Revision Sheet - TWO.docx

# Contact and interaction between cultures Contact between cultures is a fundamental aspect of human societies, driven by increasing global interconnectedness. While intercultural contact can be a source of enrichment and beneficial change, it also holds the potential for conflict, especially when perceived threats and historical animosities arise. Even brief encounters can inadvertently reinforce stereotypes and prejudices due to various factors such as language barriers, pre-existing biases, ethnocentrism, intergroup anxiety, and a history of conflict. ## 1. Contact and interaction between cultures ### 1.1 Communication, language, and speech style Language barriers represent a significant obstacle to comfortable intercultural encounters. When individuals cannot communicate effectively in the dominant language of a society, they face a major hurdle. Even nuances in accent and speech style can affect how attentively native speakers listen to those with foreign accents, potentially exacerbating negative stereotypes. ### 1.2 Perceived cultural difference and non-verbal behavior The magnitude of perceived cultural difference significantly influences intercultural contact. A greater perceived dissimilarity between cultures often leads to a desire for social distance, reducing the likelihood of developing intercultural connections. Cultural differences extend to non-verbal communication, including: * **Facial display rules:** Used to communicate emotions in culturally specific ways. * **Kinesics:** Body language and gestures that reflect cultural background. * **Touching and interpersonal distance:** Variations in physical proximity and contact. * **Mutual gaze:** Differences in eye contact rates during social interactions, for example, less mutual gaze observed in some East Asian samples compared to Western samples during interviews. Actions considered normal in one culture can violate moral standards in another, and breaches of cultural norms are often unintentional, leading to misunderstandings and offense. ### 1.3 Acculturation and cultural change When people migrate, they inevitably come into contact with host cultures and other immigrant groups. This extended contact leads to acculturation, the process of internalizing the behavioral characteristics of another culture, and potentially large-scale culture change. Immigrant groups face choices regarding the form this change takes, primarily between assimilation (giving up home culture for the dominant one) and separatism (maintaining home culture in isolation). Culture change also affects indigenous peoples. Acculturation can result in acculturative stress, particularly when ethnic minorities experience depression due to the erosion of their culture. Individuals undergoing acculturation may develop dual identities or multicultural minds, allowing them to access multiple self-concepts and adapt them based on context. #### 1.3.1 Berry's four paths to acculturation Cross-cultural psychologist John Berry identified four acculturation strategies based on the degree of maintenance of home culture and engagement with the dominant culture: 1. **Integration:** Maintaining home culture while also relating to the dominant culture. This is the most popular path and is associated with the least stress. 2. **Assimilation:** Giving up home culture and fully embracing the dominant culture. 3. **Separation:** Maintaining home culture and remaining isolated from the dominant culture. 4. **Marginalization:** Giving up home culture and failing to relate effectively to the dominant culture. Integration is favored by theories of intergroup relations that promote harmony and stability, where diverse groups can coexist within a superordinate culture, fostering a sense of cooperation rather than competition. However, integration is a time-consuming process and can conflict with the host culture's frequent expectation of assimilation. ### 1.4 Individualism and collectivism Cultural values, as studied by researchers like Hofstede, differentiate societies. At an individual level, these concepts are described by Triandis as: * **Allocentrism:** Individual-level collectivism, characterized by cooperation, social support, equality, and honesty. * **Idiocentrism:** Individual-level individualism, characterized by a need for achievement, anomie, alienation, loneliness, and values like a comfortable life, pleasure, and social recognition. Cultures differ in the prevalence of situations that call for allocentric or idiocentric behavior. Collectivist cultures present more situations requiring allocentrism, while individualistic cultures present more situations requiring idiocentrism. Traditional and agrarian societies were predominantly collectivist, with a gradual shift towards individualism. #### 1.4.1 Characterizing cultures by relationships Fiske's relational theory proposes four elementary models that cultures use to structure social interactions: 1. **Communal sharing (CS):** Group solidarity and corporate identity, where the group transcends the individual (e.g., lovers, teams, families). 2. **Authority ranking (AR):** Defined by precedence and a linear hierarchy (e.g., tradition of filial piety). 3. **Equality matching (EM):** Based on balance in social exchange and reciprocity (e.g., tit-for-tat, egalitarianism). 4. **Market pricing (MP):** Based on proportional outcomes and cost-benefit calculations (e.g., prices, rents, salaries). These models act as cognitive schemas, available for use within a culture and shaping understandings of work, resource distribution, time, and land. There is a link between these relational models and cultural variations in independence and interdependence, with MP being more common in individualistic cultures and CS in collectivist cultures. ### 1.5 Culture, conformity, and obedience Interpersonal and group functioning are profoundly influenced by geographical location and cultural norms. Environmental factors can interact with kinship, family structure, child development, and economic practices. ### 1.6 Culture and becoming socialized Anthropological research has highlighted that child development is intrinsically linked to cultural norms. Socialization processes, including family structure, values, and the importance placed on children, shape an individual's development towards independence or interdependence. #### 1.6.1 Families and aggression While some societies emphasize competition and individual survival, others prioritize cooperation and devalue achievement, believing it can lead to violence. These societies are often non-Western, small, and isolated. Norms supporting a "culture of honor," characterized by aggression in response to threats, can be channeled through families, historically leading to higher rates of violence in certain regions. ### 1.7 Two psyches: East meets West Cross-cultural psychology often distinguishes between two broad cultural systems: * **European American (Western):** Characterized by an **independent self-concept**, where the self is seen as an autonomous entity with clear boundaries, guided by internal attributes. * **East Asian (Eastern):** Characterized by an **interdependent self-concept**, where the self has fluid boundaries, is tied to relationships, and is highly responsive to social context. Others are seen as part of the self, and