les 6.docx

# Academic English: cohesion and coherence This section explores how sentences and clauses are structured and connected using relative pronouns and conjunctions to create clear and flowing academic writing. ### 1.1 Sentences and clauses A fundamental aspect of constructing coherent academic English is understanding the difference between a sentence and a clause. * **Clause:** A clause is the basic unit of a sentence, comprising a subject and a predicate. The basic structure is `Subject + Verb (+ Object)`. * **Sentence:** In simple sentences, a clause and a sentence are the same. For example, "John is in Antwerp" is both a clause and a sentence. * **Independent clause:** This type of clause can stand alone grammatically and forms a complete sentence. * **Dependent (or subordinate) clause:** This clause cannot stand alone meaningfully and requires additional information from an independent clause to form a complete sentence. For instance, "Although it was cold" is a dependent clause that needs "she went swimming" to become a complete sentence. ### 1.2 Relative pronouns Relative pronouns are crucial for connecting relative clauses to nouns or pronouns (antecedents) in other clauses, thereby enhancing sentence complexity and flow. * **Function:** They introduce relative clauses, providing additional information about a noun or pronoun. * **Examples:** * "He’s got a new girlfriend **who** works in a supermarket." (Here, "who" is the relative pronoun, "a new girlfriend" is the antecedent, and "who works in a supermarket" is the relative clause.) * **Usage of `who` and `whom`:** * `who` can be used as a subject or object. * `whom` is more formal and is typically used as an object, especially when preceded by a preposition. * **Example:** "The man **whom** she marries will have to be pretty rich." * **Prepositional usage:** "To **whom** it may concern." or "Dr Johnston is a surgeon on **whom** we can always rely." * **Omitting relative pronouns:** * In **defining relative clauses**, object pronouns (like `whom` or `that`) can often be omitted, especially in informal writing. * **Example:** "The man **she marries** will have to be pretty rich." * In **non-defining clauses**, omitting the object pronoun is not permissible. * **`whose`:** * This is a possessive relative word used as a determiner before a noun, replacing possessive pronouns like `his`, `her`, or `its`. * **Example:** "I saw a man **whose** hair came down to his waist." * **`which`:** * `Which` can refer to a specific noun or to an entire preceding clause. * **Example:** "He married at the age of 60, **which** surprised everybody." * **`of whom`, `of which`, `of whose`:** * These can be used in non-defining clauses with quantifying determiners. * **Example:** "They picked up five boatloads of refugees, some **of whom** had been at sea for several months." ### 1.3 Conjunctions Conjunctions are essential for linking words, phrases, and clauses, establishing relationships between different parts of a sentence or text. There are three main types: * **Coordinating conjunctions:** * These connect elements of equal grammatical rank (words, phrases, or clauses). * The common coordinating conjunctions are: `for`, `and`, `nor`, `but`, `or`, `yet`, `so` (often remembered by the acronym FANBOYS). * **Subordinating conjunctions:** * These connect two clauses of unequal rank, where one clause is dependent on the other. * They typically introduce dependent clauses and indicate the relationship between the clauses (e.g., cause, time, condition). * Common examples include: `if`, `because`, `after`, `since`, `when`, `while`, `until`, `unless`, `although`. * **Correlative conjunctions:** * These function similarly to other conjunctions but appear in pairs, connecting elements within a sentence. * Common pairs include: `both . . . and`, `not only . . . but also`, `not . . . but`, `either . . . or`, `neither . . . nor`, `whether . . . or`, `as . . . as`. ### 1.4 Differences in linking word usage The position and function of linking words can vary, impacting sentence and text structure. * **Within a sentence:** Words like `and`, `but`, `so`, `because`, `then`, `until`, and `such as` typically link clauses within a single sentence. * **Between sentences:** Words such as `furthermore`, `moreover`, `nevertheless`, and `in conclusion` are commonly used to create links between separate sentences. * **Versatile linking words:** Many linking words can be used to start a sentence or to connect sentences, offering writers flexibility in their style. ### 1.5 Common errors in academic english Careless use of certain words can lead to confusion or reduce the formality of academic writing. * **`Also` or `already`:** These words should not typically begin a sentence in formal academic writing. * **Instead of:** "Also the language is a big barrier." * **Use:** "The language, too, is a big barrier." * **`Hence` or `thus`:** These are formal words indicating a necessary deduction from preceding information. * **Example:** "The trade imbalance is likely to rise again in 2011. Hence, a new set of policy actions will be required soon." * **`Beside` vs. `besides`:** * `Beside` is a preposition meaning "next to" or "very close to." * **Example:** "The