Specialized translation.pdf

# Scientific translation challenges and strategies This section outlines key considerations and practical approaches for overcoming common obstacles encountered in scientific translation, focusing on formulas, file management, and effective internet utilization [47](#page=47). ### 1.1 Formulas and equations In most scientific translations, formulas and equations typically do not require modification. However, translators must exercise caution with symbols used within regular text to avoid confusion. For instance, the symbols 'µ' and 'u' can be easily mistaken [48](#page=48). #### 1.1.1 Handling symbols If the exact identity of a symbol is unclear, a common strategy is to try changing the font to improve legibility. The primary translation strategy for formulas and equations is to copy and paste them directly, retaining their original form [48](#page=48). #### 1.1.2 Symbol adaptation In a few specific instances, symbols might need to be adapted to align with the target language conventions. An example of this is translating the symbol for weight, 'W' (from English), to 'P' for 'peso' in Spanish [48](#page=48). ### 1.2 Managing and naming files Effective file management is crucial for maintaining organization and preventing data loss during the translation process [49](#page=49). #### 1.2.1 Storing files For each project, it is recommended to create a master folder. Within this master folder, separate subfolders should be established for source files and translated files. Additionally, dedicated folders should be created for reference materials and glossaries [49](#page=49). #### 1.2.2 Translating files When possible, use a System Template (ST) as a template to overwrite, which helps preserve formatting. If a template is not available, the translator should mirror the original formatting. It is imperative never to work on the only copy of a source file; instead, upload it to a Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tool or create a copy and save it in the target language (TL) folder [49](#page=49). #### 1.2.3 File naming conventions When saving translated files, maintain the original file name and append the appropriate ISO language code, such as `_ES` for Spanish or `_EN` for English [49](#page=49). ### 1.3 Using the internet The internet is an invaluable resource for obtaining necessary information, but it requires careful navigation and critical evaluation to ensure reliability [50](#page=50). #### 1.3.1 Finding relevant information * **Parallel texts:** These are exceptionally useful resources that aid understanding and serve as a rich source of terminology [50](#page=50). * **Search engines:** Maximizing their utility involves using quotation marks for exact phrase searches and employing advanced search functions. Further advanced search operators like `SITE:` and `FILETYPE:` can also be beneficial [50](#page=50). * **Terminology resources:** Specialized databases such as IATE, UNTERM, Termium, and Termcat are essential for terminology research. Search engines can be used effectively by combining the target term with a related word in the target language or a best guess. Linguee can be used as a preliminary tool, but with caution [50](#page=50). * **Translators' forums:** Platforms like ProZ allow translators to seek advice from peers, but information from these forums should be used with discernment [50](#page=50). > **Tip:** While translators' forums can offer valuable insights, always cross-reference information and exercise critical judgment before adopting suggestions [50](#page=50). > **Tip:** When using search engines, remember that advanced search operators can significantly refine your results [50](#page=50). --- # Medical specialities and communicative situations This section delves into the diverse landscape of medical specialities and the various communicative situations and reader profiles encountered within the medical field [59](#page=59). ### 2.1 Medical specialities Medical translation encompasses the communication of knowledge across a wide array of medical specialities. These include, but are not limited to [59](#page=59): * Internal Medicine [59](#page=59). * Obstetrics and Gynaecology [59](#page=59). * Orthopaedics [59](#page=59). * Paediatrics [59](#page=59). * Psychiatry [59](#page=59). * Surgery [59](#page=59). * Pharmacology [59](#page=59). Beyond these core medical disciplines, medical translation may also involve knowledge from related fields such as anthropology, psychology, and sociology, highlighting the vastness of the subject matter [59](#page=59). ### 2.2 Communicative situations and participants The communicative situations in the medical field are exceptionally broad, extending beyond interactions among researchers to include communications involving health professionals, patients, and the general public regarding health matters [60](#page=60). Key communicative functions within this domain include: * Dissemination of biomedical research among specialists [60](#page=60). * Dissemination of relevant research through mass media [60](#page=60). * Education of health professionals at universities [60](#page=60). * Education of patients [60](#page=60). * Processes related to the approval of new drugs [60](#page=60). * Advertising of health products and services [60](#page=60). * Communication within hospitals and health centres [60](#page=60). * Public health campaigns by health institutions [60](#page=60). #### 2.2.1 Reader profiles There are five main reader profiles, each with distinct levels of knowledge and experience, leading to different degrees of specialisation. These profiles are [61](#page=61): * General readers [61](#page=61). * Patients [61](#page=61). * Students [61](#page=61). * Health professionals [61](#page=61). * Researchers [61](#page=61). Each reader group engages with information for different reasons and utilizes it in diverse ways. The application of information varies according to the reader profile [61](#page=61): * General readers seek information for preventing disease [61](#page=61). * Patients use information for treating disease [61](#page=61). * Students utilize information to become health professionals [61](#page=61). * Health professionals apply information for implementing knowledge in their practice [61](#page=61). * Researchers engage with information for advancing knowledge in their field [61](#page=61). The choice of a particular genre for communication is contingent upon the specific communicative situation and the reader's profile, needs, and intended application of the information [61](#page=61). ### 2.3 Frequently translated medical genres Medical genres can be broadly categorized into four main groups based on their societal roles [62](#page=62). #### 2.3.1 Research genres These genres are employed by researchers and physicians in hospitals, research centres, laboratories, and universities across all medical specialities to communicate their findings. They serve as primary sources of information and are typically highly standardized. Examples include [62](#page=62): * Research papers [62](#page=62). * Review articles [62](#page=62). * Case reports [62](#page=62). * Clinical trial protocols [62](#page=62). * Conference proceedings [62](#page=62). #### 2.3.2 Professional genres Professional genres are utilized by health professionals, such as doctors, nurses, technicians, and managers, in their daily work within clinics and the health industry. Examples of these genres include [63](#page=63): * Informed consents [63](#page=63). * Clinical guidelines [63](#page=63). * Standard operating procedures [63](#page=63). * Summary of product characteristics [63](#page=63). * Manuals [63](#page=63). * Medical questionnaires [63](#page=63). * Medical histories [63](#page=63). #### 2.3.3 Educational genres Educational genres are employed for teaching and learning purposes across a wide spectrum of contexts, ranging from university courses and institutional campaigns to domestic life. Commonly translated educational genres include [64](#page=64): * Fact sheets/brochures for patients [64](#page=64). * Patient information leaflets [64](#page=64). * Course books [64](#page=64). * Popularising articles [64](#page=64). * Medical encyclopaedias [64](#page=64). #### 2.3.4 Commercial genres Commercial genres are used for the sale and purchase of products and services within the health sector. This category encompasses [65](#page=65): * Drug advertisements [65](#page=65). * Vial and carton labels [65](#page=65). * Catalogues [65](#page=65). * Patents [65](#page=65). * Press releases [65](#page=65). It is important to note that some genres, such as dictionaries and encyclopaedias, can appropriately belong to more than one category [65](#page=65). --- # Understanding medical and scientific text genres This section explores the characteristics of various medical and scientific text genres, categorizing them by their level of specialization and primary rhetorical purpose [91](#page=91). ### 3.1 Categorization of genres Medical and scientific texts can be broadly classified based on two key dimensions: the level of specialization and the dominant rhetorical purpose [91](#page=91). #### 3.1.1 Level of specialization This refers to the intended audience and the depth of technical knowledge assumed [91](#page=91). * **Little specialized / Rather general:** Texts intended for a broad audience with limited prior knowledge [91](#page=91). * **Highly specialized:** Texts aimed at experts or those with advanced training in a specific field [91](#page=91). #### 3.1.2 Rhetorical purpose This describes the main function or goal of the text [91](#page=91). * **Instructive:** To teach or provide guidance [91](#page=91). * **Expository:** To explain or inform [91](#page=91). * **Argumentative:** To persuade or advocate for a particular viewpoint [91](#page=91). ### 3.2 Examples of medical and scientific text genres The interplay of specialization and purpose leads to distinct genre types [91](#page=91). #### 3.2.1 Popular science texts These texts generally fall into the "little specialized" category and often have an "expository" or "instructive" purpose [91](#page=91). * **Popular science book:** Aims to make complex scientific concepts accessible to the general public [91](#page=91). * **Article (in popular science publications):** Similar to popular science books, these articles explain scientific topics to a non-specialist audience [91](#page=91). > **Tip:** Popular science genres often employ engaging narratives and analogies to explain scientific ideas, prioritizing comprehension over technical precision. #### 3.2.2 Highly specialized texts These texts are designed for audiences with expert knowledge and typically serve an "expository" or "argumentative" purpose [91](#page=91). * **Scientific paper:** A core genre in academic research, presenting original findings, methodologies, and analyses to a specialized community [91](#page=91). * **Fact sheet for patients:** While often aimed at a general audience, these can vary in their level of detail and may include more specific medical information, bordering on instructive or expository for a particular health condition [90](#page=90). > **Example:** A scientific paper detailing a new drug's efficacy would be highly specialized and primarily expository, while a promotional article in a general health magazine about the same drug might be less specialized and more persuasive (argumentative). The document also mentions "Montalt & González-Davies (2007: 58)" in relation to medical genres and their rhetorical purpose, and "Montalt (2005: 83)" without further specific context within the provided pages [90](#page=90) [93](#page=93). --- # Case studies in technical contexts Case studies in technical contexts are marketing texts that use real-world examples of customer success to promote a company's products or services . ### 4.1 Definition and terminology * **Alternative names:** These texts are also known as customer stories, success stories, or similar variations. In Spanish, they can be referred to as "estudios de caso," "historias de clientes," "historias de éxito," "casos prácticos," or "casos de éxito," depending on the company . * **Purpose:** The primary goal is to demonstrate how potential customers can benefit from a company's offerings by showcasing a real-world application. They aim to build trust by presenting a positive customer experience, especially when a well-known client is featured . ### 4.2 Content and stylistic features * **Textual blend:** These case studies combine technical language with elements of marketing and journalism . * **Persuasive nature:** They are argumentative texts designed to persuade potential customers of the company's expertise through practical examples . * **Credibility enhancement:** The inclusion of quotes, names of individuals within the client company, and their job titles personalizes the text and adds credibility . * **Industry terminology:** The language often incorporates terminology from both the company's own business and the client's industry, not necessarily limited to the specific technology involved . * **Positive framing:** The language used reflects a very positive experience from the featured customer, reinforcing the promotional aspect . > **Tip:** Selecting the "right" customer to feature, such as a large or well-respected brand, can significantly enhance the credibility and persuasive power of a case study . ### 4.3 Design and structure * **Aesthetics:** The design is typically attractive, presenting information clearly and concisely . * **Subsections:** Subsections are often introduced by short, attention-grabbing headings followed by text formatted in bold and italics . * **Typical elements:** A common structure includes: * A catchy headline . * A summary quote or testimonial from the client, alongside quotes from interviews . * A description of the client's business activities and needs, outlining the problem or challenge they faced . * An explanation of how the company provided the solution to the client's problem . * Visual aids such as diagrams, statistics, and images . ### 4.4 Publication and usage * **Formats:** Case studies are published on company webpages or as printable PDF documents . * **Marketing integration:** They are actively incorporated into marketing and sales efforts to engage potential clients . --- # Technical data sheet and safety data sheet Technical data sheets (TDS) and safety data sheets (SDS) are crucial documents providing comprehensive information about a product's composition, properties, applications, safety, and legal considerations . ### 5.1 Purpose and standardization The primary aim of TDS and SDS is to deliver clear, detailed, and unambiguous information regarding various product aspects. This ensures the product is used correctly, safely, and in compliance with relevant legislation. While the specific content can differ based on the product, company, or country-specific legal requirements, these documents are highly standardized, featuring consistent sections, terminology, and language . > **Tip:** The standardization of TDS and SDS is vital for ensuring consistency and facilitating understanding across different users and regions. ### 5.2 Audience and textual features TDS and SDS are typically targeted towards an expert audience, such as engineers and designers, making them highly specialized texts. They exhibit many characteristics common to technical texts, including a large amount of specialized terminology and acronyms, factual data, figures, graphics, and references to regulations and standards . ### 5.3 Content and function #### 5.3.1 Technical data sheet (TDS) The Technical Data Sheet (TDS) primarily serves as a reference to assist users in selecting the appropriate product and confirming that its intended application falls within its capabilities. It can also fulfill a marketing function for the product . #### 5.3.2 Safety data sheet (SDS) The Safety Data Sheet (SDS) provides critical safety information, which typically includes: * Hazard pictograms . * Signal words . * Hazard statements . * Precautionary statements . * And other essential safety details . > **Tip:** Understanding the specific components of an SDS is crucial for safe handling and emergency response related to a product. ### 5.4 Interrelation Both the TDS and SDS are closely related documents, and consistency between them is important. This ensures that the information provided about a product's characteristics and its safe usage is coherent and complementary . --- # Handling latinisms and scientific nomenclature in translation This topic addresses the complexities and strategies involved in translating Latin-derived terms and scientific nomenclature [38](#page=38). ### 5.1 The nature of latinisms and scientific nomenclature Latin has historically served as a lingua franca among scientists, leading to the prevalence of Latin terms and phrases in various fields. These terms, often assimilated into national languages, retain a strong resemblance across European languages due to minor grammatical and orthographic modifications. Scientific nomenclature, conversely, is a system designed to assign unique names to species of animals and plants, providing scientists with stable, simple, and internationally recognized methods for naming organisms. Examples include names like *corydoras paleatus* for the peppered Cory catfish. Latin is also utilized in medical contexts for anatomical directional terms, such as *superior* and *inferior* [38](#page=38). ### 5.2 Advantages of scientific nomenclature The benefits of employing a standardized scientific nomenclature are significant: * Each species receives a unique designation, ensuring distinct identification [39](#page=39). * These names are universally understood by experts across all countries and languages [39](#page=39). * The system promotes consistency in spelling and stability in meaning, avoiding ambiguities that can arise from common names, such as the difference between "tadpole" (UK) and "polliwog" (US) for a batrachian larva [39](#page=39). ### 5.3 Translation strategies for latinisms and scientific nomenclature For translators, scientific nomenclature and latinisms offer specific considerations: * **Retain:** In most instances, Latin terms can be retained in the target text, typically presented in italics [40](#page=40). * **Explain:** This strategy involves providing both the Latin name and its common target language (TL) equivalent, either parenthetically or as an explanatory phrase preceding or following the Latin term. This is particularly useful when translating for a general audience that may lack the specialized background of the source text's intended readers, such as in medical articles [40](#page=40). * **Replace:** Replacement is recommended when the target audience (TA) or TL has limited exposure to Latin terminology [40](#page=40). > **Tip:** When dealing with scientific nomenclature, the consistency and international recognition of these terms can be a significant aid in identifying