vice versa. This distinction influences how individuals sample information, make moral judgments, attribute causes, and seek happiness. While broad, this dichotomy is useful for understanding general cultural differences, though more nuanced variations exist within regions. #### 1.7.1 Two kinds of self Markus and Kitayama's concepts of independent and interdependent selves differentiate self-conceptions across cultures: * **Independent self:** Stable, autonomous, guided by personal attributes, achievement-oriented, competitive, and focuses on feeling good about oneself. * **Interdependent self:** Connected, fluid, guided by relationships and social context, oriented to the collective, meets obligations, contributes to the collective, is responsible with others, and subsumes the self in the collective. In organizational settings, for example, individuals from collectivist cultures might be selected based on existing employee ties, contrasting with traditional selection methods in individualistic cultures. #### 1.7.2 Western and Eastern cultural models of the person Despite cultural variations in self-conception, the need for a distinctive and integrated sense of self appears universal. However, self-distinctiveness is interpreted differently: in individualistic cultures, it emphasizes separateness; in collectivist cultures, it emphasizes relationships with others. ### 1.8 Forms of discrimination and prejudice Prejudice, the devaluing of groups and individuals, has diverse harmful effects, including social stigma, reduced self-worth, and psychological distress. #### 1.8.1 Social stigma Stigma is a social identity that is devalued in a particular context, leading to discrimination. The experience of stigma is influenced by its visibility/concealability and controllability. Visible stigmas are inescapable, while concealable ones offer avoidance at the cost of authenticity. Controllable stigmas (e.g., perceived laziness) often elicit harsher reactions than uncontrollable ones (e.g., race). #### 1.8.2 Self-worth, self-esteem, and psychological wellbeing Members of stigmatized groups often internalize societal negative evaluations, leading to low self-esteem and diminished psychological wellbeing. Despite this vulnerability, many individuals and groups ingeniously develop strategies to combat low status and maintain positive self-images. #### 1.8.3 Discrimination based on medical or physical handicap Historically, people with physical and mental handicaps have faced severe prejudice and discrimination, often being viewed as subhuman or deviant. While overt discrimination based on physical handicap is now illegal and socially unacceptable in many societies, with efforts made to accommodate special needs, prejudice against mental and psychological handicap persists due to ignorance and fear. #### 1.8.4 Forms of discrimination Much prejudice is expressed subtly. Three less obvious forms include: * **Reluctance to help:** Passively or actively failing to assist disadvantaged groups, often when it can be attributed to factors other than prejudice (e.g., aversive racism). * **Tokenism:** A small positive act towards minority group members to deflect accusations of prejudice, often used to justify declining further assistance or engaging in discrimination. This can also refer to a very small numerical representation of a minority within a group. * **Reverse discrimination:** Favoring members of a group against which one is prejudiced, often to conceal prejudice, appear egalitarian, or due to ambivalence. While it can have short-term benefits for recipients, it doesn't necessarily reduce the discriminator's prejudice. #### 1.8.5 Different forms of prejudice and discrimination * **Sexism:** Prejudice and discrimination against women, stemming from historical power imbalances. Stereotypes often portray men as competent and independent, and women as warm but incompetent. These stereotypes persist partly due to gendered role assignments and occupational segregation. Women may face a "glass ceiling" in career advancement. Attributions for success and failure also differ by gender, with men's success often attributed to ability and women's to luck. * **Ageism:** Age-related stereotypes, particularly affecting the elderly. In societies that value youth, older individuals may be stereotyped as worthless and powerless, leading to their marginalization and minimization of intergenerational contact. | The Independent Person | The Interdependent Person | | :--------------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------- | | is bounded, stable, autonomous | is connected, fluid, flexible | | has personal attributes that guide action | participates in social relationships that guide action | | is achievement-oriented | is oriented to the collective | | formulates personal goals | meets obligations and conforms to norms | | defines life by successful goal achievement | defines life by contributing to the collective | | is responsible for own behavior | is responsible with others for joint behavior | | is competitive | is cooperative | | strives to feel good about the self | subsumes self in the collective | --- # Acculturation and cultural change Acculturation is the process by which individuals or groups adapt to a new culture, leading to changes in behavior and thinking, and when applied to a whole group, it results in large-scale culture change. ### 2.1 The process of acculturation When people migrate, they inevitably come into close contact with both the host culture and other immigrant groups. This extended contact leads to changes in the behavior and thinking patterns of new migrants. Immigrant groups have a degree of choice regarding the nature of these changes. #### 2.1.1 Berry's four paths to acculturation Cross-cultural psychologist John Berry identified four distinct strategies for acculturation, based on an individual's orientation towards their home culture and the dominant host culture: * **Integration:** This involves maintaining one's home culture while also actively relating to and participating in the dominant culture. * **Assimilation:** This strategy entails relinquishing one's home culture and fully embracing the dominant culture. * **Separation:** In this approach, individuals maintain their home culture while remaining isolated from or disengaged with the dominant culture. * **Marginalization:** This occurs when individuals give up their home culture and fail to establish meaningful connections with the dominant culture, leading to a sense of rootlessness. > **Tip:** Integration is often considered the most popular and beneficial path for immigrants, as it is associated with the least amount of stress. This strategy aligns with intergroup relations theories that promote harmony and stability by respecting diverse identities and practices within a larger cultural framework. #### 2.1.2 Acculturative stress Culture change, particularly through acculturation, can lead to acculturative stress. This is evident, for example, in ethnic minorities who may experience depression when their cultural identity is eroded by a dominant ethnic majority. #### 2.1.3 Dual and multicultural identities Acculturating individuals may develop dual identities, feeling a connection to both their heritage culture and the host culture (e.g., Mexican American and Anglo-American, or