boy was sitting **beside** the bus driver." * `Besides` means "in addition to." * **Example:** "She has many good qualities **besides** being very beautiful." ### 1.6 Causal connectives These linkers establish a cause-and-effect relationship. * **`So`:** This is the most general and informal causal connective. * **Formal alternatives:** In written English, more formal alternatives are recommended for causal connections, such as `accordingly`, `consequently`, `hence`, `therefore`, `so that`, and `with the result that`. * **Informal Example:** "I heard a noise **so** I got out of bed and turned on the light." * **Formal Example:** "Tax revenues were low. **Consequently**, the government ended up with a budget deficit." ### 1.7 `Though`, `although`, `even though` These are used to introduce contrasting ideas. * **Usage:** They are followed by a clause. * **Example:** "She was arrested, **although** she had claimed her innocence." * **Position:** `Although` can start a sentence or appear in the middle. * **Example:** "**Although** it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday." * **Informality:** `Though` is generally more informal than `although` and can also be used at the end of a sentence. * **Example:** "The house isn’t very nice. I like the garden **though**." * **Emphasis:** `Even though` is a stronger form of `although`, indicating a greater degree of contrast. ### 1.8 Contrastive connectives These linkers highlight differences or opposing ideas. * **`Whereas` and `while`:** * Used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast but do not contradict each other. They are suitable when there is no element of surprise. * **Example:** "**Whereas** Conservatives voted in favour of the bill, Labour and the Liberals voted against." * **`But`:** * Used to contrast clauses within a single sentence. * **Example:** "I like going to the beach, **but** I never go at midday." * **`However`:** * Has the same function as `but` but is typically used to show contrast *between* sentences and is more formal. * **Example:** "I’ve always enjoyed going to the beach. **However**, I never go there at midday." ### 1.9 `For` or `since` These prepositions relate to time. * **`For`:** * Focuses on a duration of time and can be used in most tenses. It is followed by a period of time. * **Example:** "They stayed in Barcelona **for** two weeks." * **`Since`:** * Used only with perfect tenses and must be followed by a specific point in time. * **Example:** "They’ve been in Barcelona **since** last Friday." (This implies they are still in Barcelona.) ### 1.10 Exercises and examples The provided document includes exercises to practice combining sentences using appropriate linking words and relative pronouns, reinforcing the concepts of cohesion and coherence. > **Example (Combining Sentences):** > "Men must wear a tie at this Law firm. Women must wear a dress." > **Combined:** "Men must wear a tie, **while** women must wear a dress." > **Example (Using Relative Pronouns):** > "This is Mr Rogers. You met him last year." > **Combined:** "This is Mr Rogers, **whom** you met last year." > **Example (Causal Connectives):** > "Malnutrition is a serious problem. Government should recognise its responsibility." > **Combined:** "Malnutrition is a serious problem. **Consequently**, Government should recognise its responsibility." ### 1.11 Legal english: public international law and human rights (case examples) While the primary focus is academic English, the document includes case examples from Public International Law that illustrate the application of precise language and logical argumentation, essential for academic discourse. These cases demonstrate how legal principles are articulated and debated, requiring clear and coherent expression. > **Tip:** Pay attention to how legal opinions are structured. They typically present the issue, the arguments, the court's findings, and the ruling, all of which rely heavily on cohesive and coherent writing. ### 1.12 UK society: from referendum to referendum – britain's political crossroads (examples of complex arguments) This section, while thematic, also showcases the importance of connecting various points to form a comprehensive argument. The analysis of austerity, for instance, requires linking economic policies to social and cultural effects, demanding a high degree of cohesion and coherence in presenting the evidence and conclusions. > **Tip:** When analyzing complex socio-political topics, break down your argument into smaller, interconnected points. Use linking words and phrases to guide the reader through the chain of reasoning. ### 1.13 Table of relative pronoun usage The following table summarizes the usage of relative pronouns in defining and non-defining clauses: | Antecedent | Defining | Non-Defining | | :--------- | :-------------------------------------- | :---------------------------- | | **Person** | `who / that` (subject) | `, who` (subject) | | | `who / whom / that` (object) | `, who(m)` (object) | | | `whose` (possessive) | `, whose` (possessive) | | **Object** | `which / that` | `, which` | | | `whose / of which` (possessive) | `, whose / , of which` (possessive) | --- # Legal English: public international law and human rights This