human geography - chapter 6 - religion.pdf

# Introduction to religion and its characteristics Religion is a system of beliefs that connects humans to the supernatural, encompassing diverse forms and influencing individual and group identities. ### 1.1 Defining religion Religion is primarily characterized as a system of beliefs that connects humans to the supernatural. These beliefs and practices are generally considered sacred because adherents believe they originate from a supernatural power, deity, or insightful being. Religion is typically practiced in a group setting, binding adherents through shared beliefs and practices that form the basis of their collective and individual identities. Religious doctrines often shape adherents' perspectives and actions across various aspects of life, including politics, economics, and environmental interactions [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Classifying religions The diverse forms of religion make categorization challenging, as what one group considers religious, another might not. Two common methods for classifying religions are by recruitment methods and by the number and nature of deities [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.1 Classification by recruitment * **Proselytic faiths:** These religions actively seek new members and are often universal, meaning anyone can join. Examples include Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism, which actively attempt to convert others. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) is cited as an example of a proselytic faith, with missionaries actively recruiting new adherents [1](#page=1). * **Closed religions (ethnic religions):** These religions typically require individuals to be born into the group to become a member and rarely proselytize. Judaism and Hinduism are prominent examples of ethnic religions [1](#page=1). > **Tip:** Understanding how religions recruit can offer insight into their inclusivity and global reach. #### 1.2.2 Classification by deities * **Monotheistic religions:** These religions focus on the belief in a single deity. Islam, Christianity, and Judaism are examples of monotheistic faiths [2](#page=2). * **Polytheistic religions:** These religions involve belief in multiple deities, each with distinct responsibilities, personalities, and capabilities. The religions of Ancient Greece and Rome are well-known examples of polytheistic systems [2](#page=2). * **Pantheistic religions:** In these religions, the divine is perceived as being present everywhere and in everything [2](#page=2). * **Other forms:** Some religions place less emphasis on deities and instead focus on individual adherents directing their energies inward to achieve an elevated state of mind or seeking a beneficial afterlife through external actions and devotion [2](#page=2). > **Note:** These categories are often fluid and can overlap significantly [2](#page=2). ### 1.3 Recognizing religious practices Recognizing religious adherents and practices can vary in difficulty. Some religions, like most Christian groups, have easily identifiable congregations that meet regularly in purpose-built structures called churches. In contrast, other religious adherents may not meet in dedicated buildings or in groups regularly, making them harder to identify and count [2](#page=2). ### 1.4 Secular systems with religious characteristics Interestingly, some seemingly profane or secular belief and behavioral systems can exhibit characteristics akin to religion. These may include groups with texts treated as sacred, followers engaging in well-practiced rituals, observance of holidays, and the presence of figures who interpret special texts and possess specialized knowledge. Many of these groups also convene regularly in specially constructed buildings. Sociologists have drawn parallels between Fascism and Marxism and religious systems, and fraternal organizations like the Freemasons or Odd Fellows are also noted for exhibiting quasi-religious traits [2](#page=2). > **Example:** Freemason lodges, with their specialized rituals and hierarchical structures, can appear to mimic religious organization and practice, even though they are considered secular in nature [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ### 1.5 Divisions within religions Religions often contain numerous sub-divisions, known as denominations, which themselves may have further subdivisions. Even within small groups or congregations, individual members can interpret doctrines or engage in practices differently from their peers. These internal divisions make it difficult to formulate definitive statements about specific religions [3](#page=3). #### 1.5.1 Denominations and "cults" Small religions or denominations within a larger religion are frequently referred to as "cults". While this term carries a derogatory connotation in popular usage, it is not necessarily so among academics. For instance, some conservative Christians label the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as a "cult" [3](#page=3). ### 1.6 Major world religion families The majority of the world's religious followers belong to one of two major world religion families: Abrahamic or Indian [3](#page=3). * **Abrahamic faiths:** These include Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, all of which originated in the Middle East but are now practiced globally [3](#page=3). * **Indian Religions:** This category encompasses Hinduism, Buddhism, Shinto, and others, which evolved on the Indian subcontinent and subsequently spread across Asia [3](#page=3). Individuals not affiliated with these major traditions may follow local (folk) religions or practice no religion at all. Alternative religions, such as Scientology, also attract followers, particularly in culturally vibrant areas [3](#page=3). > **Example:** The distribution of majority religions across the globe can be visualized on world maps, though such representations may have inherent limitations or biases [3](#page=3). --- # Major world religions and their distribution This topic examines the global distribution, core beliefs, and variations within major world religions, including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism [4](#page=4). ### 2.1 Global religious landscape and distribution The distribution of world religions can be visualized using maps, which, despite religions crossing national borders, provide a general overview of adherents. Religiosity varies significantly globally; some regions, particularly the Muslim world, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia, exhibit high levels of religious practice, while developed nations generally show less fervent religious engagement. The United States, notably, remains relatively religious compared to other economically advanced countries [4](#page=4). ### 2.2 Christianity With approximately 2.2 billion adherents, Christianity is the world's largest religion. However, many Christians in developed nations experience secularization, a decline in religious involvement and belief. Christianity is divided into several factions. The Great Schism of 1054 divided Catholics into Eastern Orthodox, headquartered in Constantinople, and Western Catholic, headquartered in Rome [4](#page=4). #### 2.2.1 Eastern Orthodoxy The Eastern Orthodox Catholic Church comprises multiple national churches, such as Greek, Russian, and Ukrainian Orthodox. Its adherents are prevalent in Southeastern and Eastern Europe, with several million in the United States. Orthodox churches are often recognizable by their distinctive onion domes or helmet cupolas [5](#page=5). #### 2.2.2 Western Christianity Historically, Western Christianity was dominated by the Roman Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation, beginning in 1517, led to a schism where Protestants, protesting corrupt practices and emphasizing individual Bible interpretation, formed numerous denominations. This period was marked by religious wars and migration, with many Europeans seeking religious freedom in the New World. Early European settlements in America, such as the Pilgrims and Puritans, demonstrate this migration, though religious tolerance was not always present, with incidents of persecution against various groups. Today, religious intolerance in America is often directed towards Muslims by Evangelical Christians [5](#page=5). ##### 2.2.2.1 American Christianity Within the United States, Christianity exhibits significant variation, particularly in denomination and regional distribution [6](#page=6). * **Roman Catholics:** Approximately 60 million, they are the largest religious group, concentrated in New England, the Great Lakes region, and along the southern US border. Their distribution reflects late 19th and early 20th-century European migration patterns [6](#page=6). * **Evangelical Protestants:** This group, numbering around 50 million, emphasizes a personal relationship with Jesus Christ, literal Bible interpretation, and proselytizing. They are dominant in the Deep South and Appalachia, with significant populations in large cities like Los Angeles and Chicago. Key denominations include Southern Baptists, Pentecostals, and Non-Denominational churches [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). * **Mainline Protestants:** This category includes more progressive denominations like Episcopalians, Methodists (10 million), Lutherans (6 million), and Presbyterians. They are prevalent in the middle of the United States, with Methodists common in the Great Lakes/Midwestern states and Lutherans dominant in the Upper Midwest. The United Church of Christ is common in New England [7](#page=7). ##### 2.2.2.2 Latter Day Saints (LDS) The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, popularly known as "Mormons," has about 6 million members, predominantly in Utah. Originating in the 19th century during the Second Great Awakening, the LDS Church was founded by Joseph Smith Jr. Persecution led adherents to flee to Utah. They hold conservative cultural beliefs, a strong focus on family, and religious convictions [8](#page=8). ##### 2.2.2.3 Secular and Diverse America Many regions in the US, especially in the West (excluding Utah), exhibit high religious diversity with no single majority religion. This diversity index indicates the likelihood of individuals in a county belonging to different religious groups. In the most religiously diverse areas, church attendance can be lower, with less than one-third of the population belonging to any faith in some parts of Oregon, Ohio, Michigan, and Maine. Conversely, areas with low religious diversity, like Utah and the Great Plains states, have adherence rates above 75%. Nationally, about 13% of Americans are agnostic [9](#page=9). #### 2.3 Diffusion of religion Religious affiliation is largely inherited, with individuals adopting the faith of their parents over generations. Religious conversion was a significant driver of global colonization, often intertwined with economic and political motivations. European Christians migrating to the US, and Africans and American Indians forced to convert, contributed to the predominantly Christian landscape. Social and legal sanctions historically reinforced religious conformity, though the US Constitution guarantees religious choice. Changes in religious affiliation typically occur slowly, often influenced by major life events like marriage, migration, or conflict [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11). The distribution of denominations can be explained by factors such as ethnicity and migration patterns. Spanish colonization influenced Catholicism in Latin America and the American Southwest. Lutheran adherents, primarily of Germanic and Scandinavian descent, settled in colder climates like Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Dakotas. Baptists gained prominence in the US South due to their emphasis on oral religious services and appeal to populations with lower literacy rates. The Latter-day Saints settled predominantly in the Intermontane West due to persecution elsewhere. Religious minorities, including Jews, Muslims, Hindus, and Buddhists, tend to congregate in large urban areas, seeking economic opportunity, community, and safety in numbers. Remoteness can also foster religious innovation and the development of splinter groups and "new age" movements [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). ### 2.4 Islam Islam is the world's second-largest religion, with over 1.8 billion adherents and rapid growth. The two major subgroups are Sunni (approximately 80%), predominantly in Asia and North Africa, and Shia (20%), concentrated in Iran and Iraq. While Americans often associate Islam with Southwest Asia and North Africa, a larger Muslim population resides in Asia, with Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India having significant numbers. Nigeria also has a substantial Muslim population. Muslims in the United States number 2.6 million, including the Nation of Islam [13](#page=13). Muslims share commonalities with Christianity and Judaism, recognizing Abraham, Moses, and Jesus as prophets. They believe the Qur'an is the uncorrupted final revelation from Allah, revealed to the Prophet Muhammad [13](#page=13). #### 2.4.1 Five Pillars of Islam Observant Muslims adhere to the Five Pillars: 1. **Shahada:** Reciting the oath of faith: "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah." [14](#page=14). 2. **Salat:** Performing five daily prayers, often at a mosque [14](#page=14). 3. **Alms giving (Zakat):** Donating a portion of one's wealth to the poor and needy [14](#page=14). 4. **Sawm (Fasting):** Abstaining from food and water from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan [14](#page=14). 5. **Hajj:** A pilgrimage to Mecca, Islam's holiest city, undertaken at least once in a lifetime if able. The Arba’een Pilgrimage in Iraq attracts a significant number of Shia Muslims [14](#page=14). ### 2.5 Judaism Judaism, the oldest Abrahamic religion, is monotheistic and text-based, originating in the Middle East. It is not a universalizing religion, with adherents generally not seeking converts. Jews are broadly categorized into Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform groups based on their interpretation of Jewish Law, with a fourth category of culturally Jewish individuals also existing. Between 11 to 15 million people worldwide identify as Jewish. Approximately 40% live in the United States, primarily in large urban areas, and 40% reside in Israel. Jewish communities have had a significant cultural impact in the US, often thriving due to an emphasis on education and career success. Ashkenazi Jews, with European ancestry, are the most numerous, followed by Sephardic Jews with Middle Eastern or Mediterranean heritage [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). ### 2.6 Hinduism With around one billion adherents, Hinduism is the world's third-largest religion, predominantly found in India and Nepal. It is the oldest major faith and is exceptionally diverse, sometimes viewed as a way of life rather than a singular