Greek and Australian). This concept is related to bicultural identity, particularly in research on children's ethnic socialization. Individuals with multiple cultural backgrounds can possess "multicultural minds," accessing more than one self-concept and strategically switching between them depending on the context. ### 2.2 Individualism and collectivism as cultural values The study of cultural values, such as Hofstede's work, highlights value systems that differentiate societies. It is generally assumed that individuals within a society internalize these prevalent values. #### 2.2.1 Idiocentrism and allocentrism Triandis and his colleagues introduced the concepts of idiocentrism and allocentrism to describe individualism and collectivism at the individual level. * **Idiocentric individuals** tend to be driven by a need for achievement, may experience anomie and alienation, and value comfort, pleasure, and social recognition. * **Allocentric individuals** tend towards cooperation, social support, equality, and honesty. Triandis's research indicated that individuals can exhibit varying degrees of allocentrism or idiocentrism depending on the situation. Cultures differ in the prevalence of situations that elicit these orientations. Collectivist cultures present more situations requiring allocentrism, while individualistic cultures have more situations that call for idiocentrism. Traditional and agrarian societies, as well as preliterate communities, are generally considered collectivist, while a gradual shift towards individualism has occurred over time. ### 2.3 Relational models of culture Fiske's relational models propose that people in all cultures use four elementary cognitive schemas to construct, understand, and manage social interactions. These models provide a "grammar" for social relations and are applied within cultural contexts, though not always identically across cultures. * **Communal Sharing (CS):** This model emphasizes solidarity and a corporate identity where the group transcends the individual (e.g., lovers, teams, families). * **Authority Ranking (AR):** This model is defined by precedence and a linear hierarchy (e.g., filial piety in Chinese society). * **Equality Matching (EM):** This model is based on balance and reciprocity in social exchange, often seen in tit-for-tat exchanges or egalitarian relationships. * **Market Pricing (MP):** This model involves proportional outcomes and calculations of relative costs and benefits, common in economic transactions like prices, rents, salaries, and taxes. These models are not interchangeable, and switching between them can be challenging. The prevalence of these models is linked to cultural orientations: MP is more common in individualistic cultures, while CS is more prevalent in collectivist cultures. AR is frequently found in East Asian and historically feudal European societies, and EM is more common in interdependent cultures like some Asian countries and Melanesia. ### 2.4 Acculturation and cultural change examples * **Example:** Immigrants who arrive in a new country face the dilemma of whether to maintain their home culture's social identity or adopt the identity defined by the host culture. The choice between integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization significantly impacts their acculturation experience. * **Example:** Research on language revivals demonstrates that cultural revivals can occur under conditions of societal uncertainty or when a culture's prestige is threatened by other groups, aligning with principles of social identity theory. ### 2.5 Factors influencing intercultural contact and acculturation * **Language barriers:** Significant linguistic differences can impede comfortable intercultural encounters. * **Perceived cultural distance:** Greater perceived dissimilarity between cultures can lead to increased social distance and reduced likelihood of developing intercultural contacts. * **Non-verbal behavior:** Cultural differences in facial displays, kinesics, touching, and interpersonal distance can affect intercultural communication and understanding. * **Norm violations:** Actions considered normal in one culture may violate moral standards in another, leading to misunderstandings and negative intercultural experiences. * **Anxiety and uncertainty:** Intergroup and intercultural contact can be curtailed if it generates anxiety and uncertainty. * **Prejudice and stereotypes:** Pre-existing prejudices, ethnocentrism, and intergroup anxiety can lead to negative outcomes even from brief intercultural encounters. > **Tip:** While intercultural contact can be a force for enriching change, it can also be a source of conflict, especially when perceived threats and historical animosities are present. Factors like language differences, prejudice, and intergroup anxiety can amplify negative outcomes. --- # Individualism and collectivism and relational models This topic explores cultural differences in values, distinguishing between individualistic and collectivist orientations at societal and individual levels, and introduces Fiske's four relational models for understanding social interaction. ### 3.1 Individualism and collectivism Cultural values often differentiate societies, with the assumption that individuals within these societies generally subscribe to these values as part of their personal belief systems. To address this assumption at an individual level, the concepts of allocentrism and idiocentrism were introduced to describe collectivism and individualism, respectively. #### 3.1.1 Idiocentrism and allocentrism * **Idiocentric individuals** tend to prioritize personal achievement, may experience anomie, alienation, and loneliness, and value comfort, pleasure, and social recognition. * **Allocentric individuals** tend towards cooperation, social support, equality, and honesty. Research indicates that individuals can exhibit varying degrees of allocentrism or idiocentrism depending on the situation. The prevalence of situations that call for either allocentrism or idiocentrism is a reason why cultures differ. Collectivist cultures present more situations requiring allocentrism, while individualistic cultures have a higher proportion of situations requiring idiocentrism. Historically, traditional and agrarian societies, and even preliterate communities, are understood to have been collectivist. The shift towards individualism has been a gradual process. #### 3.1.2 The independent and interdependent self A key distinction in cross-cultural psychology is between the **independent self** prevalent in individualistic (often Western) cultures and the **interdependent self** found in collectivist (often Eastern) cultures. * **Independent self:** This is viewed as an autonomous entity with clear boundaries between the self and others. Internal attributes like thoughts, feelings, and abilities are considered stable and largely unaffected by social context. Behavior is primarily guided by one's inner, dispositional characteristics. Individuals with an independent self tend to formulate personal goals, define life by successful goal achievement, strive to feel good about themselves, and are competitive. > **Tip:** The independent self emphasizes personal attributes and distinctiveness, gaining meaning from separateness. * **Interdependent self:** This self