section examines two pivotal case studies within public international law, focusing on critical issues such as self-determination, decolonization, the prohibition of the use of force, and international intervention. ### 2.1 Case study 1: Decolonisation and self-determination This case study concerns the detachment of the Chagos Islands from Mauritius before its independence by the United Kingdom. The primary island, Diego Garcia, is now home to a significant United States military base. The United Nations General Assembly sought an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) regarding the legality of this separation and the subsequent steps. #### 2.1.1 Key issues and legal questions The central legal questions raised in this case included: * Did the detachment of the Chagos Islands violate the right to self-determination during the decolonization process? * If the detachment was found to be unlawful, what were the legal consequences for the United Kingdom and all other states? * What is the obligation of states concerning the completion of decolonization? #### 2.1.2 The ICJ's ruling and consequences The ICJ delivered a significant ruling, concluding that the detachment of the Chagos Islands was unlawful. The Court affirmed the principle that "States have an obligation to cooperate to complete decolonisation." Consequently, the ICJ mandated that: * The United Kingdom must end its administration of Chagos "as rapidly as possible." * All states are obligated to cooperate with the United Nations to facilitate the full completion of the decolonization process. The Court's finding was based on the breach of the right to self-determination, underscoring the importance of this principle in international law. ### 2.2 Case study 2: Use of force and intervention This case study analyzes the conflict between Nicaragua and the United States in the 1980s, focusing on allegations of unlawful use of force and intervention. Nicaragua brought its claim to the ICJ after the US supported Contra rebels, including by mining Nicaraguan harbours. The US challenged the Court's jurisdiction and subsequently withdrew from the merits phase of the proceedings. #### 2.2.1 Key issues and legal questions The core legal issues examined in this case were: * Did the US's actions, including funding, training, and mining, constitute an unlawful use of force under Article 2(4) of the UN Charter or an unlawful intervention in Nicaragua's internal affairs? * Could the US actions be justified as self-defence, and did they meet the tests of necessity and proportionality? * How are the rules concerning the use of force and intervention reflected in customary international law, particularly through state practice and *opinio juris* (a belief that an action is carried out due to a legal obligation)? * Were the actions of the Contra rebels attributable to the US under the "effective control" test? #### 2.2.2 The ICJ's ruling and consequences The ICJ found that the United States had breached fundamental principles of international law. Its ruling included the following key findings: * Certain US conduct amounted to an "unlawful use of force." * The claim of self-defence was not upheld, as the Court determined there was no "armed attack" against the US. * The "effective control test" for attributing the actions of non-state actors (the Contras) to the US "was not met." * The US had violated the prohibition on the use of force and the principle of non-intervention, and had infringed upon Nicaragua's sovereignty (e.g., through harbour mining). * Claims of collective self-defence by the US failed. Following these findings, the ICJ ordered the cessation of the unlawful conduct and mandated reparations for the damages caused to Nicaragua. --- # UK society: from referendum to referendum This topic examines the significant socio-political shifts in the United Kingdom from the Scottish independence referendum in 2014 to the Brexit referendum in 2016, exploring the impacts of austerity measures, the London riots, and the subsequent political realignments. ### 3.1 Austerity Austerity refers to a fiscal policy aimed at deficit reduction through sustained reductions in public spending and tax increases. Adopted following the Great Recession by the Coalition and Conservative governments, it was implemented from 2010 to 2019 and resumed in 2021. The stated goal was to reduce the role of the welfare state, though services like the National Health Service and education were initially intended to be protected, significant spending reductions were enacted. #### 3.1.1 The Age of Austerity The term "Age of Austerity" was popularized by David Cameron, who campaigned on a "Big Society" program, advocating for diminished government intervention and increased roles for grass-roots organizations, charities, and private companies in delivering public services more efficiently. #### 3.1.2 Effects of austerity * **Economy:** * Wages stagnated, declining to 2005 levels by 2023 when adjusted for inflation. * While the minimum wage increased, leading to 10% of people working minimum wage jobs by 2018, the gender pay gap narrowed from 22% in 2009 to 14.3% in 2023, largely due to a decline in wages for low-paid men. * UK economic productivity