religion. Hindus hold varied beliefs, including monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, and atheism. Core concepts include karma (actions in this life affecting future lives), reincarnation, dharma (living righteously), and nirvana (a state of blissful enlightenment). Yoga, as practiced by Hindus, is a set of spiritual practices aimed at achieving well-being. Ritual cremation is common, and pilgrimage, notably to the Ganges River in Varanasi, is significant for sin absolution [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). ### 2.7 Buddhism Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) around five centuries ago in India, Buddhism shares concepts like Dharma, reincarnation, and karma with Hinduism but offers distinct principles. The Four Noble Truths form a core element, explaining suffering as a result of ignorance and desires, and proposing an eight-fold path to liberation. Buddhism is the dominant belief system in much of East and Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Bali, and parts of Russia. Major schools include Theravada (dominant in Southeast Asia), Mahayana (popular in China, Korea, Japan, with lower adherence rates and interwoven with local traditions), and Tibetan Buddhism (found in Tibet, Nepal, and Mongolia) [16](#page=16). --- # The landscape and spatial patterns of religion Religious practices significantly shape geographical landscapes through various forms of sacred architecture, designated sacred spaces, cemeteries, and even temporary transformations of public areas for holidays, alongside the distribution of religious groups [17](#page=17). ### 3.1 Religious architecture and its impact Religious architecture, ranging from grand cathedrals to simple meeting houses, reflects and influences the beliefs and practices of adherents [17](#page=17). * **Glorifying the divine:** Religious buildings are often designed to glorify God(s) and serve as monuments worthy of the religion, aiming to inspire awe and a sense of the supernatural [17](#page=17). * **Educational and recruitment tools:** Historically, architecture, particularly through stained-glass windows, served to teach religious stories to illiterate populations. Modern architecture, like that of mission churches, has also been used to attract converts [17](#page=17). * **Denominational differences:** Different interpretations of religious texts lead to diverse architectural styles. For example, Catholic churches are often monumental, reflecting a belief that they are the "House of God". In contrast, some conservative Amish groups forgo church buildings entirely, worshipping in homes based on the belief that God does not dwell in human-made temples [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). * **Megachurches:** These large, modern churches, popular among Evangelical Christians in the US, often feature multiple facilities like gymnasiums, classrooms, and coffee shops, in addition to chapels. They serve as significant recruiting tools and offer convenience for congregations, but their extravagant building programs have sparked controversy regarding the allocation of funds and their potential impact on smaller churches [18](#page=18). * **Simplicity and humility:** Some congregations, like the Puritans in New England, built simple, functional churches without elaborate artwork, reflecting principles of simplicity and humility. These buildings often served dual roles as civic centers before the concept of church-state separation was established [18](#page=18). * **Adaptive reuse:** Impoverished congregations may adapt secular buildings, such as abandoned gas stations or convenience stores, into sacred spaces. This practice raises questions about the process of sanctification and whether any space can become a "House of God" [19](#page=19). > **Tip:** Consider how architectural choices reflect specific theological interpretations and the societal context in which a religious group operates. > **Example:** The contrast between a monumental Catholic cathedral and a simple Amish meeting house highlights how theological beliefs directly influence the physical expression of religious practice in architecture. ### 3.2 Shrines and other sacred spaces Beyond formal buildings, various locations are imbued with sacred meaning. * **Sanctification:** Places can become sacred through formal consecration ceremonies performed by religious officials or through informal processes. Conversely, spaces can be deconsecrated through rituals, and their defilement is known as desecration [19](#page=19). * **Folk shrines:** In Catholic areas, small shrines, often dedicated to the Virgin Mary and housed in grottoes, are common. These can be fashioned from everyday objects, like old bathtubs [19](#page=19). * **Impromptu shrines:** Temporary shrines are often erected at the sites of tragedies, such as car accidents, where mourners place candles, crosses, and memorabilia, creating a sacred space for remembrance [19](#page=19). * **Public tragedy sites:** Locations of significant public