has flexible and diffuse boundaries between the self and others. It is deeply connected to relationships and highly responsive to social context. Others are perceived as integral parts of the self, and vice versa; there is no self without the collective. Behavior is guided by perceptions of others' thoughts, feelings, and actions. Individuals with an interdependent self tend to meet obligations, conform to norms, define life by contributing to the collective, are responsible with others for joint behavior, and are cooperative. > **Tip:** The interdependent self gains meaning from its relations with others and the group as a whole. Despite cultural variations in self-conception, the need for a distinctive and integrated sense of self may be universal. However, what constitutes self-distinctiveness differs: in individualistic cultures, it's the isolated, bounded self; in collectivist cultures, it's the relational self. In organizational contexts, for example, hiring decisions in Chinese settings might prioritize ties to current employees over traditional assessment tools, reflecting the interdependent self. People from individualistic cultures tend to provide independent descriptions of themselves (e.g., "I am kind"), while those from collectivist cultures offer interdependent descriptions (e.g., "my coworkers think I am kind"). | The Independent Person | The Interdependent Person | | :------------------------------------------ | :------------------------------------------------------ | | is bounded, stable, autonomous | is connected, fluid, flexible | | has personal attributes that guide action | participates in social relationships that guide action | | is achievement-oriented | is oriented to the collective | | formulates personal goals | meets obligations and conforms to norms | | defines life by successful goal achievement | defines life by contributing to the collective | | is responsible for own behavior | is responsible with others for joint behavior | | is competitive | is cooperative | | strives to feel good about the self | subsumes self in the collective | ### 3.2 Relational models People in all cultures utilize four fundamental models to understand, coordinate, evaluate, and contest most social interactions. These models are motivated, affectively colored cognitive schemas that help individuals jointly construct meaningful social relations. These models operate as schemas and are used in culturally appropriate ways, not necessarily identically across cultures. They provide a framework for understanding work, distributing resources, and making sense of time and land. #### 3.2.1 Fiske's four relational models 1. **Communal sharing (CS):** In this model, the group takes precedence over the individual. People in a CS relationship experience solidarity and a corporate identity. Examples include lovers, teams, and families. * CS is often more prevalent in collectivist cultures. * **Example:** Family members sharing resources and responsibilities without explicit accounting of who owes whom. 2. **Authority ranking (AR):** This relationship is defined by precedence and a linear hierarchy. * AR relationships are common in East Asian cultures and were historically prevalent in feudal Europe. * **Example:** The traditional concept of filial piety in Chinese society, where respect and obedience are owed to elders and superiors. 3. **Equality matching (EM):** This model is based on maintaining balance in social exchanges. It involves reciprocity, such as a tit-for-tat approach or egalitarian distribution. * The incidence of EM is higher in interdependent cultures, including some Asian countries and Melanesia. * **Example:** Reciprocating a favor or ensuring that contributions and rewards are equal in a joint effort. 4. **Market pricing (MP):** This model is based on a sense of proportional outcomes and the calculation of relative costs and benefits between partners. * MP is more commonly observed in individualistic cultures. * **Example:** Determining prices, rents, salaries, and taxes; individuals calculate their gains and losses in interpersonal transactions. > **Tip:** Fiske argued that these four relational models are not commensurate; there is no overarching schema that mediates between them. Switching between modes can be difficult, affecting memory retrieval. For instance, thinking about a boss in AR terms might lead to recalling previous bosses more readily than if thinking in other relational modes. The relational models are linked to variations in independence and interdependence. MP is more common in individualistic cultures, while CS is more common in collectivist cultures. AR is more frequent in East Asian cultures, and EM is higher in interdependent cultures. This suggests a convergence between value systems (individualism/collectivism) and relational models. ### 3.3 Acculturation and cultural change When individuals migrate, they inevitably engage in close contact with both the host culture and other immigrant groups. This prolonged contact leads to changes in behavior and thinking, a process known as acculturation. When acculturation applies to an entire group, it results in large-scale culture change. Immigrant groups have some agency in how these changes manifest, with stark choices between assimilation and separatism. Culture change is not limited to immigrants; it also affects indigenous populations. #### 3.3.1 Acculturative stress and identity Acculturation can lead to acculturative stress, such as depression experienced by ethnic minorities whose culture is eroded by a majority group. An acculturating individual may develop dual identities, feeling both a connection to their home culture and the host culture (e.g., Mexican American and Anglo-American). This concept of bicultural identity is also explored in research on children's ethnic socialization. Individuals with multicultural backgrounds can possess multicultural minds, accessing multiple self-concepts and switching between them depending on the context or which self is primed. #### 3.3.2 Berry's acculturation strategies The psychologist John Berry identified four pathways to acculturation, based on how immigrants weigh their home culture against the dominant culture: 1. **Integration:** Maintaining one's home culture while also engaging with the dominant culture. 2. **Assimilation:** Abandoning one's home culture and fully embracing the dominant culture. 3. **Separation:** Maintaining one's home culture and remaining isolated from the dominant culture. 