remained stagnant, underperforming other advanced economies, and declined again in early 2022, contributing to a recession in 2023. * **Arts and Culture:** * Local government funding for arts and culture saw a 20% decline between 2010 and 2020. * Over 800 public libraries closed since 2010, leading to a decrease in visitor numbers. * 64 museums closed between 2010 and 2019, with a 13% reduction in funding resulting in privatization and a halving of visitor numbers between 2010 and 2015. * **Housing:** * Investment in new affordable homes was cut by 60% in 2010, and social rent schemes declined significantly. * "Affordable rent" schemes were introduced, with rents set at up to 80% of market rent, often unaffordable compared to social rents. By 2018, most new social housing was built for affordable rent. * In London, 10,000 existing properties were repurposed. * Homelessness rapidly increased, with rough sleeping doubling between 2010 and 2016. * By 2018, 50,000 families were living in temporary accommodation (Bed and Breakfasts), with a rising number of people in temporary accommodation since 2010 (79,000 households), over 33,000 of whom were working. * **Poverty:** * Over one-fifth of the population was in poverty in 2021/2022. * Child poverty rose from 3.5 million in 2010 to 4.1 million in 2019. * The number of children receiving food from food banks tripled, and the overall use of food banks doubled between 2013 and 2017. * Working-age social security payments were reduced, with increases limited to 1% despite inflation. * A four-year freeze on benefits was implemented by 2016. * **Health:** * In 2012, 45% of those in debt reported mental health problems. * By 2015, austerity was linked to depression and other mental health conditions. * In 2016, 40% of mental health trusts faced budget cuts, leading to a rise in suicide attempts and deaths. * Decreased funding in health and social care by 2017 led to an increasing number of preventable deaths, with estimates suggesting up to 120,000 according to University College London. * The mortality rate rose by 0.87% annually, and life expectancy growth slowed, particularly in poorer socio-economic groups, with the slowdown being the highest among G20 countries. ### 3.2 London riots #### 3.2.1 Causes of the London riots The London riots of 2011 were attributed to a combination of factors: * **Austerity:** Economic and social policies, including cuts to youth services (up to 73% by 2020), contributed to riots occurring in deprived areas. * **Policing Policies:** Areas with higher rates of stop and search were more prone to riots. Although overall numbers declined, they were rising and disproportionately affected Black individuals. #### 3.2.2 Effects of the London riots The government initially claimed the riots had no political content, with then-Prime Minister David Cameron characterizing them as "criminality pure and simple." However, the events represented the greatest outbreak of disorder in London since the 18th century. The underlying circumstances that contributed to the riots persist: austerity measures continue, stop and search remains prevalent, police tactics have become more aggressive, and courts have established precedents against protestors. This punitive and authoritarian approach was further hardened during the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020. ### 3.3 Scottish independence referendum #### 3.3.1 Causes of the referendum The push for a Scottish independence referendum gained momentum after the Scottish National Party (SNP) became the largest party in the Scottish Parliament in 2007. Leader Alex Salmond promised a referendum if re-elected. * **National Conversation (2007-2009):** A consultation exercise led to a draft referendum bill outlining four scenarios: no change, devolution with fiscal reform, further devolution (excluding defence and foreign affairs), and full independence. * **Limited Support for Referendum:** Initial proposals for a referendum faced limited support in the Scottish Parliament, leading to the bill's withdrawal in 2010. * **SNP's Commitment and Scotland Act 2012:** In 2011, the SNP reiterated its commitment to a referendum, intending to secure more powers first through the Scotland Act of 2012, which granted fiscal powers. The SNP's success in winning 69 seats reinforced this agenda. #### 3.3.2 Case for YES The "Yes" campaign argued for the right of Scotland's residents to decide how their wealth was spent. Key arguments included: * **Economic Potential:** Scotland's oil reserves were seen as a valuable asset, capable of supporting welfare spending, pension debt, and childcare plans. * **"Bairns not Bombs" Policy:** A flagship policy was to scrap spending on nuclear weapons, forcing the UK to relocate its Trident weapons and allowing Scotland to pursue its own foreign policy. * **Democratic Deficit:** Scotland consistently voted for left-leaning governments but was often governed by Conservative-led coalitions at Westminster. Independence would allow Scotland to have governments it voted for, free from perceived disillusionment with Westminster and anger at austerity measures. * **Social Justice:** A belief in a more socially democratic, equitable, and progressive Scottish