asylum-seekers, and overstaying guest-workers. They often face significant obstacles to integration. Their primary claim is often to regularize their status and gain access to citizenship, seeking the same integration path as immigrants. Responses vary across countries, with some offering amnesties and permanent residency, while others resist these demands due to a lack of integration infrastructure or xenophobic attitudes. ### 3.7 Prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are significant global problems. Prejudice involves the dehumanization of an outgroup, making atrocities against them seem less severe. It is a pervasive aspect of social life, even in societies where it is institutionalized. #### 3.7.1 Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behavior Prejudice, literally meaning "prejudgment," is typically considered an attitude towards a social group. A traditional view suggests prejudice has three components: * **Cognitive:** Beliefs about the attitude object (social group). * **Affective:** Strong, usually negative, feelings towards the attitude object. * **Conative:** Intentions to behave in certain ways towards the attitude object. However, other definitions incorporate discriminatory behavior, defining prejudice as holding derogatory social attitudes or beliefs, expressing negative affect, or displaying hostile or discriminatory behavior towards members of a group due to their group membership. > **Example:** Assuming all individuals of a certain age lack technological proficiency is a cognitive component of prejudice, potentially leading to affective negative feelings and conative intentions to avoid interacting with them in tech-related contexts. --- # Multiculturalism and its contemporary forms Multiculturalism represents a significant shift from assimilationist policies towards the recognition and accommodation of diverse cultural groups, including indigenous peoples, substate nationalisms, and immigrant communities. ### 4.1 The evolution of multiculturalism The concept of multiculturalism emerged as a response to the limitations and injustices of earlier policies that prioritized assimilation. This evolution is characterized by a repudiation of the idea that the state is solely the possession of a single national group and a move towards recognizing the equal belonging of all citizens. #### 4.1.1 Repudiation of assimilationist policies Historically, nation-building efforts often involved assimilationist policies aimed at integrating minority or non-dominant groups into the prevailing culture. These policies frequently led to the suppression of distinct identities, languages, and customs. Contemporary multiculturalism fundamentally rejects this approach, advocating instead for policies that allow individuals to access state institutions and participate in political life without having to conceal their ethnocultural identity. #### 4.1.2 Recognition and accommodation of diverse groups A core tenet of modern multiculturalism is the state's obligation to accord the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups the same recognition and accommodation given to the dominant group. This also involves acknowledging and rectifying past injustices resulting from assimilationist and exclusionary policies. ### 4.2 Contemporary forms of multiculturalism While abstract principles of multiculturalism are common, their practical application manifests in various forms depending on the specific context of a country and its minority groups. The document highlights three primary trends in Western democracies: #### 4.2.1 Indigenous peoples Historically, countries with indigenous populations (e.g., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States) pursued policies aimed at their eventual disappearance as distinct communities through assimilation, land dispossession, and suppression of cultural practices. However, since the early 1970s, there has been a reversal. Contemporary approaches, in principle, recognize the enduring existence of indigenous peoples as distinct societies. This includes acknowledging their land claims, cultural rights (including customary law), and self-government rights necessary for their sustenance. > **Tip:** The shift in policy towards indigenous peoples signifies a move from aiming for their assimilation to recognizing their right to exist as distinct cultural entities within the larger nation-state. #### 4.2.2 Substate/minority nationalisms This trend concerns regionally concentrated groups that identify as nations within larger states, often seeking independence or territorial autonomy. Examples include the Québécois in Canada, the Scots and Welsh in Britain, and the Catalans and Basques in Spain. Previously, states suppressed these nationalisms, viewing them as threats to state unity, by restricting language rights and regional self-government. The contemporary approach involves accommodating these national identities through measures like: * **Multination and multilingual federalism:** Creating federal or quasi-federal subunits where minority groups can exercise meaningful self-government. * **Official language rights:** Recognizing the minority group's language as an official state language, at least within their region. > **Example:** France is noted as an exception to this trend, having historically resisted granting autonomy