4. **Marginalization:** Abandoning one's home culture and failing to establish meaningful relations with the dominant culture. Integration is often the most preferred path for immigrants and is associated with the least acculturative stress. The availability of a social support network is a key factor in stress reduction. Integration aligns with theories of intergroup relations that promote harmony and stability, where groups feel their identities are respected within a larger culture that fosters cooperation rather than competition. However, integration is a lengthy process and can conflict with a host culture's frequent expectation of assimilation. --- # Prejudice, discrimination, and their effects Prejudice and discrimination are pervasive social phenomena that significantly impact individuals and groups, leading to a range of negative consequences, particularly concerning stigma and self-worth. ### 4.1 Understanding prejudice and discrimination Prejudice refers to preconceived judgments or opinions, often negative, about individuals based on their group membership. Discrimination, on the other hand, is the behavioral manifestation of prejudice, involving unfair or unequal treatment of individuals or groups. ### 4.2 Forms of discrimination While overt discrimination is becoming less common, subtle and hidden forms persist. These include: #### 4.2.1 Reluctance to help This involves passively or actively failing to assist other groups in improving their societal position, thereby perpetuating disadvantage. This can be seen in individual actions, such as landlords refusing to rent to minority groups, or societal practices, like organizations not offering flexible working hours for new mothers. Aversive racism, characterized by racial anxiety and antipathy coupled with a belief that disadvantages are overstated, often fuels reluctance to help. Such reluctance is more likely to manifest when it can be attributed to factors other than prejudice. #### 4.2.2 Tokenism Tokenism involves performing a small, superficial positive act towards members of a minority group. This act is then used to deflect accusations of prejudice or to justify declining more significant positive actions or even engaging in subsequent discrimination. Numerically, tokenism can occur when a minority group is represented in very small numbers within a larger group. It can also describe situations where access to advantageous positions is severely restricted based on group membership, even if the boundaries between groups are not entirely closed. #### 4.2.3 Reverse discrimination This is a more extreme form of tokenism where individuals with residual prejudiced attitudes may actively favor members of a group against which they are prejudiced, more than they favor members of other groups. For example, a study found that White students evaluated Black strangers more favorably than White strangers. While reverse discrimination might offer short-term benefits to recipients, it can have long-term harmful consequences and does not necessarily reduce the discriminator's underlying prejudices. It can also be a reflection of ambivalence, a desire to appear egalitarian, or genuine admiration. ### 4.3 Sexism While research primarily focuses on prejudice and discrimination against women due to their historical lower power position, men can also experience discrimination. * **Stereotypes:** Men are generally perceived as competent and independent, while women are seen as warm and expressive. Women are often stereotyped as nice but incompetent, and men as competent but potentially less nice. These stereotypes have broad cross-cultural applicability. * **Role assignment:** Persistent gender-based role assignments contribute to sexism. Certain occupations are labeled as "women's work" and are consequently valued less. Men still hold more sociopolitical power to define the relative status of different roles. * **Career barriers:** Women often face difficulties in accessing higher-status masculine roles, experiencing an "invisible ceiling" or "glass ceiling." This can be due to male prejudice against women in power or gender stereotypes that conflict with organizational norms. For example, male flight attendants may face a glass ceiling because stereotypes about men hinder expectations of them being "good" at the job. * **Attribution of success/failure:** Success for men is often attributed to ability, while similar success for women is attributed to luck or task ease. This can lead women to consider themselves less deserving for the same level of achievement. ### 4.4 Ageism Ageism involves age-related or generational stereotypes that can lead to misunderstandings, particularly in work contexts. * **Perception of the elderly:** In societies that value youth and have predominantly nuclear families, the elderly often face unfavorable stereotypes. They may be viewed as worthless, powerless, grouchy, unhealthy, unattractive, miserly, less efficient, and less socially skilled. * **Intergenerational contact:** Young adults often have limited interaction with the elderly, leading to intergroup perceptions rather than interpersonal ones. This reinforces negative stereotypes, encourages avoidance, and minimizes intergenerational contact. * **Denial of rights:** Elderly individuals may be denied basic human rights, and their special needs can be neglected. ### 4.5 Stigma and other effects of prejudice The impact of prejudice on victims is diverse, ranging from minor inconvenconveniences to severe suffering. Prejudice harms by stigmatizing groups and their members. * **Social stigma:** Stigma is defined as an attribute or characteristic that conveys a social identity that is devalued in a particular social context. Targets of prejudice are stigmatized individuals. * **Visibility/concealability:** The experience of stigma is influenced by whether the attribute is visible or concealable. Visible stigmas make prejudice inescapable, while concealable ones allow for avoidance but at the cost of inauthenticity and hypervigilance. * **Controllability:** Stigmas perceived as controllable (e.g., smoking, obesity) invite harsher reactions and discrimination than uncontrollable ones (e.g., race, some illnesses). People with controllable stigmas may try to escape them, often at a high cost, especially when the controllability is misperceived. * **Persistence of stigma:** Stigma persists for several reasons: * **Self-evaluative advantage:** Individuals and groups can gain a positive sense of self by comparing themselves to stigmatized outgroups. * **System justification:** Stigma legitimizes existing inequalities in status and resource distribution, benefiting dominant groups. * **Maintaining certainty:** Stigmatizing groups with different worldviews can help individuals maintain their sense of certainty and control over life. ### 4.6 Self-worth, self-esteem, and psychological well-being Stigmatized groups are devalued by society, often resulting in lower status and power. * **Internalized negativity:** Members of stigmatized groups may internalize negative societal evaluations, leading to unfavorable self-images and low self-esteem. For instance, women may share negative stereotypes about women, evaluate themselves accordingly, and report reduced self-esteem. * **Resilience:** Despite vulnerability to low self-esteem, diminished life satisfaction, and depression, most members of stigmatized groups demonstrate resilience, weathering societal assaults and maintaining a positive self-image. * **Daily assaults:** Self-esteem can be daily assailed by prejudice, from overt acts like epithets and attacks to subtle slights like being ignored. ### 4.7 Discrimination based on medical or physical handicap Historically, individuals with physical handicaps were considered repugnant and subhuman. * **Legal and social changes:** Overt discrimination based on physical handicap is now illegal and socially unacceptable in most societies. Many countries implement accommodations like ramps and audible signals, and events like the Paralympics aim to normalize physical handicaps. * **Intergroup anxiety and patronization:** While overt derogation has decreased, unease and