commonly used equivalents in the target language [39](#page=39). > > **Tip:** Always be vigilant for misspellings in Latin terms or scientific nomenclature, as accuracy is paramount [39](#page=39). ### 5.4 Context of scientific texts in translation Scientific papers are highly specialized texts describing original research results, intended to inform and persuade peers about the validity of observations, conclusions, and methods. The typical audience consists of scientists and academics who share a similar expert background with the author, leading to a high density of specialized terminology. These papers commonly follow a structured format, often including an Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods (or separate Materials and Procedures sections), Results, Discussion, Conclusions, and References. The IMRaD (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure is also prevalent [42](#page=42) [45](#page=45) [46](#page=46). #### 5.4.1 Key sections of scientific papers * **Title:** Should be informative, clearly conveying the core aspects of the research [43](#page=43). * **Abstract:** A condensed summary of the paper's content, crucial for determining if the main text will be read. It must be self-contained and can sometimes contain language errors if written by non-native authors [43](#page=43). * **Keywords:** Essential for indexing and search engine optimization, these terms must be representative and specific to the research [43](#page=43). * **Introduction:** Provides the necessary background information and context for the study, explains the rationale behind its conduct, and clearly states the study's aims. It may also offer a brief overview of the methodology [44](#page=44). * **Materials:** Details the materials used in the study, which can be highly technical and include trademarked names [45](#page=45). * **Procedure:** A step-by-step description of the experimental actions, typically in the past tense. It often incorporates acronyms and units of measure, requiring accuracy, clarity, and consistency for study reliability and repeatability [45](#page=45). * **Results:** Presents an objective statement of findings and data, which may include numbers, statistics, and descriptions, without interpretive discussion [45](#page=45). * **Discussion:** Analyzes, interprets, and explains the findings. The language here can be more complex, employing set phrases for opinions, beliefs, probabilities, and doubts, and may also address study limitations [46](#page=46). * **Conclusions:** If present, this section summarizes the hypothesis, key results, and main conclusions derived from the discussion, potentially including suggestions for future research [46](#page=46). * **References:** Establish the origin of ideas, justify claims, provide context, and demonstrate engagement with the research field. Journals usually specify the required bibliographical style, which may necessitate translation of certain details, such as the place of publication [46](#page=46). > **Example:** When translating a scientific paper, retaining the Latin name of a plant or organism in italics, such as *Quercus robur*, followed by the common English name "English oak" in parentheses, would be an instance of the "retain and explain" strategy [40](#page=40). --- # Medical genres and their characteristics This section explores various medical genres and their distinguishing features, focusing on educational genres like fact sheets for patients. ### 7.1 Classification of medical genres Medical genres can be broadly categorized, with some genres potentially fitting into multiple classifications. One significant category is commercial genres, which are utilized for the sale and purchase of health-related products and services. Examples of commercial genres include [65](#page=65): * Drug advertisements [65](#page=65). * Vial and carton labels [65](#page=65). * Catalogues [65](#page=65). * Patents [65](#page=65). * Press releases [65](#page=65). * And others [65](#page=65). ### 7.2 Educational genres: Fact sheets for patients Fact sheets for patients (FSP), also referred to as "patient [information brochure/booklet" or "patient leaflet," fall under the category of educational genres. These documents are typically produced by health organizations such as governmental bodies (local, national, or international), patients' associations, professional associations, research institutes, hospitals, or medical societies [68](#page=68). The primary purpose of an FSP is to convey essential information to patients about a specific disease, condition, medicine, or medical procedure. Patient education is recognized as a crucial element in both managing existing diseases and preventing their onset [68](#page=68). > **Tip:** It is important to distinguish fact sheets for patients (FSP) from patient information leaflets (PIL). PILs are documents enclosed within the outer packaging of a medicine and are issued by pharmaceutical companies [68](#page=68). #### 7.2.1 Features of fact sheets for patients Fact sheets for patients possess several key characteristics that distinguish them: * **Language:** These documents are usually written by health professionals with the intent that patients and the general public can comprehend the content. The information is presented in a clear, concise, and easy-to-read manner [69](#page=69). * **Structure:** FSPs are organized hierarchically, starting with the most fundamental information. They employ headings that briefly summarize the most significant aspects of the disease or condition being discussed [69](#page=69). * **Sources of information:** The information presented in FSPs is typically derived from highly reliable and well-established medical sources, such as clinical handbooks. These fact sheets can be considered elaborations and re-contextualizations of texts found in more specialized medical genres [69](#page=69). * **Terminology:** Medical terms within fact sheets are frequently accompanied by explanations to ensure understanding for the target audience [69](#page=69). > **Example:** A fact sheet on diabetes might start with a general definition of the disease, followed by sections on symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment options, and lifestyle recommendations, all presented in accessible language with explanations for any technical terms. ### 7.3 Further reading For a more in-depth exploration of medical translation and genres, the following source is recommended: Montalt, V. & González Davies, M. *Medical Translation Step by Step*. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing: pages 15-45, 52-53 [66](#page=66). --- # Case reports in medical literature Case reports are a fundamental and long-standing format in medical literature used to communicate detailed observations of individual patient cases, primarily for educational and research stimulation purposes [78](#page=78). ### 8.1 Definition and origins Case reports, also known by terms such as clinical/medical case report, (clinical) case study, clinical case, or case history have their origins in medical teaching from the 19th century. This era saw a shift from purely theoretical discussions to a more practical, bedside analysis of cases, aiming to help other clinicians recognize and manage similar problems. In Spanish, they are referred to as "caso clínico". A case report is written by a clinician to describe and discuss a specific instance of a disease in a single patient targeting a broad medical audience [78](#page=78). ### 8.2 Purpose and communicative functions The primary reasons for publishing a case report are when a case presents a unique condition, an unusual manifestation of a common condition, or details an innovative treatment or diagnostic strategy, thereby holding significant educational value [79](#page=79). The communicative functions of case reports include: * Sharing relevant clinical information with other clinicians to enhance their clinical practice [79](#page=79). * Stimulating further research in a particular medical field or on a specific issue [79](#page=79). * Educating medical students on how to approach complex clinical scenarios efficiently [79](#page=79). Typically, case reports describe an aspect of a patient's condition, the treatment administered, and any adverse reactions observed. They are generally considered highly specialized [79](#page=79). ### 8.3 Content and style Case reports are usually expository texts, meaning they primarily present facts through narration and description with little to no argumentation or instruction [80](#page=80). > **Example:** "H.L. is a 46 year old Afro-American female, with a past medical history significant for hypothyroidism and beta-thalassemia, who was otherwise healthy until two weeks prior to admission. At that time she noted onset of a sore throat, malaise and low-grade fevers. Four days prior to admission, she experienced fever to 104ºF, chills, nausea and vomiting, and arthralgias and myalgias. She presented to the John Hopkins Bayview Medical." [80](#page=80). A prominent example of a platform for publishing case reports is: https://jmedicalcasereports.biomedcentral.com/ [80](#page=80). ### 8.4 Contribution to scientific research Case reports contain primary information that has not been previously published, thus contributing to scientific research by rapidly disseminating new and up-to-date information. However, they are considered a weaker form of research due to relying on the evidence of only a single case. Despite this limitation, they provide