tragedies, like Ground Zero in New York City, can be treated as sacred spaces, attracting pilgrimage and similar behavior observed in formally recognized sacred sites, such as hushed tones and slow movements. Monuments like the Lincoln Memorial can also subtly encourage visitors to treat the space as sacred [20](#page=20). > **Example:** The transformation of a street at the Oklahoma City bombing site into an impromptu memorial demonstrates how a space can become sacred through collective grief and remembrance, even without formal religious consecration [20](#page=20). ### 3.3 Religious holiday space Religious holidays can transform public spaces into quasi-religious areas, often blending religious and secular elements. * **Christmas:** In the US, the period leading up to Christmas sees secular spaces like shopping malls and roadsides become imbued with holiday spirit, featuring symbols like Santa Claus and Saint Nick, who are embraced by people of various faiths [20](#page=20). * **Public displays:** The display of religious symbols like nativity scenes and menorahs in public spaces, such as courthouses or parks, can lead to legal and ethical debates about the separation of church and state [20](#page=20). * **Public festivals:** Large religious festivals, like Mardi Gras, attract significant crowds and often involve public funding for parades and celebrations, blurring the lines between public and sacred space. While some celebrations like St. Patrick's Day parades and Halloween festivals pass with less controversy, others involving overt religious displays require judicial decisions on the permissible use of public space [20](#page=20). > **Tip:** Be aware of how popular holidays, even those with religious origins, can evolve to become secular celebrations with broad public appeal, sometimes leading to tensions regarding religious expression in public life. ### 3.4 Cemeteries as religious and sacred space Cemeteries, often publicly regulated, serve as significant religious and sacred landscapes that reveal societal attitudes towards death and the afterlife. * **Abrahamic faiths:** In Abrahamic religions, burial practices are linked to beliefs about the end times and resurrection. Muslims bury the dead facing Mecca, while Christians traditionally bury them facing east to greet Christ on Judgment Day [21](#page=21). * **Land use implications:** The extensive use of land for burial has significant geographical implications, particularly in densely populated or ancient cities. Some cultures consider burial grounds inviolable, while others permit the reuse or recycling of space [21](#page=21). * **Evolution of burial practices:** Historically, backyard cemeteries were common, reflecting different cultural attitudes toward death and property. Attitudes have shifted over time, with cemeteries evolving from being perceived as frightening to being treated as tranquil spaces for reflection or even recreation [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22). * **Cemetery aesthetics and function:** Early New England cemeteries were often simple, with unmarked graves. Later, gravestones featured morbid imagery to remind the living of mortality. During the 19th century, cemeteries were designed to be park-like, offering a pleasant setting for encounters with death [22](#page=22). * **Modern trends:** The high cost and maintenance of traditional cemeteries have led to the popularity of memorial gardens with flat markers for easier mowing. Concerns about uniformity in markers are also leading to increased interest in cremation and natural burial as more cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternatives [22](#page=22). > **Example:** Immigrant families in Los Angeles often engage in picnics near gravesites of relatives, indicating a cultural comfort with death and burial that contrasts with a more common American perception of cemeteries as "creepy." [22](#page=22). ### 3.5 Spatial distribution of religious groups in the US The distribution of religious groups is influenced by migration patterns and cultural assimilation. * **Buddhist distribution:** In the US, Buddhists are primarily found in California and major East Coast cities, reflecting the migration of Asian Americans. Their numbers are difficult to quantify due to less emphasis on formal congregations compared to some other religions [17](#page=17). > **Tip:** The spatial patterns of religious groups are dynamic and are often a direct result of historical and ongoing patterns of human migration and settlement. --- # Interactions between religion and society This topic explores the complex interplay between religion and various societal aspects, particularly politics, economics, and the environment in the United States [23](#page=23). ### 4.1 Religion and politics Religious affiliation is a significant predictor of political behavior in the United States. Historically, Evangelical Christians and Mormons have consistently ranked among the most politically conservative voters. For a considerable period after the Civil