uncertainty about interacting with people with handicaps can lead to patronizing attitudes, speech, and behavior that inadvertently emphasize the handicap. * **Mental/psychological handicap:** Improvements in attitudes towards physical handicaps have not extended to mental or psychological handicaps. Ignorance and fear fuel strong prejudices, leading to institutionalized and face-to-face discrimination. Brutal conditions resulting from prejudice can create psychiatric disorders, amplifying existing ethnic or racial prejudices. ### 4.8 Other forms of prejudice and discrimination * **Tokenism:** As discussed in section 4.2.2, tokenism serves to deflect accusations of prejudice. * **Reverse discrimination:** As discussed in section 4.2.3, this involves favoring members of a group against which one is prejudiced. ### 4.9 Individualism and Collectivism Cultural values differentiate societies, with Hofstede's work highlighting individualism and collectivism. Triandis and colleagues introduced allocentrism (individual level collectivism) and idiocentrism (individual level individualism). * **Allocentric individuals:** Tend towards cooperation, social support, equality, and honesty. * **Idiotic individuals:** Tend towards need for achievement, anomie, alienation, loneliness, and values like a comfortable life and pleasure. The prevalence of situations requiring allocentrism or idiocentrism differentiates cultures. Collectivist cultures have more situations requiring allocentrism, while individualistic cultures have more requiring idiocentrism. Traditional and agrarian societies were typically collectivist. ### 4.10 Characterizing cultures by relationships Fiske's four elementary models describe how people construct social relations: * **Communal sharing (CS):** Group solidarity and corporate identity; examples include lovers, teams, and families. * **Authority ranking (AR):** Precedence and linear hierarchy; example is filial piety in Chinese society. * **Equality matching (EM):** Balance in social exchange, tit-for-tat reciprocity, and egalitarianism. * **Market pricing (MP):** Proportional outcomes, such as prices, rents, salaries, and taxes, where partners calculate costs and benefits. These models are schemas available for use within cultures and are not necessarily used identically across cultures. They influence the definition of work, resource distribution, and the meaning of time and land. MP is more common in individualistic cultures, while CS is more common in collectivist cultures. AR is frequent in East Asian cultures, and EM is higher in interdependent cultures. ### 4.11 The independent and interdependent self Markus and Kitayama distinguished between two types of self: * **Independent self:** Found in individualistic (Western) cultures, this self is autonomous with clear boundaries between self and others. Internal attributes are stable and largely context-independent. Behavior is guided by inner, dispositional characteristics. * **Interdependent self:** Found in collectivist (Eastern) cultures, this self has flexible boundaries and is highly responsive to social context. Others are seen as part of the self, and the self is part of others. Behavior is governed by perceptions of others' thoughts, feelings, and actions. While the need for a distinctive and integrated sense of self may be universal, self-distinctiveness differs: in individualistic cultures, it's the isolated self gaining meaning from separateness; in collectivist cultures, it's the relational self gaining meaning from its connections. > **Tip:** The distinction between independent and interdependent selves is a foundational concept in cross-cultural psychology and helps explain differences in social cognition, behavior, and emotional experience across cultures. ### 4.12 Acculturation and cultural change When people migrate, they undergo acculturation, the process of internalizing the rules and characteristics of another culture. This can lead to acculturative stress. * **Berry's acculturation strategies:** Immigrants can choose from four paths: * **Integration:** Maintaining home culture while relating to the dominant culture (most popular, least stress). * **Assimilation:** Giving up home culture and embracing the dominant culture. * **Separation:** Maintaining home culture while being isolated from the dominant culture. * **Marginalization:** Giving up home culture and failing to relate to the dominant culture. * **Bicultural identity:** Individuals can develop dual identities and multicultural minds, accessing and switching between different self-concepts depending on the context. * **Social support:** The availability of a social support network is a key factor in reducing acculturative stress. ### 4.13 Culture, conformity, and obedience Geographical location can interact with kinship, family structure, child development, and economic practices, profoundly affecting interpersonal and group functioning. ### 4.14 Culture and socialization Anthropological research in the 1930s established that child development is intrinsically linked to cultural norms. Socialization studies now explore family structure, values, and the societal valuation of children, influencing self-development and whether an individual becomes independent or interdependent. ### 4.15 Families and aggression While some societies emphasize competition and a "dog-eat-dog" world, others prioritize cooperation and devalue achievement, believing it leads to violence. These are often non-Western, small, and isolated communities. Norms supporting a "culture of honor" can channel aggression through families, leading to higher rates of violence in certain regions, particularly when personal honor, family, or possessions are threatened. ### 4.16 Two psyches: East meets West Western (European American) and East Asian cultures are often characterized by distinct social systems or "psyches." This broad dichotomy, while useful, may overlook subgroup differences. The primary distinction lies in the independent versus interdependent self-concept. > **Example:** While both Western and Eastern cultures value a sense of self, in Western cultures, self-distinctiveness often arises from separateness, whereas in Eastern cultures, it stems from relationships with others. ### 4.17 Forms of prejudice and discrimination summary The document highlights various forms of prejudice and discrimination, including sexism, ageism, tokenism, reverse discrimination, and reluctance to help. The effects on victims are substantial, leading to stigmatization, reduced self-worth, and psychological distress, although resilience is also observed. --- # Cultural differences in self-concept This topic explores the fundamental differences in how individuals in Western and Eastern cultures perceive and define themselves, impacting their behavior and social interactions. ### 5.1 Independent versus interdependent self-concept Cross-cultural psychology often highlights a central distinction between two culturally patterned social systems, or "psyches": the European American (Western) and East Asian (Eastern). This broad dichotomy, while potentially lacking nuance for specific subgroups, is useful for understanding general cultural differences. The core of this distinction lies in the prevalent self-concept: Western cultures tend to foster an **independent self-concept**, while