foundational information for more systematic and sophisticated scientific studies, such as case series [81](#page=81). > **Tip:** Readers of a case report should aim to clearly understand the patient's experience, the timeline of events, and the rationale behind the management decisions made [81](#page=81). ### 8.5 Standard structure The typical structure of a case report includes several common sections [82](#page=82): * Title * Author(s) * Abstract * Introduction * Case description/case presentation (encompassing case history, examination, and intervention) – this is generally considered the most important section [82](#page=82). * Discussion * Conclusions * References --- # Ethical considerations and client types in medical translation This section explores the paramount ethical considerations in medical translation and categorizes the diverse types of clients medical translators engage with [84](#page=84). ### 9.1 Ethical priorities in medical translation The core ethical imperative in both medicine and medical translation is to act with knowledge and skill, given that patients' health and lives are at stake. This underscores the critical importance of several key principles [84](#page=84): * **Accuracy and validity of information:** Ensuring that the translated content is factually correct and medically sound is non-negotiable [84](#page=84). * **Clarity:** The translated text must be easily understandable to the target audience, avoiding ambiguity [84](#page=84). * **Confidentiality:** Protecting sensitive patient and client information is a fundamental ethical duty [84](#page=84). * **Promotion of understanding, respect, and empathy:** Medical translation should foster positive communication and attitudes among all parties involved [84](#page=84). The weight of these principles can vary depending on the specific genre of the medical text being translated [84](#page=84). ### 9.2 Types of clients in medical translation Medical translators interact with a broad spectrum of clients, broadly categorized into the public and private sectors [86](#page=86). #### 9.2.1 Public sector clients Clients in the public sector include: * International institutions such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Red Cross [86](#page=86). * Government agencies [86](#page=86). * Universities [86](#page=86). * Research institutes [86](#page=86). * Hospitals and health services, particularly in countries with significant immigrant populations [86](#page=86). #### 9.2.2 Private sector clients Clients in the private sector encompass a range of entities, including: * Pharmaceutical laboratories [86](#page=86). * Publishers specializing in health-related content [86](#page=86). * Private hospitals [86](#page=86). * Manufacturers of medical appliances [86](#page=86). * The medical software industry [86](#page=86). * Private biomedical research centers [86](#page=86). * Biotechnology companies [86](#page=86). * Health and care managers and professionals [86](#page=86). It is common for medical translators to receive assignments from these private sector clients through translation agencies [86](#page=86). ### 9.3 Common tasks of the medical translator The responsibilities of a medical translator are diverse and can extend beyond simple text translation. Common tasks include [87](#page=87): * Translating texts intended for both internal use and external publication [87](#page=87). * Translating medical software and website content [87](#page=87). * Translating research articles, often into English [87](#page=87). * Revising and editing existing translations [87](#page=87). * Revising and editing original source texts [87](#page=87). * Rewriting and adapting texts for different audiences or purposes [87](#page=87). * Developing and maintaining terminological databases of medical terms [87](#page=87). * Planning and managing translation projects [87](#page=87). * Providing interpreting services in hospitals and health services [87](#page=87). * Performing sight translation (immediate oral translation of written text) [87](#page=87). > **Tip:** It is crucial for medical translators to always adhere strictly to the specifics of their translation assignment [87](#page=87). ### 9.4 Genres, rhetorical purpose, and level of specialization The nature of medical texts varies significantly, impacting the required skills and approach of the translator. This variation can be understood by considering the genre, its primary rhetorical purpose, and its level of specialization [88](#page=88). #### 9.4.1 Categorizing medical genres When analyzing translated medical genres, texts like patient fact sheets, the informative sections of informed consent documents, and case reports can be placed within a framework that considers their rhetorical purpose and specialization [89](#page=89). The main rhetorical purpose of various medical genres includes instructive, expository, and argumentative functions, combined with different levels of specialization (little specialized/rather general versus highly specialized) [90](#page=90) [91](#page=91). * **Fact sheets for patients** are typically instructional and aimed at a general audience [90](#page=90) [91](#page=91). * **Informed consent (informative part)** often has an instructive purpose, aiming to inform patients about a procedure or treatment [89](#page=89) [90](#page=90). * **Case reports** are generally expository, detailing specific patient cases, and can range in specialization depending on the journal or context [89](#page=89) [90](#page=90). #### 9.4.2 Categorizing scientific texts Other scientific texts encountered by translators can also be categorized based on their rhetorical purpose and specialization: * **Popular science books** are typically expository and aimed at a less specialized, general readership [91](#page=91). * **Articles in popular science publications** also serve an expository purpose for a broad audience [91](#page=91). * **Scientific papers** are highly specialized and primarily expository, often with argumentative elements, intended for an expert audience [91](#page=91). The following table illustrates the interplay between rhetorical purpose and level of specialization: | | + INSTRUCTIVE | + EXPOSITORY | + ARGUMENTATIVE | | :----------------------- | :-----------: | :----------: | :-------------: | | LITTLE SPECIALISED/RATHER GENERAL | | | | | HIGHLY SPECIALISED | | | | --- # Translating computer code and sample text Translating sample text and computer code involves specific considerations for technical translators, particularly in software localization, where understanding code structures and identifying translatable elements is crucial . ### 3.1 Understanding localization tasks Technical translators often engage in localization projects, which entails translating text that will be displayed within software applications or on websites. This includes user interfaces such as menus, text strings, error messages, and dialogue boxes. Additionally, online documentation like help files and "read me" files, along with technical documentation, marketing materials, and advertising content, require translation. Although translators are not programmers, they are expected to recognize code and tags and know how to handle them, as fragments of code may appear as ordinary text within sentences . ### 3.2 Identifying non-translatable code elements Several indicators can help translators identify elements that should not be translated : * **All uppercase words:** Words written exclusively in uppercase, such as "MENUITEM," are typically code elements and should not be translated . * **Consecutive words without spaces or linked by underscores:** Phrases like "CompanyName" or "Style\_Caption," where multiple words are joined without spaces or connected by underscores, are usually code identifiers and should remain untranslated . ### 3.3 Identifying translatable text within code contexts Conversely, certain elements, despite containing unusual characters or punctuation, require translation : * **Words with ampersands (`&`):** Ampersands preceding words often indicate hotkeys used for menu navigation. For example, "&View" translates to "View" and "F&ormat" to "Format" in a menu bar . * **Variables:** Variables serve as placeholders for information and are often identified by a preceding dollar sign (`$`) or percentage sign (`%`). For instance, "Your search returned $d results" might be translated with actual numbers, and "Are you sure you want to delete %1?" could become "Are you sure you want to delete PRESENTATION.DOC?" . * **Text including tags for formatting:** Text enclosed in tags like `` for bold or `` for italics should be translated while preserving the tags. For example, `hello` will display as **hello** . ### 3.4 Main strategies for translating code and sample text Several key strategies guide translators when dealing with code and sample text : * **Selective translation:** Not all text within computer code requires translation; translators should only translate the designated translatable portions . * **Do not translate compounds:** Phrases linked by underscores or written as single compound words should not be translated . * **Look for quotation marks:** Text enclosed within quotation marks generally needs to be translated . * **Preserve punctuation:** Punctuation, such as periods used to indicate menu options leading to dialogue boxes (e.g., "Print..."), should be maintained . > **Tip:** Always be mindful of the context. Text that looks like code might be a regular string in some cases, and