society, committed to addressing child poverty and healthcare. #### 3.3.3 Case for NO The "No" campaign highlighted the risks of independence: * **Economic Risks:** Uncertainties surrounding currency, oil reserves, public service funding, and potential business departures. * **EU Membership:** Concerns about Scotland's future membership in the European Union. * **Cynical Promises:** Accusations that the Scottish government made unsubstantiated promises and presented independence as a simplistic solution. * **Lack of Detail:** The "white paper" relied on unknowable future circumstances and policies on taxation that conflicted with social democratic ambitions. * **Scare Tactics:** While criticized for relying on fear, the campaign also sought to emphasize the achievements of devolution and guarantee further powers if Scotland voted to remain. #### 3.3.4 Campaigns and results * **Strategies:** The "Yes" campaign developed into a broad grassroots movement beyond the official "Yes Scotland" organization and the SNP, characterized by enthusiastic volunteers and community engagement. The "No" campaign, though less public, employed more forensic methods to target undecided voters and solidify its base. * **Rhetoric:** The debate was marked by a lack of objective facts, with evidence often used to support particular interests. Print media largely supported the union, with many "scaremongering" headlines. * **Engagement:** Social media played a significant role due to uncertainty and biased representation, becoming a key source of information, especially for younger proponents. The campaign evolved into a social movement addressing broader issues like austerity, poverty, corporate greed, and war. * **Public Opinion:** Leading up to the final weeks, a majority favoured "No" (around 60:40). However, by early September, support had shifted to 51% "No" and 49% "Yes." The narrow lead for "Yes" in the final days sparked panic in Westminster, resulting in a "maximum devolution" promise from the three major UK party leaders. #### 3.3.5 Aftermath of the referendum * **UK Politics:** The SNP became the dominant force in Scottish elections and the third-largest party in the UK, altering voting behavior. * **House of Commons Reform:** Scottish MPs could no longer overrule English MPs on English-only matters. * **Scotland Act 2016:** Resulting from the Smith Commission, this act devolved additional powers to the Scottish Parliament. * **EU Membership:** Cameron's promise of an EU referendum in 2015, partly in response to Scottish concerns about EU membership, paved the way for Brexit. ### 3.4 Brexit #### 3.4.1 Causes of the referendum * **European Integration:** The UK's journey with European integration, from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951 to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957, was marked by initial hesitations and later accession in 1973. * **Euroscepticism:** Euroscepticism emerged within the Labour Party in the 1970s and 1980s. The 1975 referendum saw a majority vote to remain in the EC. The 1993 Maastricht Treaty, which formed the EU, created a rift in the Conservative Party and led to the formation of Eurosceptic parties like the UK Independence Party (UKIP). * **Political Pressure:** By 2015, pressure from UKIP and Conservative Eurosceptics led Prime Minister David Cameron to promise an EU referendum if re-elected. * **Renegotiation and Referendum:** Following the 2015 election, Cameron renegotiated the terms of EU membership, focusing on protecting the single market, reducing red tape, exempting the UK from an "ever-closer union," and restricting immigration. The referendum was set for 23 June 2016. #### 3.4.2 The referendum * **Leave Campaign:** Key messages included saving £350 million a week for the NHS, regaining control of borders and immigration, and freedom to trade globally. The slogan "Vote Leave, Take Control" was central. * **Remain Campaign:** "Britain Stronger in Europe" focused on the uncertainty of change and regional differences, often perceived as a "project fear" by the Leave campaign, failing to articulate a positive vision for remaining in the EU. * **The Result:** On 23 June 2016, Britain voted to leave the European Union. #### 3.4.3 Brexit negotiations * **Theresa May's Premiership:** Following Cameron's resignation, Theresa May invoked Article 50 on 29 March 2017, initiating a two-year negotiation period. Her attempt to shore up support with a general election in June 2017 resulted in a loss of the Conservative majority. * **Chequers Plan:** The "soft Brexit" Chequers Plan, proposed in July 2018, included a "common rulebook" and a "facilitated" customs arrangement but led to resignations from hardliners like Boris Johnson. * **Deal Defeats:** Despite EU approval of the deal in November 2018, it was overwhelmingly defeated in the House of Commons three times in early 2019. * **Extensions and Resignation:** The Brexit deadline was extended, first to April 2019 and then to 31 October. May resigned in June 2019. * **Boris Johnson's Premiership:** Boris Johnson became Prime Minister in July 2019. He suspended Parliament in August to prevent opposition to a no-deal Brexit, a move later ruled unlawful by the Supreme Court. A deal on Northern Ireland was agreed in October, and Johnson secured a decisive general election victory in December 2019, enabling him to push through Brexit legislation. * **Official Departure:** The UK officially left the EU on 31 January 2020, entering an 11-month transition period. A deal was concluded in December 2020, and the split was complete on 1 January 2021. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Clause | A group of words containing a subject and a predicate; it can be independent (forming a complete sentence) or dependent (requiring additional information to form a complete sentence). | | Independent Clause | A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. | | Dependent Clause | A clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and relies on an independent clause for its full meaning; it often begins with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. | | Relative Pronoun | Words such as who, whom, whose, which, and that, used to introduce relative clauses and connect them to a noun or pronoun (antecedent) in another clause. | | Antecedent | The noun or pronoun to which a relative pronoun refers. | | Defining Relative Clause | A relative clause that is essential to identify the noun it modifies; it provides necessary information and is not set off by commas. | | Non-Defining Relative Clause | A relative clause that provides additional, non-essential information about a noun; it is set off by commas and can be omitted without changing the core meaning of the sentence. | | Possessive Relative Word | A relative pronoun, such as "whose," used to indicate possession in a relative clause, replacing possessive determiners like "his," "her," or "its." | | Coordinating Conjunctions | Words like "and," "but," "or," "yet," "for," "nor," and "so" that connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical rank. | | Subordinating Conjunctions | Words like "if," "because," "after," "since," "when," "while," "until," "unless," and "although" that connect clauses of unequal rank, often introducing a dependent clause. | | Correlative Conjunctions | Pairs of conjunctions, such as "both...and," "not only...but also," and "either...or," that connect elements of equal grammatical rank within a sentence. | | Causal Connectives | Words and phrases that indicate a cause-and-effect relationship, such as "consequently," "therefore," "hence," and "so." | | Public International Law | The body of law that governs the relationships between sovereign states and international organizations, including issues of treaties, war, and diplomacy. | | Human Rights | Fundamental rights and freedoms to which all human beings are entitled, regardless of their race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. | | Self-determination | The right of a people to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development. | | Use of Force (UN Charter art. 2(4)) | A principle of international law prohibiting states from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state. | | Intervention (International Law) | The act by one state of interfering in the domestic affairs of another state. | | Armed Attack | A significant use of force by one state against another, which can trigger the right to self-defense under international law. | | Customary International Law | International law that arises from the consistent and general practice of states, accompanied by a belief that such practice is legally obligatory (opinio juris). | | Attribution (International Law) | The process of determining which acts are attributable to a state under international law, often involving tests like "effective control." | | Austerity | A set of policies involving cuts to public spending and increases in taxes, typically implemented by governments to reduce budget deficits and national debt. | | London Riots | A series of riots and civil disorder that occurred in London and other parts of England in August 2011, triggered by a combination of social and economic factors. | | Scottish Independence Referendum | A referendum held in Scotland on 18 September 2014, in which voters were asked whether Scotland should be an independent country. | | Brexit | The withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, following a referendum held in June 2016. | | European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) | An organization established in 1951 by six European countries to pool coal and steel resources, considered a precursor to the European Union. | | European Economic Community (EEC) | An organization formed in 1957 by six European countries to establish a common market and promote economic cooperation, a key step towards the EU. | | Euroscepticism | A political viewpoint that is critical of or opposed to the European Union. | | Maastricht Treaty | A treaty signed in 1992 that established the European Union (EU) and laid the groundwork for a common currency and political union. | | Article 50 | The provision of the Treaty on European Union that sets out the procedure for a member state to withdraw from the EU. | | Chequers Plan | A proposed plan by Theresa May's government in 2018 for the UK's future relationship with the EU after Brexit, aiming for a "soft Brexit." |