Eastern cultures cultivate an **interdependent self-concept**. #### 5.1.1 The independent self Individuals from individualistic (Western) cultures typically possess an independent self. This conception of the self is characterized as an autonomous entity with clear boundaries separating it from others. * **Attributes:** Internal attributes such as thoughts, feelings, and abilities are viewed as stable and largely unaffected by social context. * **Behavioral Guidance:** The behavior of the independent self is primarily guided and constituted by one's inner, dispositional characteristics. * **Goal Orientation:** This self is achievement-oriented, formulating personal goals and defining life by successful goal achievement. * **Responsibility:** The individual is seen as responsible for their own behavior and tends to be competitive. * **Self-Esteem:** The focus is on striving to feel good about the self. > **Tip:** When asked "Who am I?", individuals with an independent self-concept tend to generate descriptions based on their personal attributes. #### 5.1.2 The interdependent self In contrast, individuals from collectivist (Eastern) cultures typically have an interdependent self. This conception of the self is characterized by flexible and diffuse boundaries between the self and others, as it is intrinsically tied to relationships. * **Attributes:** The self is highly responsive to social context, and others are perceived as integral parts of the self, and vice-versa. There is no concept of a self independent of the collective. * **Behavioral Guidance:** Behavior is primarily governed and organized by perceptions of others' thoughts, feelings, and actions. * **Goal Orientation:** This self is oriented towards the collective, focusing on meeting obligations and conforming to norms. Life is defined by contributing to the collective. * **Responsibility:** Individuals are responsible with others for joint behavior and tend to be cooperative. * **Self-Esteem:** The emphasis is on subsuming the self within the collective. > **Tip:** For individuals with an interdependent self, their sense of self gains meaning through their connections and relationships with others, rather than through separateness. #### 5.1.3 Cultural models and the self While the need for a distinctive and integrated sense of self may be universal, what constitutes "self-distinctiveness" differs significantly. In individualistic cultures, it is the isolated, bounded self that derives meaning from separateness. In collectivist cultures, it is the relational self, which gains meaning from its connections with others, that is paramount. Scholars suggest that the interdependent self is based on different relations in individualistic and collectivist cultures: in the former, it is based on close interpersonal relationships, whereas in the latter, it is based on the relationship with the group as a whole. > **Example:** In organizational settings, Chinese employees might be selected based on their existing ties to current employees (interdependent), rather than solely on traditional selection tools like tests and interviews (more aligned with independent self-assessment). The table below summarizes key distinctions: | The Independent Person | The Interdependent Person | | :-------------------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------- | | is bounded, stable, autonomous | is connected, fluid, flexible | | has personal attributes that guide action | participates in social relationships that guide action | | is achievement-oriented | is oriented to the collective | | formulates personal goals | meets obligations and conforms to norms | | defines life by successful goal achievement | defines life by contributing to the collective | | is responsible for own behavior | is responsible with others for joint behavior | | is competitive | is cooperative | | strives to feel good about the self | subsumes self in the collective | #### 5.1.4 Influence on social interaction and behavior These different self-concepts profoundly influence how individuals behave and interact socially. * **Sampling information:** Western cultures sample information using elements of the personal self (e.g., "I am kind"), whereas Eastern cultures use elements of the collective self (e.g., "my coworkers think I am kind"). * **Moral judgments, information processing, and happiness:** Differences in self-concept are also linked to variations in how people make moral judgments, process information, and pursue happiness. * **Relational models:** The prevalence of certain relational models also aligns with these cultural orientations. Market pricing (MP) is more common in individualistic cultures, while communal sharing (CS) is more prevalent in collectivist cultures. Authority ranking (AR) is frequently observed in East Asian cultures, and equality matching (EM) is higher in interdependent cultures. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Acculturation | The process of absorbing the cultural elements of a dominant society or culture, leading to changes in behavior and thinking among individuals or groups, particularly migrants. | | Assimilation | A form of acculturation where an immigrant group gives up its own cultural practices and fully embraces the dominant culture, often losing its distinct identity in the process. | | Authority Ranking (AR) | A relational model of social interaction characterized by precedence and a linear hierarchy, where social relationships are defined by differences in status and power, common in hierarchical societies. | | Collectivism | A cultural value system that emphasizes the importance of group harmony, interdependence, and loyalty, where the needs and goals of the group often take precedence over individual desires. | | Communal Sharing (CS) | A relational model of social interaction where individuals experience solidarity and a corporate identity, transcending individual boundaries, exemplified by relationships like lovers, teams, and families. | | Culture | The shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a group or society, which are transmitted from one generation to the next and influence how people perceive and interact with the world. | | Culture Change | Transformations in the norms, values, and practices of a culture, which can occur through various processes such as acculturation, technological advancements, or societal shifts. | | Discrimination | Unfair or prejudicial treatment of people or groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, or religion, leading to disadvantage and inequality. | | Egalitarianism | The belief that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities, often manifested in social relationships that emphasize balance and fairness in exchanges. | | Emic Perspective | An approach to cultural analysis that examines a culture from within, focusing on the internal meanings and interpretations of its members, as opposed to an etic perspective which analyzes from an outside viewpoint. | | Endogamy | The practice of marrying within a specific social group, class, or ethnic group, which can help maintain cultural distinctiveness and social cohesion within that group. | | Ethnocentrism | The tendency to view one's own culture as superior and to judge other cultures by the standards and values of one's own culture. | | Faminism | A term that appears to be a typo or misinterpretation in the provided text, not a recognized academic concept related to culture or social psychology. | | Glass Ceiling | An invisible barrier that prevents women and other minority groups from advancing to senior leadership positions in organizations, often due to subtle biases and stereotypes. | | Identity | A person's sense of self, which can be shaped by personal experiences, social roles, group affiliations, and cultural backgrounds. | | Idiosyncrasy | A peculiar or unique habit or characteristic of an individual, which contrasts with the expected or typical behaviors within a group or culture. | | Independence | A cultural orientation characterized by an emphasis on personal autonomy, self-reliance, and individual achievement, typical of individualistic societies. | | Interdependence | A cultural orientation that emphasizes the interconnectedness of individuals within social relationships and groups, where actions and well-being are closely linked to others, characteristic of collectivist societies. | | Intergroup Anxiety | The apprehension and discomfort experienced when interacting with members of a different social group, often stemming from uncertainty about social norms and potential negative evaluations. | | Interpersonal Distance | The physical space individuals maintain between themselves during social interactions, which varies significantly across cultures and influences the nature of communication. | | Intercultural Contact | Interactions and exchanges between individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds, which can lead to learning, understanding, or conflict. | | Intrapersonal | Relating to or occurring within an individual's own mind or consciousness, as opposed to interpersonal, which relates to interactions between individuals. | | Kinesics | The study of body movements, such as gestures and facial expressions, as a form of non-verbal communication that can convey cultural meanings and emotional states. | | Machismo | A cultural concept, particularly prevalent in Latin American cultures, that emphasizes masculine pride, strength, and assertiveness, often associated with a tradition of aggression in dealing with perceived threats. | | Marginalization | A form of acculturation where individuals or groups give up their home culture and fail to integrate into the dominant culture, leading to social exclusion and alienation. | | Market Pricing (MP) | A relational model of social interaction based on a sense of proportional outcomes, where relationships are structured by calculating relative costs and benefits, similar to economic transactions like prices and salaries. | | Multicultural Minds | Individuals who possess multiple self-concepts derived from diverse cultural backgrounds, allowing them to draw upon and alternate between different frames of reference depending on the context. | | Multicultural Societies | Societies that comprise people from diverse cultural backgrounds, where different ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups coexist. | | Non-verbal Behavior | Communication that occurs without the use of spoken or written words, including body language, facial expressions, and gestures, which are often culturally specific. | | Normative Systems | Sets of rules, standards, or expectations that guide behavior within a particular social group or society, influencing social order and predictability. | | Obedience | Compliance with a command, request, or law from a legitimate authority figure, often influenced by cultural values and social structures. | | Occupational Stereotypes | Generalized beliefs or assumptions about the characteristics, abilities, or typical behaviors of people in certain professions, which can lead to prejudice and discrimination. | | Overgeneralization | The process of extending a concept or idea beyond its original scope or context, often leading to inaccurate conclusions or stereotypes. | | Person-Situation Interaction | The dynamic interplay between an individual's characteristics (personality, beliefs) and the environmental context (social norms, situational demands) in shaping behavior. | | Physical Handicap | A bodily impairment or disability that affects a person's physical functioning, which has historically been a target of prejudice and discrimination. | | Prejudice | Preconceived opinions or judgments about a person or group, not based on reason or actual experience, often negative and leading to discrimination. | | Relational Theory | An approach that examines how social relationships are structured and understood through fundamental models that guide social interaction and meaning-making within cultures. | | Reluctance to Help | A subtle form of discrimination where individuals or groups passively or actively fail to assist others in improving their social position, often stemming from aversive racism or a desire to maintain the status quo. | | Reverse Discrimination | Discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group, sometimes done to compensate for past injustices or to appear non-prejudiced. | | Sex Roles | Socially defined expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female within a particular culture, which can influence power dynamics and opportunities. | | Sexism | Prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex, rooted in beliefs about the superiority of one sex over the other. | | Social Identity Theory | A theory that explains how individuals derive part of their self-concept from membership in social groups, and how this influences their perceptions of and interactions with in-groups and out-groups. | | Social Psychological Perspective | An approach that examines how individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others, and by social situations. | | Social Stigma | A mark of disgrace or shame associated with a particular attribute, characteristic, or group, which leads to devaluation and discrimination in a social context. | | Socialization | The process by which individuals learn the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors of their culture and society, enabling them to function effectively as members of that society. | | Stereotypes | Widely held but fixed and oversimplified images or ideas of particular types of people or things, which can lead to prejudice and discrimination. | | Superordinate Culture | A broader cultural framework or context that encompasses and integrates multiple subcultures or diverse groups, allowing for coexistence and intergroup harmony. | | Tokenism | The practice of making only a perfunctory or symbolic effort to do a particular thing, especially by recruiting the token members of a minority group to give the appearance of inclusion. | | Uncertainty | A state of not knowing or being unsure about an outcome, situation, or person, which can lead to anxiety and influence social interactions and cultural responses. | | Uncertainty Reduction Theory | A theory proposing that people are motivated to reduce uncertainty in interpersonal interactions, particularly when first meeting others, to predict and explain their behavior. | | Values | Deeply held beliefs about what is good, right, and desirable, which influence individuals' attitudes, behaviors, and life choices, and vary significantly across cultures. |