vice versa. ### 3.5 Handling variables and tags When translating text that includes variables and formatting tags, specific rules apply to ensure functional integrity : * **Do not change variables:** Variables should never be deleted, modified, or rearranged within a string. For example, "Click %s to update %s" should be translated without altering the order or presence of `%s` placeholders, even if the surrounding text changes. Incorrect rearrangement can lead to nonsensical outputs like "To update Refresh, click DATABASE.MDB" . * **Keep tags in the right place:** Formatting tags, such as `` and ``, must be positioned correctly to enclose the text that should appear in bold . > **Example:** Given the source string "Click %s to update %s", a correct translation would be "Cliquez %s pour mettre à jour %s", preserving the variables. An incorrect translation might be "Pour mettre à jour %s, cliquez %s". ### 3.6 Special considerations and best practices Translators should also be aware of other nuances and follow best practices: * **Beware of single-word strings:** Single words can pose translation challenges, as their meaning might vary based on context. For instance, "None" can have multiple translations depending on grammatical gender, and "Contact" could be a verb for a button or a noun for a label . * **Match the software:** The translation must align with what is displayed on the software's screen to ensure consistency and user experience . * **Seek clarification:** When in doubt about any element or translation, it is essential to consult the project manager or the client for guidance . --- # Features of technical documents Technical documents are characterized by several key features that ensure clarity, accuracy, and functionality for their intended audience [99](#page=99). ### 11.1 Language The language used in technical documents is typically clear, straightforward, and functional, aiming for directness and conciseness. Clarity and simplicity are often achieved by employing simple declarative sentences and providing clear instructions in a chronological order. A logical cause-and-effect structure further enhances understanding. These documents also incorporate specialized terminology, including abbreviations and acronyms. Additionally, specialized terms may be used that could appear as general terms in other contexts, such as "jumper" in relation to an electrical device [99](#page=99). ### 11.2 Facts and figures Facts and figures are integral components of technical documents and can be presented in various ways: embedded within a sentence, listed as bullet points, or displayed in tables without additional textual explanation. The inclusion of units of measure is also a critical aspect of presenting factual data accurately . ### 11.3 References References are frequently used to direct readers to related information within the same document or to other external documents, emphasizing the need for consistency in referencing. It is common to find references to laws, directives, and standards, which serve to affirm a product's reliability and safety. In software-related documentation, references often point to diagrams, screenshots, interface elements, menus, or accompanying documents . ### 11.4 Graphics Graphics, such as diagrams, graphs, photographs, and screenshots, are extensively utilized in technical documents, particularly for software products. These visual representations serve two primary purposes : * **Reinforcing and supporting textual information:** Graphics help to visually confirm and strengthen the information conveyed through text, making consistency between the text and visual elements, like user interfaces, crucial . * **Conveying information quickly and effectively:** Graphics can present complex information in a clear, rapid, and efficient manner . --- # Giving warnings and advice Providing warnings and advice is crucial in addition to instructions, particularly for highlighting potential risks and ensuring safety. Legal frameworks necessitate clear and effective warning information, with legislation constantly evolving and requiring accurate translation of warnings and advisory content. It is important not to understate or overstate risks, and a range of words like "Note," "Warning," "Caution," and "Danger" are used to indicate the relative importance of the information. In Europe, there are now two signal words: "Warning" for less severe hazards and "Danger" for more severe hazards . ### 12.1 Symbols for warnings Historically, European hazard symbols were presented on an orange background and accompanied by text descriptions, which were translated into most official EU languages. Since 2009/2015, these have been replaced by international symbols, in accordance with "Regulation CLP" (Classification, Labelling and Packaging, EC No. 1272/2008) . ### 12.2 Hazard statements Hazard statements are descriptive phrases formulated for different categories of hazardous materials and the risks they pose to health and safety. They are used on packaging, in safety data sheets, or in documents related to product approval. The precise wording of these statements is critical as it is tested, accurate, legal, and recognizable . Previously, the EU utilized risk phrases (R phrases) and safety phrases (S phrases). For example, S2: "Keep out of the reach of children" had official translations in various languages. These have now been replaced by hazard and precautionary statements under Regulation CLP, with new and modified statements applicable from October 2020. An example is P102 – "Keep out of reach of children". These statements are also translated into official languages . > **Tip:** When translating, always refer to the official translations of hazard and precautionary statements to ensure accuracy and compliance . ### 12.3 Main strategies for giving warnings and advice When providing descriptions of substances or warnings related to their use, it is essential to use the same terminology as found in official regulations and descriptions. For instance, avoid replacing "toxic" with "poisonous" unless the official terminology dictates it . For descriptions of hazardous materials and hazard/precautionary statements, use the official translation provided in the target language (TL). Crucially, ensure that warning notices are translated consistently throughout the entire document . --- # Informed consent in medical practice Informed consent is a crucial ethical and legal principle in medical practice, ensuring that patients have the autonomy to make decisions about their healthcare based on adequate information [71](#page=71). ### 13.1 Scenarios and principles Informed consent primarily applies to two main scenarios: * **Consent to medical procedures:** Patients provide written consent for surgical or medical interventions [71](#page=71). * **Participation in clinical studies:** Consent is given for involvement in medical research, including trials for new drugs, procedures, and techniques [71](#page=71). The core principles underpinning informed consent are: * **Physician's duty to disclose:** Healthcare providers have an obligation to provide patients with information sufficient for them to make a reasonable decision about their treatment [71](#page=71). * **Patient's right to free choice:** Individuals should be empowered to exercise their free will based on understanding the elements involved in a medical matter, recognizing this as a fundamental human right [71](#page=71). ### 13.2 European framework In Europe, the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine reinforces these principles. Specifically, Chapter II, Article 5 states that any intervention in the health field requires the free and informed consent of the person concerned. This person must be provided with appropriate information regarding the intervention's purpose, nature, consequences, and risks beforehand. Crucially, the individual retains the right to freely withdraw consent at any time [72](#page=72). ### 13.3 Exceptions to informed consent There are specific circumstances where obtaining explicit informed consent may not be feasible or immediately required: * **Emergency situations:** If consent cannot be obtained due to an emergency, medically necessary interventions can be performed immediately for the patient's benefit. This is outlined in Article 8 of the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine [73](#page=73). * **Threat to public health:** Situations posing a risk to the wider public may necessitate interventions without individual consent [73](#page=73). * **Incapacitated patients:** Individuals unable to provide informed consent, such as those with mental illnesses or children, require consent to be signed by a surrogate, parent, or guardian [73](#page=73). * **Other exceptions:** Additional exceptions may exist, as detailed in other relevant documents [73](#page=73). ### 13.4 Treatments requiring written informed consent Written informed consent is typically required for: * Most surgical procedures [74](#page=74). * Advanced or complex medical tests and procedures, such as an endoscopy [74](#page=74). * Radiation or chemotherapy for cancer treatment [74](#page=74). * Certain vaccinations [74](#page=74). * Some blood tests, including HIV testing [74](#page=74). > **Tip:** The requirement for written consent can vary depending on the specific medical context and jurisdiction. ### 13.5 Translation and interpretation of consent forms Informed consent forms generally need to be translated when individuals have limited