War, many Southern Baptists were strong supporters of the Democratic Party. The 1980s saw the emergence of a strong alliance between Republicans and conservative Christians, often referred to as the "Reagan Revolution". This shift was partly motivated by the Democratic Party's support for Civil Rights for African-Americans, but "hot-button" religious issues, such as abortion, were crucial in driving many Evangelicals towards the Republican Party. Prominent television ministers like Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson were instrumental in this movement. However, the alliance with the pro-business and anti-taxation elements of the Republican Party has created some internal tension for certain Evangelical Christians, particularly due to Biblical restrictions on usury, which conflict with Republican policies advocating for deregulation of interest rate caps [23](#page=23). > **Tip:** Understanding historical voting patterns and the influence of religious leaders can provide insight into the evolution of religious and political alliances. ### 4.2 Religion and economics Religious beliefs exert a considerable influence on a wide range of economic activities. Many religions traditionally condemn the charging of interest on loans, which historically limited lending practices in many parts of the world. For centuries, Jewish people, facing fewer religious restrictions on usury, dominated the banking industry, experiencing little competition until Christian doctrines on usury began to shift after the Reformation. This historical context partly explains the long-standing involvement of Jewish communities in banking and jewelry industries [24](#page=24). Similarly, many Evangelical Christians and Mormons strictly forbid the consumption of alcohol, leading to a scarcity of wineries in regions like Utah or Alabama. Conversely, California's historical ties to Catholicism have contributed to the flourishing of its profitable viticulture industry. Dietary restrictions, such as the abstention from pork by Muslims, Jews, and some Christians, mean that pig farming is not a prominent industry in regions like Israel or the broader Muslim world. Furthermore, in many parts of India, where abstaining from all meat is common due to religious practices, animal husbandry is not a likely career path [24](#page=24). > **Example:** The geographical distribution of industries like alcohol production or pig farming can be directly correlated with the dominant religious demographics and their associated consumption taboos. ### 4.3 Religion and the environment Religious beliefs also significantly shape how people interact with the natural environment. In American history, Christian attitudes towards nature, particularly concerning the exploitation of natural resources, have had notable consequences. The Puritans in New England, who had fled Europe during a time when pre-Christian nature religions were still practiced, held a rather negative view of the vast New England forests. They viewed cities as places of orderliness, reflecting God's plan, and considered Boston a "holy beacon". Farming landscapes were also favored for their perceived orderliness, in contrast to the chaos of wild places where Satan was believed to be influential. Literary works from the 18th century, such as Nathaniel Hawthorne's *The Scarlet Letter*, exemplify these views, and the idea of wilderness as a chaotic and sinful place persists today in horror films often set in forests where characters meet dire fates after abandoning moral principles. Even the name of the NHL ice hockey team, the New Jersey Devils, is linked to this historical Christian apprehension of forests and untamed wilderness [24](#page=24). In the 19th century, attitudes toward wilderness began to shift. Previously seen as a place of chaos and moral confusion, figures like John Muir began to advocate for wilderness as a space for spiritual communion. As the Industrial Revolution and modern capitalism reshaped society, religious individuals started to re-evaluate earlier Puritanical ideas. Today, many perceive cities as centers of moral degradation and spiritual corruption, while viewing wilderness areas as free from urban sinfulness, often referred to as "God's Country" [25](#page=25). These contrasting philosophical positions continue to influence public opinion, and religious affiliation has a substantial impact on views regarding climate change and deforestation. Individuals whose religions emphasize stewardship of the natural environment are more likely to hold positive views of environmentalism. Conversely, those who believe the earth is provided by God for human use as they see fit may be less concerned about issues like coal mining or pipelines. This latter perspective is more prevalent among religious conservatives in the United States. Some Christian Fundamentalists interpret ecological catastrophes, such as global climate change, as signs of the approaching Apocalypse or "Rapture," viewing them as welcome indicators of the end-of-days [25](#page=25). > **Tip:** Recognize the dualistic nature of religious perspectives on the environment – one emphasizing stewardship and the other dominion, and how these have evolved historically. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Religion | A system of beliefs that connects humans to the supernatural, often characterized by sacred rules, rituals, and practices that form the basis for group and individual identities. | | Supernatural | A force, being, or event that is beyond the natural world and its scientific laws, often considered divine or mystical in religious contexts. | | Adherents | Individuals who are committed to and practice a particular religion or belief system. | | Proselytic Faiths | Religions that actively recruit new members and seek to convert people to their faith, often engaging in missionary activities. | | Universal Religions | Religions that are open to anyone to join, regardless of their background or ethnicity, and often actively seek converts. | | Ethnic Religions | Religions that are typically passed down through family and community, and membership is usually obtained by birth rather than conversion. | | Monotheistic | The belief in or worship of a single, all-powerful God. | | Polytheistic | The belief in or worship of multiple gods, often with distinct roles and powers. | | Pantheistic | The belief that the divine is present in everything and that the universe itself is God or a manifestation of God. | | Congregation | A group of people who assemble regularly for religious worship, typically in a church or other place of worship. | | Secularization | The process by which religion loses its social and cultural significance, and religious beliefs and practices become less influential in public life. | | Denominations | Subdivisions within a larger religious group or faith, often differing in interpretation of doctrine or practice. | | Cults | Frequently used to refer to smaller, often newer religious groups, which can carry a derogatory connotation in popular usage but is a neutral term in academic contexts. | | Abrahamic Religions | A major monotheistic religion family originating in the Middle East, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all tracing their spiritual lineage back to Abraham. | | Indian Religions | A family of religions originating on the Indian subcontinent, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. | | Religiosity | The degree to which religion is important in a person's life and influences their behavior and beliefs. | | Secularization | The process by which religious institutions and practices lose their influence in society, leading to a decline in religious belief and affiliation. | | Great Schism | A historical division within Christianity that resulted in the separation of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1054. | | Protestant Reformation | A 16th-century religious movement that led to the establishment of Protestant churches and denominations, breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church. | | Protestant | A member of a Christian denomination that separated from the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation. | | Roman Catholic Church | The largest Christian church, headed by the Pope, with a hierarchical structure and a tradition of emphasizing the authority of the Church and its teachings. | | Eastern Orthodox Church | A major branch of Christianity that originated in the Byzantine Empire, characterized by its distinct theology, liturgy, and hierarchical structure. | | Evangelical Protestants | A diverse group of Protestant Christians who emphasize personal conversion, the authority of the Bible, and the importance of evangelism. | | Mainline Protestants | A broad category of Protestant denominations, generally considered more theologically liberal and progressive than Evangelical Protestants. | | Latter-day Saints (LDS) | Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a religious movement that originated in the United States in the 19th century. | | Second Great Awakening | A period of religious revival in the United States during the early 19th century, characterized by increased church membership and the rise of new religious denominations. | | Sunni Muslims | The largest branch of Islam, comprising about 80-85% of all Muslims, who follow the traditional teachings and practices of the faith. | | Shia Muslims | A smaller branch of Islam, comprising about 15-20% of all Muslims, who believe that leadership of the Muslim community should have passed down through Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. | | Qur’an | The holy book of Islam, believed by Muslims to be the literal word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. | | Five Pillars of Islam | The core religious duties of observant Muslims: Shahada (profession of faith), Salat (prayer), Zakat (alms giving), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). | | Shahada | The Islamic declaration of faith: "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger." | | Salat | The ritualistic prayer performed by Muslims five times a day at prescribed times. | | Zakat | A mandatory charitable contribution by Muslims to the poor and needy, considered one of the Five Pillars of Islam. | | Sawm | Fasting from food and drink from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan, one of the Five Pillars of Islam. | | Hajj | The pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, that observant Muslims are required to make at least once in their lifetime, if physically and financially able. | | Judaism | An ancient monotheistic religion originating in the Middle East, characterized by its emphasis on the Torah, covenant with God, and adherence to Jewish law. | | Orthodox Jews | Adherents of Judaism who strictly follow Jewish law and traditions, often maintaining a separate lifestyle from the mainstream society. | | Reform Jews | Adherents of Judaism who interpret Jewish law and tradition in a more liberal and modern context, often adapting to contemporary society. | | Ashkenazi Jews | Jews of European descent, particularly from Central and Eastern Europe, who have distinct cultural and linguistic traditions. | | Sephardic Jews | Jews of Middle Eastern and Mediterranean descent, with their own distinct cultural and linguistic traditions. | | Hinduism | A major religion originating in the Indian subcontinent, characterized by a diverse range of beliefs, practices, and deities, and its concepts of karma, dharma, and reincarnation. | | Karma | The principle of cause and effect, where actions in this life influence one's future lives and destiny. | | Dharma | One's duty, righteousness, or ideal way of living in accordance with cosmic order. | | Reincarnation | The belief that the soul or spirit, after biological death, can begin a new life in a new body. | | Nirvana | A state of perfect peace and happiness, achieved through the extinction of suffering and desire, particularly in Buddhism and Hinduism. | | Yoga | A set of physical, mental, and spiritual practices originating in ancient India, aimed at achieving spiritual goals and inner peace. | | Buddhism | A religion and philosophy originating in India, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), based on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to enlightenment. | | Four Noble Truths | The core teachings of Buddhism, explaining the nature of suffering, its causes, its cessation, and the path to achieve it. | | Eightfold Path | The Buddhist path to enlightenment, comprising right understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. | | Mahayana Buddhism | A major branch of Buddhism that emphasizes the concept of the bodhisattva and the potential for all sentient beings to achieve enlightenment. | | Theravada Buddhism | A major branch of Buddhism that emphasizes the original teachings of the Buddha and the path to arhatship, typically followed in Southeast Asia. | | Tibetan Buddhism | A form of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in Tibet, incorporating unique philosophical traditions, rituals, and practices. | | Religious Landscape | The visible manifestations of religious beliefs and practices on the physical environment, including architecture, sacred sites, and symbolic representations. | | Sacred Architecture | Buildings and structures designed and constructed for religious purposes, often reflecting the beliefs, values, and aesthetics of a particular faith. | | Megachurches | Large, modern Evangelical Christian churches that offer a wide range of services and facilities, often acting as community centers. | | Desecration | The act of violating or disrespecting a sacred place, object, or person. | | Shrines | Sacred places or structures dedicated to a deity, saint, or revered person, often serving as focal points for prayer and devotion. | | Quasi-religious Space | Areas or locations that exhibit characteristics of sacred space but are not formally designated as such, often associated with holidays or public events. | | Cemeteries | Burial grounds where the deceased are interred, serving as both a physical space for the dead and often a place for remembrance and reflection for the living. | | Cultural Ecology of Religion | The study of how religion interacts with other cultural elements, such as economics, politics, ethnicity, and the environment, and how these interactions shape societies and landscapes. | | Usury | The practice of lending money at an exorbitant rate of interest, often condemned by religious doctrines. | | Viticulture | The cultivation of grapes, often associated with winemaking, and influenced by regional religious traditions and economic activities. | | Stewardship | The responsible management and care of the natural environment, often a concept emphasized in religious ethics. | | Apocalypse | A prophetic revelation, especially one concerning the end of the world or a major cataclysmic event. | | Rapture | In some Christian eschatological beliefs, the event where living believers will be "caught up" to meet Christ in the air. |