to its substate nationalist group in Corsica, although recent legislative efforts have aimed to address this. #### 4.2.3 Immigrant groups Immigrant groups are defined by individuals and families choosing to emigrate, with the right to become citizens after a period of time and meeting certain conditions (e.g., language proficiency, knowledge of civic institutions). This has been the traditional policy in countries of immigration like the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In the past, these countries pursued an **assimilationist approach**, expecting immigrants to adopt the prevailing culture. However, since the late 1960s, a significant change has occurred: * **Race-neutral admissions criteria:** Immigration policies have become colorblind, leading to increased immigration from non-European societies. * **Multicultural conception of integration:** Public institutions are now expected to accommodate the ethnic identities of immigrants, who are encouraged to express their heritage visibly and proudly. This marks a shift from discriminatory to race-neutral admissions and from assimilation to a more multicultural understanding of integration. #### 4.2.4 Metics (a fourth trend) Metics are migrants who are not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens. This diverse category includes individuals who enter a country illegally, asylum-seekers, or temporary visa holders (e.g., students, guest-workers) who have overstayed their permits. Despite not being conceived as future citizens, many have settled permanently. Key characteristics and challenges for metics include: * **Precarious status:** They often face the threat of deportation. * **Community formation:** They form sizeable communities and engage in employment, though sometimes illegally. * **Integration obstacles:** They encounter significant legal, political, economic, social, and psychological barriers to integration. * **Core demand:** Their primary claim is for regularization of their status as permanent residents and eventual access to citizenship, essentially seeking the same integration path as immigrants. Western democracies have responded differently to this demand, with some (particularly traditional immigration countries) grudgingly accepting these claims through amnesties or pathways to permanent residence. Others, especially those not identifying as immigration countries, have resisted, often due to a lack of integration infrastructure, legal complexities, or xenophobic tendencies. --- # Prejudice and discrimination: nature and dimensions Prejudice and discrimination are pervasive and profoundly problematic aspects of human social life, characterized by their dehumanizing effects and a paradox of social undesirability versus widespread occurrence. ### 5.1 The nature of prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are identified as significant challenges facing humanity, contributing to immense pain and suffering globally. They range from limiting opportunities to instigating physical violence and genocide. #### 5.1.1 Dehumanization as a core aspect A particularly harmful element of prejudice is the dehumanization of an outgroup, which can make atrocities against them seem comparable to squishing an insect. Historical examples illustrate how different groups have been viewed as less than human, facilitating severe mistreatment. #### 5.1.2 The paradox of social undesirability and pervasiveness Despite being widely considered an unpalatable aspect of human behavior in many liberal democratic societies, with terms like "racist" and "bigot" used as severe insults, prejudice is experienced by almost everyone in some form. Assumptions about individuals based on group membership (e.g., age, ethnicity, race, sex) are common, both in terms of making such assumptions and automatically acting upon them. This creates a paradox where prejudice is socially undesirable yet permeates social life. Even in societies where prejudice is institutionalized, sophisticated justifications are often employed to deny its presence. #### 5.1.3 Prejudice as a prejudgment The term "prejudice" literally translates to "prejudgment," and it is typically understood as an attitude directed towards a social group. This attitude object can be broad, encompassing groups like "Americans," "politicians," or "musicians." ### 5.2 Components of prejudiced attitudes A traditional view posits that prejudiced attitudes comprise three core components: * **Cognitive:** This refers to the beliefs an individual holds about the attitude object (the social group). * **Affective:** This involves the strong feelings, usually negative, experienced towards the attitude object and its perceived qualities. * **Conative:** This component relates to the intentions to behave in specific ways towards the attitude object. It is crucial to note that this is an intention to act, not the action itself. > **Tip:** While the tripartite model is a traditional perspective, not all attitude theorists agree with its inclusion of the conative component as a defining element of prejudice. Some definitions also integrate discriminatory behavior. #### 5.2.1 Alternative definitions of prejudice Some definitions of prejudice encompass discriminatory behavior, such as the one proposed by Brown. According to this view, prejudice includes: * Holding derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs. * Expressing negative affect. * Displaying hostile or discriminatory behavior towards members of a group specifically because of their membership in that group. ### 5.3 Prejudice and discrimination in broader social contexts Prejudice is a subject of research in its own right and draws upon various areas of social psychology. It is considered "doubly social" as it involves individuals' feelings and actions toward others, guided and contextualized by the groups to which they belong and the historical circumstances of their intergroup relations. #### 5.3.1 Institutionalized prejudice Even when prejudice is institutionalized, as seen in historical systems like apartheid in South Africa, it has been publicly framed using justifications that deny its prejudiced nature, such as claims of recognizing and respecting cultural differences. > **Example:** The system of apartheid was presented as a recognition of and respect for cultural differences, a classic case of institutionalized prejudice, despite its inherent discriminatory practices. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Culture | Behavior that includes language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, and ceremonies, representing a complex whole acquired by an individual as a member of society. | | Subjectivity (in Cultural Studies) | A feature of cultural studies that examines culture in relation to individual lives and the changes that occur within them, impacting an individual's overall way of life. | | Engaged form of analysis (in Cultural Studies) | An analytical approach in cultural studies that acknowledges societal inequalities in access to resources like education and healthcare, and works in the interests of those with fewer resources. | | Hegemony | A term describing relations of domination that are not overtly apparent, involving both coercion and the consent of the dominated group, often used to explain the persistence of certain political systems. | | Governmentality | A concept suggesting that culture functions as a means to produce conforming or docile citizens, often through mechanisms like the educational system. | | Semiotic analysis | A method of analyzing culture by breaking it down into discrete messages or signifiers, examining how images and symbols convey meaning beyond their literal function. | | Ideology | In a broad sense, a set of discourses and images that constitute widespread knowledge and values, often referred to as 'common sense', which helps to reproduce social structures and institutions. | | Diversity | The presence of a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system, encompassing variations in culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religion, sexual orientation, and gender identity. | | Cultural diversity | The coexistence of diverse knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, religions, languages, abilities, disabilities, genders, ethnicities, races, and nationalities within a society, as well as people's reactions to this reality. | | Recognition (in multiculturalism) | The act of acknowledging and valuing different cultures and identities, seen as a fundamental human need and a crucial step towards fostering a sense of belonging and rectifying past injustices. | | Political recognition | The acknowledgment of cultures and identities within legal and political frameworks, such as citizenship rights and participation in public life, often linked with redistribution of resources. | | Social recognition | The mutual recognition and respect between different groups of people for each other's cultures and identities within the public sphere of a society. | | Curricular recognition | The inclusion of diverse cultures and identities within educational curricula to promote an inclusive national narrative and bond people with different backgrounds together. | | Multicultural state | A political entity that recognizes the equal belonging of all citizens, rejects assimilationist or exclusionary nation-building policies, and accords recognition and accommodation to non-dominant groups. | | Indigenous Peoples | Original inhabitants of a territory who are recognized as distinct societies within a larger country, often with rights to land claims, cultural practices, and self-government. | | Substate nationalisms | Nationalist movements originating from regionally concentrated groups within a larger state who identify as a nation and seek recognition of their nationhood, either through independence or autonomy. | | Metics | Long-term residents of a country who are not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens, often including individuals who entered illegally, as asylum-seekers, or as temporary workers who have overstayed their visas. | | Prejudice | The holding of prejudgments or preconceived opinions, often negative, about individuals based on their membership in a particular social group, involving cognitive beliefs, affective feelings, and conative intentions. | | Discrimination | The act of treating individuals or groups unfairly based on their membership in a particular social group, often stemming from prejudiced attitudes. | | Dehumanization | The process of perceiving members of an outgroup as less than human, which can facilitate atrocities and other forms of severe prejudice and violence. |