proficiency in the source language of the document. It is also highly recommended to offer interpreting services to ensure full comprehension [74](#page=74). > **Example:** If a medical procedure document is written in English, and the patient speaks only Spanish, a translated version of the consent form and an interpreter for the consent discussion would be necessary. ### 13.6 Key features of informed consent documents Informed consent documents are characterized by specific language and structural elements: #### 13.6.1 Language * **Lay language:** The language used should be plain and understandable, avoiding excessive technical jargon where possible, to ensure comprehension by participants [75](#page=75). * **Accessibility:** The language should be appropriate for the participant's age group and educational background [75](#page=75). * **Absence of coercion:** The process must be free from any form of pressure or coercion [75](#page=75). #### 13.6.2 Structure The structure of an informed consent form typically comprises two parts: * **Informative section (information sheet):** This part details the necessary information about the procedure or study [75](#page=75). * **Certificate of consent (authorisation):** This section is usually written in the first person singular and serves as the formal authorization. It is considered to be midway between medical and legal documentation and can be admissible in court [75](#page=75). ### 13.7 Information typically provided The information conveyed in an informed consent process usually includes: * The nature of the procedure or study [76](#page=76). * The purpose of the intervention or research [76](#page=76). * The potential benefits [76](#page=76). * The risks and any secondary effects [76](#page=76). * Available alternatives to the proposed treatment or study [76](#page=76). * The reasons for recommending the specific procedure or the choice of this particular intervention [76](#page=76). * Other relevant details as applicable [76](#page=76). --- # Key features of technical texts Technical texts are designed to convey information as clearly and effectively as possible, acting as tools to help specific individuals perform tasks. Their creation and translation are often governed by laws, regulations, and directives, such as EU Council Resolutions, which mandate the translation of technical documentation for legal sales and distribution in different countries, creating significant demand for translators [95](#page=95). ### 14.1 Introduction and aim The primary aim of technical texts is to deliver the correct information to the appropriate audience in the right format, enabling them to accomplish a specific objective. This functional purpose positions them as valuable tools [95](#page=95). ### 14.2 Audience Understanding the audience is paramount in technical writing and translation, profoundly influencing content generation and linguistic choices. Readers engage with technical documents for two main reasons: genuine interest in the subject matter or, more commonly, professional necessity to perform their job duties (e.g., engineers, technicians) or to make a product function correctly. Different reader types may interact with these documents in varied ways, influenced by their individual needs, attitudes, and expectations [96](#page=96) [98](#page=98). For translators, identifying the target audience is crucial, often achieved through translation briefs, explicit textual references, or implicit contextual clues. The accuracy and effectiveness of a translation are largely dependent on a translator's comprehension of the audience, guiding decisions such as term selection, phrase rephrasing for enhanced clarity, and the reorganization of sentences to ensure logical and chronological instruction flow [98](#page=98). > **Tip:** Always consider who will be reading the text when making translation or writing choices. ### 14.3 Specific features #### 14.3.1 Language The language employed in technical texts is characterized by its clarity, directness, and functionality. Several strategies contribute to achieving this clarity and simplicity [99](#page=99): * **Sentence structure:** The use of simple declarative sentences is favored [99](#page=99). * **Instructional clarity:** Clear and simple instructions presented in chronological order enhance comprehension [99](#page=99). * **Logical flow:** Employing a logical cause-and-effect structure aids in understanding relationships between concepts [99](#page=99). Technical texts also feature specialized terminology, including abbreviations and acronyms. Additionally, they often incorporate specialized terms that may appear to be general vocabulary but have specific technical meanings, such as "jumper" in the context of an electrical device [99](#page=99). #### 14.3.2 Facts and figures Numerical data, facts, and figures are integral to technical texts. They can be presented in various formats : * Integrated within sentences . * Listed as bullet points . * Organized within tables with minimal accompanying text . The precise measurement units associated with these figures are also critical components of technical texts . --- # Technical translation pitfalls and strategies This section outlines common challenges encountered in technical translation and provides strategic approaches to address them, focusing on elements like instructions, currencies, and code . ### 15.1 Common pitfalls in technical translation Many pitfalls in technical translation are shared with scientific texts, while others are more specific to certain document types . #### 15.1.1 Pitfalls shared with scientific texts These include issues related to abbreviations and acronyms, quantities and units of measure, graphics, Latinisms, errors in the source text, formatting and layout, product names, references to other documents, file management and naming, and the use of the Internet . #### 15.1.2 Additional pitfalls Specific challenges include instructions that do not make sense, handling currencies, translating sample text and computer code, dealing with contact details, and conveying warnings and advice . ### 15.2 Strategies for specific pitfalls Effective technical translation requires proactive strategies to navigate common problems . #### 15.2.1 Instructions that do not make sense Instructions must be clear, use understandable terminology consistently, and follow a logical, chronological order . * **Research:** Investigate the product to understand its appearance and functionality, and modify instructions for clarity if necessary . * **Rearrangement:** Reorganize instructions if they are not presented logically or chronologically . * **Simplification:** Split complex sentences into smaller, more digestible units when information is densely packed . * **Clarification:** Provide additional explanations for vague statements . * **Client consultation:** If instructions are nonsensical, contact the client for clarification . #### 15.2.2 Currencies Translating currency amounts presents several potential issues regarding conversion, representation, and symbol usage . * **Conversion:** Decide whether to convert amounts to the target currency. This is risky due to potential inaccuracies and fluctuating exchange rates . * **Representation:** There are various ways to write currency amounts, such as EUR 40.00, 40EUR 00, 40.00 EUR, or 40.00 EUR . * **Symbol vs. Code:** Determine whether to use currency symbols (which can be ambiguous, like the dollar sign) or the three-letter ISO 4217 codes (USD, EUR, GBP, etc.), which are unique . **Main strategies for handling currencies:** * **Leave original:** The most common approach, especially if the translator has an idea of the currency's value . * **Convert:** Suitable for less common currencies or when the exact amount is incidental or for general information for a non-specialist audience; however, this is highly risky . * **Combination:** Present the original currency alongside an approximate equivalent in brackets if this aids reader comprehension, especially when the reader's understanding might otherwise be impaired . **Guidelines for currency symbols:** * Always check the client's preferences, often found in style guides or on their website . * Refer to recommendations from authoritative bodies like the Real Academia Española (RAE) and the FundéuRAE . * Consult the ISO 4217 alphabetic codes for standardized currency identifiers . #### 15.2.3 Sample text and computer code Technical translators frequently engage in localization, which involves translating text for software interfaces and websites . * **Localization context:** This includes user interfaces (menus, text strings, error messages), online documentation (help files, "read me" files), installation manuals, FAQs, and marketing materials . * **Code recognition:** While translators are not programmers, they must recognize code and tags and know how to manage them . * **Challenges:** Fragments of code can be embedded within standard sentences and may appear as ordinary text, posing a significant challenge . > **Tip:** Always be cautious when translating text that might contain code or markup language. Ensure that special characters and tags are preserved correctly to avoid breaking functionality. > **Example:** When translating an HTML snippet like `

Click here: Link

`, ensure that the tags (`

`, ``, ``, `

`) and attributes (`href="..."`) remain intact and in the correct positions. The translated text "Click here:" should be placed within the appropriate tag. --- # Key features of scientific texts This section outlines the primary characteristics that define scientific texts, focusing on their language, factual presentation, referencing, graphical elements, and the use of formulas and notation. ### 16.1 Language Scientific and technical language is commonly perceived as concise, precise, rigorous, coherent, and objective, often appearing dry and lacking stylistic creativity. However, this perception is not always accurate [18](#page=18). #### 16.1.1 Clarity and complexity While scientific texts aim for clarity, they can also employ a range of linguistic devices, including long, complex sentences, and figurative language to aid reader comprehension [19](#page=19). #### 16.1.2 Rhetorical devices and popular science In popular science, vivid imagery, literary style, and rhetorical devices are frequently used to educate and entertain readers. The purpose is to make concepts more understandable, establish a connection with the reader, and increase engagement with the subject matter [20](#page=20). ##### 16.1.2.1 Metaphors and similes Metaphors and similes are utilized to assign concrete names to abstract concepts and to explain them in ways that readers can readily grasp. Examples include "black hole" and "greenhouse effect" [21](#page=21). ##### 16.1.2.2 Latinisms Latin terms and phrases are prevalent in scientific language, particularly in biological and life sciences for binomial nomenclature, such as *Homo sapiens* and *Chamomilla recutita* [21](#page=21). #### 16.1.3 Specialised terminology Specialised terminology is a defining characteristic of scientific texts. This includes abbreviations and acronyms, which can be subject-specific, context-dependent, or even company-specific in their meaning, as exemplified by "DP". Some specialised terms may also resemble general vocabulary, for instance, "The INS/DEL jumper should be closed if you want the system to react immediately". This specialised vocabulary can make texts appear intimidating and complex [22](#page=22). ### 16.2 Facts and figures Facts and figures are typically presented within sentences in scientific texts [23](#page=23). ### 16.3 References Authors frequently direct readers to information found elsewhere within the same document or in external sources like books and journal papers. This practice serves to strengthen arguments and enhance the reader's confidence in the information's validity and the writer's credibility. Footnotes are also common, providing supplementary information or citations to other works [24](#page=24). ### 16.4 Graphics Scientific texts employ visual representations such as diagrams, graphs, photographs, and screenshots to convey information. The primary aim of these graphics is to communicate information clearly, swiftly, and effectively [25](#page=25). ### 16.5 Formulae, equations, and scientific notation Formulas, equations, and scientific notation are used to express abstract concepts and ideas with clarity and conciseness. They can, however, contribute to the text's intimidating and complex appearance. Scientific notation is also known as standard form or exponential notation [26](#page=26). --- # Formulae, equations and scientific notation Formulae, equations, and scientific notation allow for the clear, concise, and accurate expression of abstract concepts and complex ideas. While they can make texts appear intimidating, they are crucial tools in scientific and technical communication [26](#page=26). ### 5.1 Scientific notation Scientific notation, also known as standard form or exponential notation, is a method for expressing numbers that are too large or too small to be conveniently written in decimal form [26](#page=26). ### 5.2 Units of measure Units of measure are essential for quantifying physical quantities. The International System of Units (SI) is the most widely adopted standard, consisting of seven base units to which prefixes (e.g., micro-, milli-) can be added. Some units are named after scientists (eponyms), such as the watt (W) [27](#page=27). > **Tip:** When translating, be aware of potential conversions between imperial and metric systems, such as feet and inches to metres and centimetres [28](#page=28). ### 5.3 Formulae Formulae provide a symbolic and concise way to express information, often involving mathematical operations. They are compact, accurate, and are generally understood universally [28](#page=28). ### 5.4 Equations Equations are mathematical statements that assert the equality of two expressions. They are commonly used in fields like chemistry and physics to represent relationships between variables [28](#page=28). > **Example:** A simple equation could be $a = b + c$, stating that the value of $a$ is equivalent to the sum of $b$ and $c$. ### 5.5 Formatting quantities and units in translation Different languages have varying conventions for formatting numbers and units. For instance, the decimal separator and thousands separator can differ significantly between languages [32](#page=32). **Key considerations for translating quantities and units:** * **Number formatting:** Be mindful of conventions for decimal and thousands separators. For example, English typically uses a comma for thousands and a period for decimals (e.g., 1,495.50), while other languages might use a period for thousands and a comma for decimals (e.g., 1.495,50) [32](#page=32). * **Metric system conversion:** Languages not using the metric system may require conversions, which should be approached with caution [32](#page=32). * **Unit symbols and spelling:** Ensure correct symbols and spellings are used for units, especially for eponyms (e.g., watt vs. vatio) [32](#page=32). * **Punctuation:** A non-breaking space is often required between a number and its unit to prevent line breaks [32](#page=32). * **Similar units:** Differentiate clearly between similar-looking units to avoid misinterpretation [32](#page=32). **Main translation strategies for quantities and units:** * **Transfer:** This is the most common strategy, especially for SI units, and is particularly suitable for specialist audiences [33](#page=33). * **Convert:** This strategy is appropriate when the exact quantity is less critical or when translating for a general audience. Conversion for specialist texts should only be done after client consultation due to potential risks [33](#page=33). * **Combination:** Presenting the original quantity alongside an approximate equivalent in brackets can aid reader comprehension when there's a risk of impairment [33](#page=33). --- # Addressing formatting and layout constraints in translation Addressing formatting and layout constraints is crucial in translation to ensure that the target text conveys all necessary information effectively within the available space, especially when faced with linguistic expansion or contraction between languages [54](#page=54). ### 10.1 Understanding the challenge Formatting and layout constraints arise in various contexts within scientific and technical translation, including: * **Diagrams and charts:** Text labels within visual elements often have limited space [54](#page=54). * **Specific document types:** Certain documents, like information leaflets, have fixed layouts and space restrictions [54](#page=54). * **Audiovisual translation:** This medium inherently involves strict time and space constraints [54](#page=54). The primary challenge is that translations can naturally expand or contract in length compared to the source text, depending on the language combination and the direction of translation. The goal is to maintain clarity and accuracy while fitting all essential information into the predetermined space [54](#page=54). ### 10.2 Main translation strategies for formatting and layout constraints To overcome these challenges, translators employ several strategies: * **Use short, simple words and sentences:** Employing concise language aids in reducing the overall length of the translated text while ensuring clarity and ease of understanding [55](#page=55). * **Utilise abbreviations:** Where appropriate and without overuse, abbreviations can significantly shorten text. It is preferable to use abbreviations already established by the company or within the subject area [55](#page=55). * **Avoid excessive adherence to the source text (ST):** A different grammatical or syntactic structure in the target language (TL) might inherently lead to a shorter translation. For example, converting a passive voice construction to an imperative can save space [55](#page=55). * **Employ flexible and creative translation procedures:** Procedures such as modulation (changing the point of view or concept), transposition (changing the grammatical category of a word), and adaptation (replacing source culture elements with target culture equivalents) can help in condensing or rephrasing text to fit space constraints. These are based on the principles outlined by Vinay and Darbelnet [55](#page=55). > **Tip:** When dealing with space constraints, focus on conveying the core meaning accurately and concisely. Prioritize essential information over stylistic nuances that might not fit. > **Example:** Translating "It is recommended that users ensure the device is switched off before cleaning" might require condensation. A shorter, effective translation could be "Switch off the device before cleaning" if the context allows for the removal of the passive voice and the pronoun. --- ## 18. Addressing formatting and layout constraints in translation This section details the critical considerations and potential pitfalls encountered when translating texts that incorporate specific formatting, layout, and diverse content types, particularly within technical and marketing contexts. ### 18.1 The importance of formatting and layout Formatting and layout are not merely aesthetic elements; they are integral to the clarity, functionality, and effectiveness of technical and marketing documents. They guide the reader, convey information efficiently, and ensure that the intended message is understood accurately by the target audience. For translators, understanding and replicating these elements is crucial for producing a translation that is not only linguistically accurate but also functionally equivalent to the source text [95](#page=95) [98](#page=98). ### 18.2 Common elements and their translation challenges Technical and marketing documents often contain a variety of elements that require careful handling during translation. #### 18.2.1 Instructions and procedural information Instructions are a cornerstone of technical documentation, such as user guides. They must be clear, use understandable terminology, be presented consistently, and follow a logical chronological order . * **Main strategies for unclear instructions:** * Conduct research to understand the product and modify instructions for clarity . * Rearrange instructions if they are not in a logical or chronological sequence . * Split complex sentences into smaller, more digestible units . * Provide additional clarification for vague statements . * Contact the client if instructions are nonsensical . #### 18.2.2 Facts, figures, and units of measure Numbers, units of measure, and specific data are frequently incorporated into sentences, bullet points, or tables. Translators must ensure these are accurately transcribed and, where necessary, converted or presented in a way that is meaningful to the target audience . #### 18.2.3 References Technical texts often refer to information within the same document, other documents, laws, directives, or standards to ensure reliability and safety. Consistency in referring to these elements is paramount in translation. In software documentation, references might point to diagrams, screenshots, interface items, or accompanying files . #### 18.2.4 Graphics and visual representations Diagrams, graphs, photographs, and screenshots are widely used to reinforce textual information or convey it quickly and effectively. Consistency between the text and any accompanying graphics, especially in software interfaces, is key . #### 18.2.5 Currencies Translating monetary amounts presents several challenges, including whether to convert currencies, how to format them, and whether to use symbols or currency codes . * **Issues with currencies:** * Conversion accuracy and fluctuating exchange rates . * Formatting variations (EUR 40.00, 40EUR 00, 40.00 EUR, 40.00 EUR) . * Ambiguity of currency symbols versus unique 3-letter ISO 4217 codes (USD, EUR, GBP) . * **Main strategies for handling currencies:** * **Leave in original currency:** Most common, especially if the translator has an idea of its value . * **Convert:** Risky, best for non-specialist audiences where the exact amount is incidental, or for less common currencies . * **Combination:** Present original currency with an approximate equivalent in brackets for texts where reader comprehension is critical . * Always check client preferences (style guides, websites) and consult authoritative sources like the RAE, FUNDEU, and ISO 4217 for currency codes and writing recommendations . * **CRITICAL RULE:** All currency amounts must be written out in full letters (e.g., "dollars," "USD," "euros," "EUR") and never use currency symbols like USD, EUR, or GBP [As per general instructions. #### 18.2.6 Sample text and computer code Technical translators often work on localization projects involving software and websites. This includes user interfaces, online documentation, and related technical materials. While translators are not programmers, they must recognize and appropriately handle computer code and tags . * **Clues to identify non-translatable code:** * Words in all uppercase (e.g., MENUITEM) . * Words written together without spaces or linked by underscores (e.g., CompanyName, Style_Caption) . * **Text that typically needs translation, even with unusual characters:** * Words with an ampersand (&) for hotkeys (e.g., &View) . * Variables used as placeholders, often preceded by $ or % (e.g., $d results, %1) . * Text enclosed in quotation marks . * Text containing tags for formatting (e.g., ``, ``) . * **Main strategies for sample text and computer code:** * Do not assume all code needs translation; only specific text fragments do . * Do not translate compounds linked by underscores or written as one word . * Preserve punctuation, especially dots indicating menu options (e.g., Print...) . * Do not change, delete, or rearrange variables . * Keep formatting tags in their correct positions . * Be cautious with single-word strings that can have multiple translations (e.g., "None," "Contact") . * Ensure the translation matches the on-screen software display . * When in doubt, consult the project manager or client . #### 18.2.7 Contact details This category includes personal names, email addresses, websites, telephone numbers, and postal addresses . * **Main strategies for contact details:** * **Personal names:** Add titles (Mr., Ms.) if the gender is unclear . * **Email addresses:** Do not alter them . * **Websites:** Advise the client; replace with the target language link if it exists, otherwise add a caveat (e.g., "(solo disponible en inglés)") . * **Telephone numbers:** Convert to international format with dialling codes and prefixes if not provided . * **Postal addresses:** Add the country if it is missing . #### 18.2.8 Warnings and advice Providing clear and effective warnings about potential risks and what not to do is critical for safety and legal reasons. Legislation governs this information, and translations must be accurate and recognizable . * **Signal words:** The range of words used to indicate risk importance (Note, Warning, Caution, Danger) is evolving. In Europe, there are now two primary signal words: "Warning" (less severe hazards) and "Danger" (more severe hazards) . * **Symbols:** Historically, European hazard symbols on an orange background were used. Since 2009/2015, these have been replaced by international symbols conforming to "Regulation CLP" (Classification, Labelling and Packaging) . * **Statements:** Descriptive phrases for hazardous materials and risks are used in packaging, safety data sheets, and product approval documents. The wording must be precise, tested, accurate, legal, and recognizable . * Previously, the EU used risk phrases (R phrases) and safety phrases (S phrases) . * These have now been replaced by hazard and precautionary statements under Regulation CLP, with new and modified statements applicable from October 2020 . * **Main strategies for warnings and advice:** * Use the exact terminology from official regulations and descriptions for substances and their use (e.g., do not replace "toxic" with "poisonous") . * For descriptions of hazardous materials and hazard/precautionary statements, use the official translation in the target language . * Ensure consistency in translating warning notices throughout the document . ### 18.3 Case studies illustrating formatting and layout challenges #### 18.3.1 User guide User guides, also known as instruction manuals, are designed to help users operate a product. They typically feature simple, clear language, short sentences, imperatives, graphics, tables, and cross-references. Machine translation may be used as a raw version requiring post-editing to ensure accuracy and completeness. Consistent cross-references and screenshots are vital, and translators must be mindful of how these elements are presented in the target language . #### 18.3.2 Technical case study A technical case study, or customer story, is a marketing text that uses real-world examples to promote products or services. It combines technical language with marketing and journalistic elements. The aim is to describe the product/service and present a positive customer experience to build trust. These texts are often argumentative, use quotes, company and client names, and feature attractive designs with clear subsections and headings. The structure typically includes a headline, testimonials, problem/challenge, solution, and supporting visuals . ### 18.4 General principles for translating technical and marketing content * **Audience is paramount:** Understanding the intended audience is crucial for making informed translation decisions, such as term selection, rephrasing, and sentence order [98](#page=98). * **Clarity and simplicity:** Technical language prioritizes clarity, directness, and functionality, often achieved through simple declarative sentences and chronological instructions [99](#page=99). * **Specialized terminology:** Technical texts rely heavily on specialized terms, abbreviations, and acronyms, which must be translated accurately and consistently [99](#page=99). * **Consistency:** Maintaining consistency in terminology, references, and the translation of warnings and advice throughout a document is essential . * **Ethical considerations:** In medical and technical translation, accuracy, clarity, and validity of information are of critical importance due to the potential impact on health and safety [84](#page=84). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts