Full Script & Summary to Introduction to English Linguistics.pdf

# Introduction to English linguistics and core concepts This section introduces the fundamental definition of linguistics, its various branches, and key concepts such as synchronic vs. diachronic and descriptive vs. prescriptive approaches to language study. ### 1.1 What is linguistics Linguistics is the systematic study of human language, focusing on the unique human capacity to express ideas and feelings through voluntarily produced speech sounds or their equivalents, such as gestures in sign languages. Scholars who engage in the systematic study of language are known as linguists, grammarians, communication experts, or philologists. To facilitate precise study, linguists break down complex questions into smaller, more manageable ones, leading to various specialized branches of linguistics [1](#page=1). Some examples of these branches include: * **Evolutionary Linguistics:** Investigates how and why language developed [1](#page=1). * **Historical/Diachronic Linguistics:** Examines how and why language constantly changes over time [1](#page=1). * **1st Language Acquisition:** Studies how children acquire language [1](#page=1). * **Multilingualism:** Explores how speakers of multiple languages use them in real life [1](#page=1). * **Neurolinguistics:** Investigates how and where language is stored and processed in the brain [1](#page=1). * **Cognitive Linguistics:** Analyzes the interaction between language and cognition [1](#page=1). * **Functional Linguistics:** Focuses on the communicative functions of language [1](#page=1). * **Typology:** Compares and contrasts how languages differ from each other [2](#page=2). ### 1.2 Six core areas of linguistics Linguistics can be broadly divided into six core areas: 1. **Phonetics:** The study of speech sounds, their articulation, and perception. It can be examined from various perspectives, such as social phonetics or the phonetics of child language [2](#page=2). 2. **Phonology:** Focuses on the sound system of a language as an abstract system. It accounts for variations in pronunciation, such as dialectal differences [2](#page=2). 3. **Morphology:** Deals with morphemes, such as prefixes, and their function and organization within words [2](#page=2). 4. **Syntax:** The study of sentence structure and grammatical rules [2](#page=2). 5. **Semantics:** Concerned with the general meaning of words and sentences, independent of specific contexts [2](#page=2). 6. **Pragmatics:** Analyzes language meaning in relation to its context and its use by speakers [2](#page=2). ### 1.3 Central concepts of linguistics Several key concepts are central to the study of linguistics: * **Synchronic vs. diachronic:** * **Diachronic** refers to the study of language across different points in time, examining changes and differences. The further back in time one looks, the more different a language will be [2](#page=2). * **Synchronic** refers to the study of language at a particular point in time. It involves abstraction, as language is in constant transition, making synchronic studies essential for diachronic research [2](#page=2). > **Tip:** Language is constantly changing and can be viewed as a "complex adaptive system" [2](#page=2). * **Descriptive vs. prescriptive:** * **Descriptive** linguistics focuses on describing how people actually speak and write, observing language in different social circumstances, and recognizing variations such as appropriate/inappropriate, formal/informal, and standard/non-standard usage [2](#page=2). * **Prescriptive** linguistics involves setting rules for how language *should* be spoken or written, often defining proper usage according to an authority and classifying usage as right/wrong or good/bad. Teachers often adopt a prescriptive approach [3](#page=3). * **Langue vs. parole:** * **Langue** refers to the underlying competence or system of understanding a language [3](#page=3). * **Parole** refers to the actual performance or the act of using the language system in practice, including individual usage in specific situations [3](#page=3). * **Signifier vs. signified:** * The **signifier** is the sound or word itself [3](#page=3). * The **signified** is the concept or content being described by the signifier [3](#page=3). ### 1.4 History of linguistics as a science Modern linguistics emerged in the early 20th century, with Ferdinand de Saussure considered its "founding father" and a key figure whose contributions marked a significant milestone [3](#page=3). ### 1.5 Language as an evolutionary "Complex Adaptive System" The concept of language as an evolutionary "Complex Adaptive System" draws parallels with genetics. In this model, new variants can develop, akin to mutations. These variants may compete, leading to the layering (co-existence) or loss of less frequently used variants [3](#page=3). --- # Language as a system of signs and animal communication Humans are fundamentally a symbolic species, possessing an intricate sign system that distinguishes them from other animals. This topic explores the nature of signs, the structure of language as a semiotic system, and contrasts human language with animal communication, highlighting the unique properties of human linguistic abilities [4](#page=4). ### 2.1 Semiotics: The study of signs Semiotics is the study of signs. In this context, a sign is defined as a pairing of a form with a meaning, where the form need not be a physical object; it can also be a sequence of sounds. The understanding of signs is a learned, subconscious process acquired over time, rather than an innate, genetic trait. Linguistic signs primarily involve words and symbols [4](#page=4). #### 2.1.1 Types of signs There are three primary types of signs, categorized by the relationship between their form and meaning: * **Icon**: The relationship between the form and meaning is one of resemblance [4](#page=4). > **Example:** A road sign depicting a silhouette of a person walking represents a pedestrian crossing through visual resemblance. * **Index**: The form implies the concept indirectly through a causal link [4](#page=4). > **Example:** Smoke is an index of fire, as there is a direct causal relationship between them. * **Symbol**: The relationship between the form and meaning is arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent or natural connection. Linguistic signs are typically symbols [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** While these categories are distinct, there can be instances where interpretations vary, and some signs may exhibit characteristics of more than one type. #### 2.1.2 Language as a system of symbols A linguistic sign is composed of two components: the **signifier** (the form) and the **signified** (the meaning) [4](#page=4). > **Tip:** While most linguistic signs are arbitrary symbols, there are exceptions like onomatopoeia, where the sound of a word resembles the sound it describes (e.g., "buzz," "splash"). However, even onomatopoeic words exhibit some arbitrariness, as the sounds dogs make are represented differently in various languages, and they are still considered icons rather than pure symbols. Certain written signs, like pictograms, can also be considered icons due to their visual resemblance to what they represent [5](#page=5). A "word" can be defined as an arbitrary, conventionalized sign or symbol; a form-meaning pairing stored in the human mind (langue) or produced as speech (parole) in spoken, written, or signed modes [5](#page=5). ### 2.2 Animal communication vs. human language Animals undeniably possess communication systems. These systems are used to signal information such as danger or food sources, and can even exhibit regional differences, as seen in bird songs. However, the question of intentionality in animal communication is significant. Vocalization is not a fundamental requirement for language, as sign languages demonstrate [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** Talking birds like parrots may imitate sounds but do not typically dissect them into discrete units that can be recombined in novel ways, suggesting their communication is qualitatively different from human language [6](#page=6). Animal communication systems are qualitatively different from human language systems. The distinction is not always sharp, with examples like dolphin signature whistles and research into chimpanzee communication showing some overlap. However, there is an objective difference, as far as current knowledge indicates [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). #### 2.2.1 Properties of human language Several properties make human language unique when considered collectively: * **Reflexivity**: The ability to refer to the communication system itself; humans can talk about language [6](#page=6). > **Example:** Discussing the grammar rules of English. * **Displacement**: The ability to communicate about things that are not present in time or space. Animal communication is often tied to the immediate situation (here and now), whereas humans can discuss the past, future, hypothetical, or non-existent entities [6](#page=6). > **Example:** Talking about what happened yesterday, planning for next year, or discussing mythical creatures like unicorns. * **Arbitrariness**: The lack of a necessary connection between the signifier and the signified. This is a core feature of most linguistic signs, as discussed earlier [4](#page=4) [6](#page=6). * **Productivity/Open-endedness**: Humans can create an infinite number of novel sentences from a finite set of elements. Animal languages are typically very restricted in their signal repertoire [6](#page=6). > **Example:** A Cicada species might have only four distinct signals, whereas humans can construct vastly complex and unique utterances [6](#page=6). * **Cultural transmission**: Language is learned over time, not instinctively inherited. While animal communication is often instinctive, human language acquisition involves social learning [6](#page=6). * **Duality/Double articulation**: Human language has two levels of structure. At the lowest level, meaningless sounds or signs (phonemes/graphemes) are combined to form meaningful units (morphemes/words). These meaningful units are then combined to form larger structures like sentences [6](#page=6). > **Example:** The sounds /k/, /æ/, /t/ have no inherent meaning individually, but combined, they form the word "cat," which has meaning [6](#page=6). * **Recursion**: The ability to embed statements within other statements, creating potentially infinite linguistic structures through subordination and hypotaxis [6](#page=6). > **Example:** "I think you are a fool" can be embedded into another statement: "You think that I think that you are a fool." This embedding can continue indefinitely [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** By school age, children typically develop complex language systems enabling extended discourse with an infinite number of novel utterances, a capability unmatched by any other known modern creature [7](#page=7). --- # Morphology and word formation Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and the rules that govern them, exploring how the smallest meaningful units, morphemes, combine to form words [8](#page=8). ### 4.1 General definitions Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structure of words and the rules that govern it. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in language. Words can be monomorphemic (composed of a single morpheme) or polymorphemic (composed of multiple morphemes) [8](#page=8). ### 4.2 Types of morphemes Morphemes can be categorized based on their ability to stand alone: * **Free morphemes:** These can appear independently without being attached to other morphemes. Examples include "man," "cat," "these," and "from" [8](#page=8). * **Bound morphemes:** These can only appear in combination with other morphemes. Examples include the bound morphemes in "unhappy," "selfishness," "happily," and "cats" [8](#page=8). Morphemes can also be distinguished by their function and meaning: * **Lexical morphemes:** These are also known as content words and establish a relationship between the word and the world. They include nouns, adjectives, and verbs, such as "tree," "talk," "deep," and "negation". New lexical morphemes can be added and new lexemes created quite easily [9](#page=9). * **Grammatical morphemes:** These are also known as function words and establish a relationship with other parts of the sentence. They include prepositions, articles, conjunctions, pronouns, and markers for plural, case, and tense. Spontaneous neologisms are impossible for grammatical morphemes [9](#page=9). Morphemes can also be categorized by their position relative to a base: * **Prefixes:** These are affixes that appear before the base. Examples include "un-" in "unhappy," "dis-" in "dislike," and "mal-" in "malnutrition" [9](#page=9). * **Suffixes:** These are affixes that appear after the base. Examples include "-ment" in "management," "-hood" in "motherhood," and "-ful" in "cupful" [9](#page=9). Differentiating based on autonomy, important terms include: * **Bases:** These are parts of words, like "mother" in "motherhood," which serve as the foundation for attaching other morphemes [9](#page=9). * **Derivatives:** A word derived from a base, such as "motherhood," is called a derivative [9](#page=9). * **Roots:** Simplex bases are called roots. Roots are the core element in a word and are essential for its existence [9](#page=9). ### 4.3 Inflectional and derivational morphemes Bound morphemes can be either grammatical/inflectional or lexical/derivational [10](#page=10). * **Inflection:** This occurs when grammatical information and categories are expressed by affixes. Examples in modern English include the plural "-s," the possessive "'s," and the regular past tense "-ed" [10](#page=10). * **Derivation:** This occurs when new lexemes are created by adding an affix to a lexical base. Examples include "reality," "fondness," "rewrite," "disclaim," and "friendly" [10](#page=10). It is possible for a single word to contain both derivational and inflectional morphemes [10](#page=10). #### Differences between inflection and derivation | Feature | Inflection | Derivation | | :------------------------- | :------------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------- | | **Word-class change** | Never changes a word-class | Can change word-class | | **Form-meaning relationship** | Stable form-meaning relationship | Variable form-meaning relationship | | **Base attachment** | Suffixes attach to all possible bases | Affixes attach to a subset of possible bases | | **Affix type** | Only suffixes | Suffixes and prefixes | > **Tip:** Inflectional morphemes typically add grammatical information (like number or tense) without changing the core meaning or word class, whereas derivational morphemes often create new words with distinct meanings and can change the word class. #### Unique morphemes "Cranberry morphemes" are a type of bound morpheme that cannot be assigned a specific meaning or grammatical function but serve to distinguish one word from another. An example is the "-berry" in "strawberry" or "cranberry," where the morpheme itself doesn't add an independent meaning related to "berry" in the way that "raspberry" might [11](#page=11). ### 4.4 Allomorphy A morpheme is the smallest meaningful and/or functionally relevant element of an utterance. A morpheme can manifest in different forms, called morphs, which are the formal realizations of a morpheme. Allomorphs are morphs that represent a specific morpheme [11](#page=11). These variations in form can occur for several reasons: 1. **Phonologically conditioned:** The shape of the allomorph depends on the surrounding sounds [11](#page=11). > **Example:** The indefinite article has different allomorphs: $[\partial]$ before consonants, $[\partial n]$ before vowels, and $[ei]$ when stressed [11](#page=11). 2. **Morphologically conditioned:** The shape of the allomorph depends on the morpheme it is attached to [11](#page=11). > **Example:** Bases can change their shape when different affixes follow, such as "exclaim" becoming "exclamation," "able" becoming "ability," and "receive" becoming "receptive" [12](#page=12). 3. **Lexically conditioned:** The shape of the allomorph depends on the entire word [11](#page=11). > **Example:** Irregular plurals, like "sheep" (singular and plural), "oxen" (plural of ox), and "children" (plural of child), are lexically conditioned allomorphs [12](#page=12). ### 4.5 Word formation New words can be added to a language through several processes: * **Coinage/Root creation:** Inventing words from scratch, such as "Google," "blurb," "Kodak," "Marmite," and "Hobbit" [13](#page=13). * **Borrowing:** Adopting words from other languages, like "sushi" and "Kindergarten" [13](#page=13). * **Semantic change:** Giving a new meaning to an existing word, such as "mouse" [13](#page=13). * **Word formation:** Creating new words from existing elements, such as "facebook," "facebooker," "dadbod," "hangry," "catfish," "to vape," "conscious uncoupling" [13](#page=13). #### Productive word formation processes These are the most common and active processes for creating new words: ##### Compounding This process involves combining two or more existing words to create a new one [13](#page=13). * **Examples:** "English students," "lecture hall," "handout," "flashlight," "headset," "textbook," "word-formation," "word-class" [13](#page=13). * **Stress:** In English noun compounds, the stress typically falls on the left-hand member, distinguishing them from noun phrases where the adjective modifies the noun. For example, "English STUdents" refers to students from England, while "ENGlish students" refers to students who study the English language. Similarly, "a green HOUSE" implies a house that is green, whereas "a GREENHOUSE" refers to a specific type of building [14](#page=14). * **Structure:** Compound words consist of a modifier (left-hand element) and a head (right-hand element). They can be nominal, adjectival, or verbal. The right-hand element usually carries the main meaning, syntactic category, word class, and inflections (e.g., plural "-s") [14](#page=14). * **Complexity and Constituency:** A constituent is a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical structure. For instance, in "wild-life sanctuary," "wildlife" functions as a single unit within the larger compound [15](#page=15). ##### Affixation This is a form of derivational morphology where new words are created by adding an affix to a base, often changing the word class [15](#page=15). * **Prefixes:** Rarely change the word class of the derivative. They can have specific meanings, such as "mono-" (one), "poly-" (many), "contra-" (opposite), "ad-" (toward), "un-" (not), and "hyper-" (over) [15](#page=15). * **Suffixes:** Often change the word class of the derivative. They can indicate roles like "somebody doing something" (-er), the "act of" (-al), or the "state of condition" (-ness) [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). > **Note:** A single suffix form, like "-er," can have a range of meanings, such as "person who Xs" or "instrument that Xs". Suffixes also exhibit preferences for certain base word classes [16](#page=16). * **Blocking:** This occurs when an affixation is prevented because a synonymous word already exists. For example, "thief" is used instead of "stealer," and "friendship" instead of "friendhood" [16](#page=16). #### Less productive word formation processes These processes are less frequent but still contribute to word creation: ##### Conversion Also known as "zero-derivation," this is the creation of a new word belonging to a new word class without any overt marking [17](#page=17). * **Examples:** "a gesture" > "to gesture," "water" > "to water," "to flirt" > "a flirt," "Google" > "to google," "empty" > "to empty" [17](#page=17). ##### Shortenings These processes involve the deletion of linguistic material rather than addition, typically without changing the word class or meaning, with the exception of back-formation [17](#page=17). 1. **Clipping (Truncation):** Either the main stressed syllable or the first syllable of a word is retained [17](#page=17). * **Examples:** "Patricia" > "Pat," "Veterinary" > "Vet," "Gymnasium" > "Gym," "Influenza" > "Flu," "Airplane" > "Plane" [17](#page=17). 2. **Blends:** Formed by combining parts of two words [17](#page=17). * **Examples:** "Smoke" + "Fog" = "Smog," "Motel," "hangry," "shopaholic" [17](#page=17). 3. **Abbreviation:** Formed from initial letters or sounds of several words. * **Acronyms:** Pronounced as a word (e.g., UNESCO, RAM, OPEC, TOEFL) [17](#page=17). * **Initialisms:** Pronounced letter by letter (e.g., TV, CD, PC, DJ, OED, BNC, IPA) [17](#page=17). 4. **Back-formation:** This is a reversed process of derivation where a complex word is historically older, often from borrowing. A seeming suffix is later stripped away to fit the pattern of "ordinary" derivation with a change in word class [17](#page=17). * **Examples:** "Editor" > "edit," "Commentator" > "Commentate" [17](#page=17). > **Summary of Shortening Processes:** > * **One Word:** Back-formation, Clippings > * **More than one word:** Blends, Abbreviations (acronyms, initialisms) [18](#page=18). --- # Semantics, lexicon, and meaning relations Semantics is the study of meaning in language, exploring lexical semantics, various theories of word meaning, semantic relations, and the structure of the mental lexicon. ## 4. Semantics, lexicon, and meaning relations Semantics is the study of the nature and structure of meaning in human language. It operates on three levels: lexical semantics (meaning of words/morphemes), sentential/phrasal semantics (meaning of syntactic units larger than words), and discourse semantics (meaning created in context). Semantics focuses on conventional meaning, independent of context, while pragmatics examines intended meaning in context [19](#page=19). ### 4.1 The word and the world: the semiotic triangle The linguistic sign connects a form (word) and a meaning (concept). Early views posited that word meaning is directly related to real-world objects (referential theory). However, not all words refer to tangible objects (e.g., "ask," "if") and multiple expressions can refer to the same object but not have the same meaning (e.g., "the tree," "the plant") [20](#page=20). A more robust view defines meaning as the relationship between a linguistic expression and a mental category or concept used for classification. This conceptual approach involves three elements: the linguistic form, the thought/concept, and the referent in reality. Meaning is therefore a relation between a linguistic form and a concept. Wittgenstein famously proposed that "the meaning of a word is its use in the language" [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). #### 4.1.1 Dimensions of word meaning Word meaning can be understood through several dimensions [21](#page=21): * **Sense vs. Referent:** * **Sense** refers to the mental concept associated with a linguistic expression, belonging to *langue* (the language system). It represents ways of referring to something. For example, the sense of "cow" is roughly "a large domesticated four-legged animal species" [21](#page=21). * **Referent** is the actual object or entity in the world pointed to by a word or phrase when used in *parole* (actual speech). Reference is restricted by sense [21](#page=21). * **Denotation vs. Connotation:** * **Denotation** describes the primary, stable meaning of a linguistic expression, its relationship to concrete external entities [22](#page=22). * **Connotation** includes all associations, ideas, and emotions related to a linguistic expression [22](#page=22). * **Intension vs. Extension:** * **Intension** comprises the semantic properties an object must possess to fall within the word's meaning. It can be represented by a set of semantic features. For example, the intension of "bird" might include [+animate, -human, +wings, +feathers [22](#page=22). * **Extension** refers to the actual entities in the real world that satisfy the intension. The extension of "bird" includes all types of birds [22](#page=22). ### 4.2 Approaches to word meaning and categorization Understanding word meaning is linked to cognitive categorization. When we define a word, we access our mental concept, which influences word usage [22](#page=22). #### 4.2.1 Approaches to categorization Three main approaches explain how we categorize entities [23](#page=23): 1. **Semantic Feature Analysis (Aristotle):** This approach defines categories by a set of necessary and sufficient semantic features [23](#page=23). * *Example:* MAN [+human, +male, +adult; WOMAN [+human, -male, +adult; BACHELOR [+human, +adult, +male, -married [23](#page=23). * *Benefits:* Easy to understand and naturally defines semantic relations [23](#page=23). * *Problems:* Features are themselves concepts (endless cycle), doesn't explain why some members are better examples (e.g., penguin as a bird), features may not be atomic, and it can fail to capture all aspects of word meaning or differentiate words with identical features but different uses [23](#page=23). 2. **Family Resemblance (Wittgenstein):** Wittgenstein argued that not all members of a category share a single common feature, but rather a network of overlapping resemblances, like members of a family [23](#page=23). * *Example:* The category GAME includes activities like tennis, cards, and chess. While not all share every feature (e.g., "requires more than one person"), pairs exhibit various resemblances [24](#page=24). 3. **Prototype Theory (Rosch):** This theory proposes that categories have a graded structure, with some members being more typical or "prototypical" than others [24](#page=24). * *Example:* While a three-legged, toothless albino tiger deviates from typical semantic features (striped, four legs, carnivorous), it is still recognized as a tiger because it shares sufficient resemblances with the prototype [24](#page=24). * *Advantages:* Allows for non-typical members, fuzzy boundaries, associative meaning, and explains linguistic expressions for different grades of belonging (e.g., "typically," "strictly speaking") [24](#page=24). * *Difference from Family Resemblance:* Prototype theory identifies a "core" or most typical member, while family resemblance treats all members as equal in their role within the network [24](#page=24). ### 4.3 The lexicon and word forms The **lexicon** is the set of words in a language. An educated adult speaker knows approximately 25,000 to 80,000 words. The mental lexicon is not an alphabetical list but a structured network where words are connected, evidenced by word association tests. The meaning of words is significantly influenced by their connections to other words [26](#page=26) [27](#page=27). #### 4.3.1 Word forms and their senses Words can have multiple meanings (lexical ambiguity) [27](#page=27). * **Polysemy:** A single word form has multiple related meanings. The meanings share a conceptual link, often stemming from a core meaning [27](#page=27). * *Examples:* "head" (of a person, nail, institution); "mouse" (animal, PC device) [27](#page=27) [28](#page=28). * **Homonymy:** A single word form has multiple unrelated meanings [28](#page=28). * *Examples:* "bat" (animal, sports equipment); "bark" (dog sound, tree covering) [28](#page=28). * **Homophony:** Different word forms share the same pronunciation but have different spellings and meanings [28](#page=28). * *Examples:* "flower/flour," "knight/night" [28](#page=28). * **Homography:** Different word forms share the same spelling but have different pronunciations and meanings [28](#page=28). * *Examples:* "dove" (bird vs. to plunge); "tear" (in eye vs. to rip) [28](#page=28). * **Heteronyms:** A subset of homographs with different pronunciations. ### 4.4 Semantic relations among words Semantic relations describe how word meanings are interconnected [29](#page=29). #### 4.4.1 Synonymy Synonyms are words with different forms but approximately the same meaning [29](#page=29). * *Examples:* "beautiful, lovely, pretty"; "buy, purchase, acquire" [29](#page=29). * **Complications:** Synonyms are rarely perfectly interchangeable due to differences in stylistic level, social/regional variety, or specific contexts. "Near-synonyms" is a more accurate term [29](#page=29). * **Euphemism:** A milder or more agreeable expression used to replace one that is offensive or unpleasant [30](#page=30). #### 4.4.2 Antonymy Antonyms are words with opposite meanings, sharing most semantic components except one [30](#page=30). * *Examples:* "big/small," "clean/dirty," "dead/alive" [30](#page=30). * **Types of Antonyms:** 1. **Gradable antonyms:** Opposites along a continuum, allowing for comparative forms and modification by adverbs (e.g., "hot/cold," "fast/slow") [30](#page=30). 2. **Complementaries:** Mutually exclusive pairs where something is one or the other, with no middle ground (e.g., "alive/dead," "true/false") [30](#page=30). 3. **Reversives:** Directional opposites indicating movement in opposite directions (e.g., "enter/exit," "come/go") [31](#page=31). 4. **Converses:** Relational opposites viewed from different perspectives (e.g., "buy/sell," "teacher/student") [31](#page=31). * **Complications:** A word can have different antonyms depending on its meaning in context (e.g., "light" can be opposed by "heavy," "strong," or "dark") [31](#page=31). #### 4.4.3 Hyponymy Hyponymy describes a hierarchical relationship where one word is a specific type of another. The more general term is the **hypernym** (superordinate), and the specific term is the **hyponym** (subordinate) [32](#page=32). * *Example:* "Color" (hypernym) to "red, blue, green" (hyponyms) [32](#page=32). #### 4.4.4 Meronymy Meronymy represents a part-whole relationship, describing components of an object or entity [32](#page=32). * *Examples:* "pits" (part) of a "peach" (whole); "finger" (part) of a "hand" (whole) [32](#page=32). ### 4.5 Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic relations These relations describe how words are connected in language [32](#page=32). * **Paradigmatic relations:** 'Vertical' relationships where words can substitute for each other in a specific position within a sentence structure. These words are semantically related and belong to the same word class or semantic field [33](#page=33). * *Example:* In the sentence structure "Name → Verb → Adjective → Noun," words within each column (e.g., "Julia, Mary, Fred") are in a paradigmatic relation [33](#page=33). * **Syntagmatic relations:** 'Horizontal' relationships between words that co-occur in a specific sequence within a structure. These are words that frequently appear together [33](#page=33). * *Example:* In the sentence "Julia loves strong tea," "strong tea" shows a syntagmatic relation [33](#page=33). #### 4.5.1 Collocations and Colligation * **Collocations:** Cases of strong syntagmatic relations where certain lexemes frequently co-occur, forming "word partnerships". The likelihood of co-occurrence can vary in strength [34](#page=34). * *Examples:* "beige car," "blond hair"; "get lost/fired/a job" [34](#page=34). * **Colligation:** A collocation involving a specific grammatical structure [34](#page=34). * *Example:* "looking forward to + ING" [34](#page=34). * **Fixed Collocations/Formulaic Phrases:** Highly fixed expressions or "chunks" that convey a specific meaning, which may differ from the literal meaning of their components [35](#page=35). #### 4.5.2 Idioms Idioms are expressions whose meaning cannot be predicted from the meanings of their individual words and general grammatical rules; they are non-compositional. They represent a spectrum from transparent (semi-compositional) to non-transparent (non-compositional) [35](#page=35). * *Examples:* "Spill the beans" (divulge information - semi-compositional); "Kick the bucket" (to die - non-compositional) [35](#page=35). * Translating idioms word-for-word is often unsuccessful [36](#page=36). ### 4.6 Phrasal and sentential semantics While the lexicon is finite, sentences can be produced infinitely. The meaning of most phrases and sentences is **compositional**, meaning it's determined by the meaning of its parts and their combination (e.g., word order) [36](#page=36). #### 4.6.1 Contextual meaning and ambiguity Context is crucial for resolving lexical ambiguity (when a word has multiple meanings) and distinguishing between different senses of polysemous words or homophones. Ambiguity can also be structural, arising from sentence structure [36](#page=36). * **Lexical ambiguity:** A word has multiple meanings [36](#page=36). * *Example:* "The Rabbi married my sister" (became husband vs. officiated ceremony) [36](#page=36). * **Structural ambiguity:** The arrangement of words allows for multiple interpretations [36](#page=36). * *Example:* "Sherlock saw the man using binoculars" (who has them?) [36](#page=36). The distinction between **objective meaning (semantics)** and **speaker meaning (pragmatics)** is important [36](#page=36). ### 4.7 Meaning relations among propositions These relations concern the truth conditions of declarative sentences [37](#page=37). * **Paraphrase:** Two sentences have approximately the same meaning and describe the same situation. They are true under the same circumstances [37](#page=37). * *Example:* "Mary sold a car to Tom." $\Leftrightarrow$ "Tom bought a car from Mary." [37](#page=37). * **Entailment:** The truth of one sentence logically implies the truth of another. This relation is asymmetrical [37](#page=37). * *Example:* "Mary likes all fruits." $\implies$ "Mary likes apples." [37](#page=37). * **Contradiction:** If one sentence is true, the other must be false. This is a form of negative entailment [37](#page=37). * *Example:* "Charles is a bachelor." $\implies \neg$ "Charles is married." [37](#page=37). ### 4.8 Semantic roles Semantic roles (also called thematic roles or theta roles) describe the semantic relationship between a semantic argument (noun/pronoun) and its predicate (verb) in a sentence. They help establish what happens in a situation [38](#page=38). * **Key Elements:** Predicates (verbs) indicate actions and select arguments (nouns/pronouns) [38](#page=38). * **Examples of Semantic Roles:** * **Agent:** Entity performing the action [38](#page=38). * **Experiencer:** Receives input or undergoes a feeling/state [38](#page=38). * **Force/Natural Cause:** Non-animate force performing an action [38](#page=38). * **Patient/Theme:** Entity undergoing a process or change of state [38](#page=38). * **Beneficiary/Recipient:** Element for whose benefit the action is performed [38](#page=38). * **Stimulus:** Prompts sensory or emotional feeling [38](#page=38). * **Instrument:** Entity used to carry out an action [38](#page=38). * **Source:** Starting point of movement or action [38](#page=38). * **Goal:** End point or destination of action [38](#page=38). * **Location:** Place where an action occurs [38](#page=38). * **Path:** The route between source and goal [38](#page=38). * **Time:** When an action occurs [38](#page=38). * **Manner:** The way an action is carried out [38](#page=38). --- # Syntax and grammatical structure This topic delves into the fundamental principles of grammar, focusing on syntax to understand how words are organized into meaningful phrases and sentences. ### 5.1 Grammar: Definitions and scope Grammar can be defined in several ways, reflecting different perspectives and branches of linguistics [40](#page=40). * **Broad Definition:** In a comprehensive linguistic sense, grammar encompasses the complete system of phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic information and rules that speakers possess [40](#page=40). * **More Narrow Definition:** This definition focuses on the rules governing the sounds, words, sentences, and their combinations and interpretations, often restricting itself to syntax and morphology while excluding vocabulary and pronunciation [40](#page=40). * **Common Usage:** The term "grammar" is also used to refer to the characteristics of morphology and syntax of a language [40](#page=40). In linguistics, grammar is understood as an abstract mental system that enables communication and understanding, viewed as a set of rules. Grammar books, while valuable, are typically descriptions and often incomplete representations of this internal system [40](#page=40). ### 5.2 Syntax Syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, with word order being a crucial element. The term "syntax" originates from ancient Greek, combining "syn" (together) and "taxis" (an ordering), signifying "coordination" [41](#page=41). Linguists often divide the description of a language into lexicon, phonology, and grammar (which includes syntax and morphology) [41](#page=41). #### 5.2.1 The role of syntax in meaning Syntax plays a vital role in making sense of language, even with nonsensical words. Correct word order can render a sentence meaningful, while incorrect order can make it seem "off". For example [41](#page=41): > **Example:** > 1. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously* [41](#page=41). > 2. Colorless green ideas sleeps furious [41](#page=41). > 3. Ideas furiously colorless sleep green [41](#page=41). Even with abstract words, structural rules related to word order and morphology help distinguish grammatical roles like subject and predicate, aiding in semantic interpretation [41](#page=41). A syntactic analysis aims to account for all and only grammatically correct phrases and sentences in a language. This is rooted in the concept of **generative grammar**, which assumes a finite set of grammatical rules can generate an infinite number of well-formed sentences [41](#page=41). #### 5.2.2 Levels of syntactic structure Syntactic structure can be analyzed at various levels, progressing from words to larger units: * **Sentence:** The largest unit, typically beginning with a capital letter and ending with punctuation. A sentence is a string of words organized by grammatical rules (LANGUE). It consists of at least a verb and often a subject, with other common parts including objects and adjuncts [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43). * **Clauses:** Sentences can be composed of one or more clauses, each organized around a verb. Clauses can be main (independent) or subordinate (dependent), and finite or non-finite [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43). * **Phrases:** Groups of words that function as a unit within a clause. They have internal hierarchical structure and are named after their head element [42](#page=42) [46](#page=46). * **Word/Lexeme:** Individual words and their grammatical categories (parts of speech) [42](#page=42). * **(Morpheme/Phoneme):** These are lower levels of linguistic structure not the primary focus of syntax [42](#page=42). **Sentence vs. Utterance:** A **sentence** is an abstract grammatical construct (LANGUE), while an **utterance** is the concrete, actual use of one or more sentences in a specific context (PAROLE). Understanding an utterance requires knowledge of both sentence meaning and pragmatics. This guide focuses on the syntactic analysis of fuller sentence structures [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43). > **Tip:** When analyzing language, distinguishing between the abstract grammatical structure (sentence) and its real-world use (utterance) is crucial for linguistic study [42](#page=42). ### 5.3 Word classes (Parts of Speech) Word classes categorize words based on their semantic, morphological, and syntactic properties. They can be divided into **closed classes** (limited number, difficult to add new words, e.g., prepositions) and **open classes** (large number, easier to add new words, e.g., nouns) [44](#page=44). **Criteria for determining word classes:** 1. **Semantic:** Based on the meaning of the word. * **Nouns:** Denote persons, objects (concrete/abstract) [44](#page=44). * **Verbs:** Denote actions or states [44](#page=44). * **Adjectives:** Denote qualities (concrete/abstract) [44](#page=44). * **Prepositions:** Denote relations (place, time, etc.) [45](#page=45). * **Adverbs:** Denote manner, likelihood, frequency, attitude, degree, etc. [45](#page=45). * **Determiners:** Specify the reference of an NP (definite, indefinite, etc.) [45](#page=45). * **Conjunctions:** Connect words, phrases, or clauses [45](#page=45). * *Note:* Semantic criteria can be ambiguous, and exceptions exist [45](#page=45). 2. **Morphological:** Based on word formation and inflections. * **Nouns:** Plural endings, derivational suffixes (e.g., -ment, -ness) [45](#page=45). * **Verbs:** Past tense endings, derivational affixes (e.g., re-, -fy) [45](#page=45). * **Adjectives:** Comparative/superlative endings, derivational affixes (e.g., un-, -ful) [45](#page=45). * **Adverbs:** Suffixes like -ly, -wise [45](#page=45). * *Note:* Morphological markers can sometimes be ambiguous or apply to multiple word classes [45](#page=45). 3. **Syntactic (Distributional):** Based on where words can appear in a sentence relative to other word classes. * Adjectives precede nouns [45](#page=45). * Determiners precede adjectives [45](#page=45). * Adverbs modifying adjectives precede them [45](#page=45). * *Note:* Syntactic criteria are language-specific and have exceptions [45](#page=45). Categorizing words often involves considering all three criteria, with some cases being more straightforward than others. The **prototype approach** can also be useful, identifying more typical examples of each word class [45](#page=45). ### 5.4 Phrases Phrases are syntactic units consisting of a head word and its dependents. They are essential building blocks of sentences [46](#page=46). **Five main types of phrases:** 1. **Noun Phrase (NP):** Headed by a noun (e.g., "a dog," "two black cats") [46](#page=46). 2. **(Extended) Verb Phrase ((E)VP):** Headed by a verb (e.g., "bought a car," "is watching a movie") [46](#page=46). 3. **Adjectival Phrase (AdjP):** Headed by an adjective (e.g., "very big," "incredibly stupid") [46](#page=46). 4. **Prepositional Phrase (PP):** Headed by a preposition (e.g., "on the table," "during the lecture") [46](#page=46). 5. **Adverbial Phrase (AdvP):** Headed by an adverb (e.g., "very often") [46](#page=46). The **head** is the most important element, determining the phrase's type and its potential roles in a sentence. **Dependents** are other elements within the phrase (prehead or posthead) [46](#page=46). **Phrase structure rules** describe the elements that can form specific phrases: * `NP → (Det) (Adj) N (PP) (Clause)` [46](#page=46). * `VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)` [46](#page=46). * `AP → (Adv) Adj` [46](#page=46). * `PP → P NP` [46](#page=46). * `Clause → NP VP` [46](#page=46). Within phrases, elements can be classified as **complements** (necessary semantic arguments) or **modifiers** (optional elements) [46](#page=46). **Phrase structure can be visually represented using tree diagrams**, which illustrate the hierarchical relationships between constituents, or through bracketing [47](#page=47). > **Tip:** Tree diagrams and bracketing are valuable tools for visualizing the hierarchical organization of phrases and sentences [47](#page=47). ### 5.5 Constituents and constituency tests A **syntactic constituent** is a sequence of words that forms a unit and functions as a building block within language. A single word is always a constituent, but the focus is on identifying larger constituent units [47](#page=47). **Constituency tests** are used to determine if a sequence of words forms a constituent: 1. **Pronominalization/Substitution:** If a string of words can be replaced by a pronoun or pro-form, it is likely a constituent [47](#page=47). > **Example:** "The dog ate some bones." → "It ate them." [47](#page=47). 2. **Movement:** If a string of words can be moved together to a different position in the sentence (e.g., through passive voice), it is likely a constituent [47](#page=47). > **Example:** "The dog ate some bones." → "Some bones were eaten by the dog." [47](#page=47). 3. **Coordination:** If a constituent can be joined by a coordinating conjunction (like "and") with another similar constituent, it is likely a constituent [48](#page=48). > **Example:** "The dog ate some bones and some cookies." [48](#page=48). 4. **Gapping:** Creating a tag question that leaves a gap for the constituent [48](#page=48). > **Example:** "The dog has eaten all the bones, hasn't it \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_?" [48](#page=48). 5. **Sentence Fragments/Question Tests:** If a sentence fragment can serve as a natural answer to a question, it is likely a constituent [48](#page=48). > **Example:** "Who has eaten all the bones?" → "The dog." [48](#page=48). It is important to use multiple tests, as not all tests may apply to every constituent [48](#page=48). ### 5.6 Features of Grammar Grammatical systems possess several key features: 1. **Hierarchy:** Constituents are organized in layers, with smaller constituents embedded within larger ones. This nesting and order are crucial for meaning. Hierarchy is evident in bracketed formats and tree diagrams [49](#page=49). 2. **Recursivity:** This is the property of allowing self-similar repetition, enabling the embedding of an infinite number of structures within others, such as NPs within NPs [49](#page=49). 3. **Ambiguity:** Human grammars allow for sentences to have multiple interpretations [49](#page=49). > **Example:** "The soldiers saw the men with the binoculars." (It's unclear who has the binoculars) [49](#page=49). Ambiguity can be represented using bracketing and tree diagrams, highlighting the importance of hierarchical structure [49](#page=49). ### 5.7 Syntactic form vs. Syntactic function * **Syntactic form** refers to the internal properties of a constituent, defined by semantic, morphological, and syntactic criteria. This includes word classes (e.g., noun, verb) and phrase types (e.g., NP, VP) [49](#page=49). * **Syntactic function** describes the role of a constituent within a larger grammatical context, representing its external role [50](#page=50). **Key Syntactic Functions:** * **Subject:** Typically precedes the verb in English and is often realized by NPs, but can also be clauses or PPs [50](#page=50). * **Predicate:** Traditionally defined as everything in a sentence except the subject. The core predicating element is the **predicator** (the verb) [50](#page=50). * **Complement:** A non-subject argument that is obligatory and cannot be omitted. * **Direct Objects:** Follow the verb, often realized by NPs or clauses [50](#page=50). * **Indirect Objects:** Occur between the verb and direct object, often realized by NPs or PPs [50](#page=50). * **Subject Complements:** Provide information about the subject, typically following a copular verb and realized by NPs or AdjPs [50](#page=50). * **Object Complements:** Follow a direct object and provide information about it, often realized by NPs or AdjPs [50](#page=50). * **Prepositional Objects:** Follow a verb or direct object and are realized by PPs. Crucially, these are arguments and obligatorily fill a semantic role [50](#page=50). * **Adjuncts:** Optional elements that provide additional information, also referred to as adverbials (at the VP level) or modifiers. They can be AdvP, AdjP, PP, clause, or NP [51](#page=51). * **Modifiers:** E.g., "available," "extremely boring" [51](#page=51). * **Adverbial:** E.g., "last week," "because I was angry" [51](#page=51). **Distinguishing Adjuncts from Prepositional Objects:** Adjuncts provide optional information, while prepositional objects are obligatory arguments [51](#page=51). > **Example:** > * "I [put [the book [on the table]]" - "on the table" is a prepositional object (Goal) [51](#page=51). > * "I noticed [the book [on the table]]" - "on the table" is an adjunct to the NP "the book" [51](#page=51). > * "I [[arranged [the books]] [on the table]." - "on the table" is an adjunct to the VP [51](#page=51). **No One-to-One Relation:** One grammatical form can have multiple functions, and one function can be expressed by different forms. NPs, for example, can function as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, or adjuncts [51](#page=51). ### 5.8 Complementation patterns The verb is a central element in a clause, and its **complementation patterns** describe the obligatory arguments (complements) it requires [52](#page=52). * **Intransitive verbs:** Require only a subject and no complements (e.g., "laugh," "cry") [52](#page=52). > **Example:** "The girl cried." [52](#page=52). * **Monotransitive verbs:** Require a subject and one direct object (S V Od) (e.g., "buy," "eat") [52](#page=52). > **Example:** "The dog ate the bone." [52](#page=52). * **Ditransitive verbs:** Require a subject, an indirect object, and a direct object (S V Oi Od or S V Od Oi) (e.g., "give," "send") [52](#page=52). > **Example:** "The girl gave the dog the bone." [52](#page=52). * **PP-complement verbs:** Require a prepositional object (Op) or a direct object and a prepositional object (S V Op or S V Od Op). These are sometimes called complex transitive words [52](#page=52). > **Example (S V Op):** "He ventured into the deserted building." [52](#page=52). > **Example (S V Od Op):** "He put the book on the table." [52](#page=52). * **Copular verbs:** Connect the subject to a subject complement (S V Cs) (e.g., "be," "become"). They can also be involved in sentences with object complements (S V Od Co), where a copular verb can be implied between the direct object and object complement [52](#page=52). > **Example (S V Cs):** "The dog is in the garden." [52](#page=52). > **Example (S V Od Co):** "I consider him a fool." [52](#page=52). The presence of adjuncts does not alter these fundamental complementation patterns. **Transitivity** refers to the property of a verb having direct objects [53](#page=53). --- # Language typology and historical linguistics This section delves into the classification of languages based on their structural and functional characteristics, exploring linguistic universals and tracing the historical evolution of languages, with a particular focus on the development of English. ### 6.1 Language typology Language typology is the study and classification of languages according to their structural and functional features. It focuses on formal characteristics and involves cross-linguistic comparison to identify patterns and correlations. Unlike etymology, typology is not concerned with a language's origin [54](#page=54). #### 6.1.1 Morphological classification Languages can be classified based on their morphology [55](#page=55): * **Analytic (isolating) languages:** * Characterized by one word equaling one morpheme and one meaning [55](#page=55). * Semantically transparent [55](#page=55). * Examples include Mandarin and Papiamentu [55](#page=55). * English is considered "pretty isolating" today [55](#page=55). * **Synthetic languages:** * **Non-fusional (agglutinating):** * Words contain multiple morphemes, with one morpheme usually corresponding to one meaning [55](#page=55). * Semantically transparent [55](#page=55). * Examples: Turkish, Quechua, Basque [55](#page=55). * **Fusional (inflectional):** * Words are polymorphemic, with one morpheme carrying multiple meanings [55](#page=55). * Semantically non-transparent [55](#page=55). * Examples: Latin, Spanish, Russian [55](#page=55). It's important to note that most languages are typically a mix of these types. English, for instance, is mostly analytic but retains some synthetic (inflectional, fusional) elements. Old English had a more complex inflectional system, which significantly reduced during Middle English, leading to increased reliance on prepositions and auxiliary verbs [55](#page=55). #### 6.1.2 Word order classification Word order is another key feature for language classification, particularly in analytic languages where inflection is minimal [56](#page=56). * **Isolating (analytic) languages:** * Rely heavily on strict word order due to the lack of inflection [56](#page=56). * Example: "The dog bit the cat" (S-V-O) and "The cat bit the dog" (S-V-O) demonstrate how changing word order alters meaning [56](#page=56). * **Synthetic languages:** * Have freer word order due to their reliance on inflections to convey grammatical relationships [56](#page=56). * Example (German): "Der Hund biss die Katze" (S-V-O) and "Die Katze biss der Hund" (O-V-S) [56](#page=56). * Old English also exhibited flexible word order thanks to case marking [56](#page=56). Common word orders at the clause level include: * **SVO:** English, Indonesian (35-40%) [56](#page=56). * **SOV:** Japanese, Turkish (40-45%) [56](#page=56). * **VSO:** Welsh, Tagalog, Hebrew (10-15%) [56](#page=56). * **VOS:** Malagasy, Tzotsil (3-5%) [56](#page=56). * **OVS:** Amazonian languages (<1%) [56](#page=56). #### 6.1.3 Head-directionality Languages can also be classified by their head-directionality in phrases [56](#page=56): * **Head-initial languages:** The head of a phrase comes first, followed by specifiers, complements, or adjuncts (e.g., NP: N A Det - "meal good the") [56](#page=56). * **Head-final languages:** The head of a phrase comes last, preceded by specifiers, complements, or adjuncts (e.g., NP: Det A N - "the good meal") [56](#page=56). English exhibits a mixed system: * **Clause level:** Primarily strict SVO order in main and subordinate clauses, with exceptions like fronting (e.g., "HIM I don't like") [57](#page=57). * **Phrase level:** * NP, AP, AdvP: Mixed (head-final or head-initial) [57](#page=57). * PP, VP: Head-initial [57](#page=57). #### 6.1.4 Linguistic universals Joseph Greenberg is considered a founding father of modern typology, renowned for his work on linguistic universals. Linguistic universals are features that can be found in all languages or at least have a high probability of occurring [54](#page=54) [55](#page=55) [57](#page=57). Types of universals include: * **Absolute vs. Non-absolute (probabilistic):** * **Absolute:** True for all languages (e.g., all languages have consonants and vowels, distinguish nouns and verbs, and have ways to form questions) [57](#page=57). * **Non-absolute:** Occur in most languages with high probability and admit exceptions (e.g., most languages have adjectives; languages usually use rising intonation for yes/no questions) [57](#page=57). * **Implicational vs. Non-implicational:** * **Implicational:** If a language has structure X, it must also have structure Y. For example, if a language has inflection, it always has derivation. Another example is that languages with dominant VSO order tend to have adjectives after the noun with overwhelming more than chance frequency [57](#page=57). * **Non-implicational:** State a property that exists in a language without implying another property [57](#page=57). ### 6.2 Historical linguistics Historical linguistics, or diachronic linguistics, is the study of language change over time. It encompasses the history of particular languages based on written evidence, the comparative reconstruction of ancestor languages (even without written records), and the study of variation and ongoing change [58](#page=58). #### 6.2.1 Reasons for studying linguistic change Studying linguistic change is crucial for several reasons [58](#page=58): * Synchronic language systems are not static; they are the result of historical processes [58](#page=58). * Irregularities and exceptions in a language are often remnants of older stages [58](#page=58). * Linguistic forms can be inexplicable from a purely synchronic perspective [58](#page=58). * Awareness of variation and change is vital for social success (e.g., understanding register and style) [58](#page=58). * It reveals interesting internal and external reasons for language change [58](#page=58). * It illuminates universal mechanisms and phenomena like semantic bleaching and grammaticalization [58](#page=58). #### 6.2.2 Observable language change The most apparent changes are often additions to the lexicon, with numerous neologisms appearing in modern English. However, changes occur across all linguistic sub-categories, affecting form, meaning, and function [58](#page=58) [59](#page=59). Examples of semantic and phonetic changes: * Middle English (ME) "food" /o:/ to Modern English (ModE) "food" /u:/ [59](#page=59). * ME "mîn hûs" to New High German (NHD) "mein" /ai/ "Haus" /au/ [59](#page=59). * ME "goodbye" from "God be with ye" [59](#page=59). * Middle High German (MHD) "geil" (rich) to NHD "lüstern" / "super" [59](#page=59). * Latin "nescius" (not knowing/foolish) to ModE "nice" (delightful) [59](#page=59). * Old English (OE) "gesælig/selig" (happy) to ModE "silly" (stupid) [59](#page=59). Recent morpho-syntactic changes include shifts in the use of progressive verbs and adverbs. Current synchronic variation is often a precursor to long-term change [59](#page=59). #### 6.2.3 Models of linguistic change Language is viewed as an evolutionary "Complex Adaptive System". The process of linguistic change involves the emergence of new variants (mutations), their successful spread and replication, competition between variants, and eventual layering (co-existence) or loss [60](#page=60). **Gradual Change (The S-Curve):** Changes typically begin small, spread gradually through a population, and then plateau, with no change ever reaching 100% adoption. The process involves innovation, variation, diffusion, implementation, and potentially standardization [60](#page=60). **Scenarios for Language Change:** 1. **Child Acquisition:** Language change occurs from generation to generation as children reanalyze their parents' grammar and output, leading to different patterns in their own competence and performance. For example, the reanalysis of "Hamburger" into "[Ham + burger]" or the shift in the use of "gonna" [61](#page=61). 2. **Variation with Adult Speakers:** An innovation starts with one speaker, spreads through different social groups, and is adopted by more speakers, eventually affecting the entire language community. This relates to the S-curve model [61](#page=61). #### 6.2.4 Stages of English The history of English is typically periodized as follows [62](#page=62): * **Old English (OE):** c. 500 – 1100 CE * **Middle English (ME):** c. 1150 – 1500 CE * Early Middle English (eME): c. 1100 – 1300 CE * Late Middle English (lME): c. 1300 – 1500 CE * **Modern English (ModE):** * Early Modern English (EME): c. 1500 – 1700 CE * Late Modern English (LME): c. 1700 – 1900 CE * Present Day English (PDE): c. 1900 – today ##### 6.2.4.1 Prehistory of English * **Celtic Influence:** Very small, mainly place names related to hills and rivers, as Celtic tribes were pushed back by later arrivals [63](#page=63). * **Roman Influence:** Latin became the official language during Roman rule, but its direct influence on English at that time was limited to words like "ceaster" (camp). A significant Latin influence later emerged with the Christianization of Britain starting in 597 CE [63](#page=63). * **Germanic Tribes:** Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians began settling in Britain from around 440 CE, establishing "Engla land" (land of the Angles). Old English had three main dialects: West-Saxon, Kentish, and Anglian. Old English morphology was more complex, featuring gender, cases, and a more extensive inflectional system, similar to modern German. Its syntax was flexible due to case marking. Vocabulary included loanwords from Celtic, Latin (via West Germanic and directly), and Scandinavian languages [64](#page=64) [65](#page=65) [66](#page=66) [67](#page=67). * **Viking Invasions:** Three phases of raids, settlement, and rule (e.g., Danelaw, Cnut's kingship) significantly impacted the language, contributing core vocabulary and pronouns like "they," "their," and "them" [65](#page=65). ##### 6.2.4.2 Middle English (c. 1150-1500) * **Norman Conquest:** The Norman elite spoke Anglo-Norman French, which became the prestige language for polite discourse, law, and literature, while Latin remained the language of the Church. English dialects continued to be spoken by the general population, with little written evidence before c. 1150 [67](#page=67). * **Return of English (1300-1500):** Weakening ties with France, the Hundred Years' War, and internal socio-political changes led to a decline in French prestige and the re-emergence of English as a language for standard functions and literature (e.g., Chaucer, Langland). The Statute of Pleading in 1362 mandated English for lawsuits [67](#page=67) [68](#page=68). * **Linguistic System:** * **Spelling:** OE conventions were replaced by French equivalents [68](#page=68). * **Morphology:** Phonological reduction of inflections to schwa led to the loss of many inflections and leveling [69](#page=69). * **Syntax:** Word order became increasingly SVO as morphological case marking declined [69](#page=69). * **Vocabulary:** Highly mixed, with a substantial influx of French loanwords (e.g., "castle," "justice," "pork," "country," "fashion," "surgeon") [69](#page=69). ##### 6.2.4.3 Early Modern English (1500-1700) * **External History:** The introduction of the printing press and the rise of England as a nation-state contributed to linguistic standardization. The London variety of the South-East Midlands emerged as the standard. English colonization of the Americas led to its spread and diversification, making it one of the fastest-changing languages [70](#page=70). * **Literature:** William Shakespeare's works are a prime example of EME literature [70](#page=70). * **Linguistic System:** * **Pronouns:** The distinction between "thou/thee" and "ye/you" shifted from number to social dynamics (familiarity, status, politeness) [71](#page=71). * **Great Vowel Shift:** The most significant phonological change, affecting all long vowels of Middle English, causing them to be raised or diphthongized. This was a chain reaction that fundamentally altered English vowel pronunciation [71](#page=71). * **Semantic Change:** * **Widening (extension):** Meaning expands to cover more contexts (e.g., "dog," "salary," "bird") [71](#page=71) [72](#page=72). * **Narrowing (specialization):** Meaning becomes more restricted (e.g., "fowl," "girl," "starve") [72](#page=72). * **Amelioration (elevation):** Word meaning takes on a more positive evaluation (e.g., "pretty") [72](#page=72). * **Pejoration (degeneration):** Word meaning takes on a more negative evaluation (e.g., "spinster," "silly") [72](#page=72). * **Semantic bleaching:** Meaning fades or bleaches out (e.g., "gay," "going to") [72](#page=72). * **Metaphorization:** Concrete meanings are used to express abstract or metaphorical ideas [72](#page=72). #### 6.2.5 Syntactic and Analogical Change * **Grammaticalization:** A morphosyntactic change where lexical items (nouns, verbs, adjectives) evolve into grammatical categories (prepositions, auxiliaries, affixes) or less grammatical to more grammatical elements. Characteristics include bleaching, loss of independence, bondedness, and obligatorification. Examples include "back" (noun to preposition), "cunnian" (verb to auxiliary "can"), "while" (noun to adverb), and verbs of movement to future markers ("going-to") [73](#page=73). * **Analogical Change:** A process where an earlier structure is restructured to match an existing one. Proportional analogy (a:b = c:x) is common, leading to regularization of irregular forms (e.g., "ride:rode = dive:dove," "fox:foxes = cactus:cactuses"). Overgeneralization (e.g., "oxes," "goed") is a common type in first and second language acquisition. Hypercorrection occurs when speakers overcorrect to conform to a perceived prestigious variety [74](#page=74). #### 6.2.6 Reasons for Language Change Reasons for language change can be internal or external [75](#page=75). * **Internal Tendencies:** * **Ease of effort/articulation:** Psychological motivations drive linguistic developments towards simplification and ease (e.g., phonetic erosion, monophthongisation, loss of inflections, assimilation like t-dropping) [75](#page=75). * **Analogical thinking/Economy (cognitive motivation):** A drive for economy and symmetry by eliminating irregularities and simplifying paradigms (e.g., regularizing irregular forms) [75](#page=75). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |---|---| | Linguistics | The scientific study of human language, focusing on its structure, meaning, and use. | | Phonetics | The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds, their physical properties, articulation, and perception. | | Phonology | The study of the sound systems of languages, including how sounds are organized into abstract patterns and the rules that govern their use. | | Morphology | The study of the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation and modification. | | Morpheme | The smallest meaningful unit of language, which cannot be further divided without losing its meaning or grammatical function. | | Syntax | The study of the rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences in a language, including word order and the combination of words into phrases and clauses. | | Semantics | The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of meaning in language, including the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. | | Pragmatics | The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in language, focusing on the meaning intended by the speaker in a particular situation. | | Synchronic | Pertaining to the study of language at a particular point in time, without considering its historical development. | | Diachronic | Pertaining to the study of language as it changes over time, examining its historical development and evolution. | | Descriptive linguistics | An approach to linguistics that aims to describe how language is actually used by its speakers, without making judgments about correctness. | | Prescriptive linguistics | An approach to linguistics that aims to establish rules for the correct or proper use of language, often based on authority or tradition. | | Langue | In Saussurean linguistics, the abstract, social system of language shared by a community, representing the underlying competence. | | Parole | In Saussurean linguistics, the actual act of speaking or writing, representing the concrete, individual performance of language. | | Signifier | In Saussurean linguistics, the form of a linguistic sign, such as the sound or written representation of a word. | | Signified | In Saussurean linguistics, the concept or meaning associated with a signifier. | | Icon | A type of sign where the form of the sign resembles or imitates the concept it represents. | | Index | A type of sign where the form of the sign has a direct causal or physical connection to the concept it represents. | | Symbol | A type of sign where the relationship between the form and the concept is arbitrary and conventional, learned through social agreement. | | Lexicon | The vocabulary of a language, or the mental store of words and their meanings in an individual's mind. | | Allomorphy | The phenomenon where a single morpheme can have different phonetic or written forms (allomorphs) depending on the surrounding sounds or grammatical context. | | Compounding | A word formation process where two or more words are combined to create a new word with a new meaning. | | Affixation | A word formation process involving the addition of prefixes or suffixes to a base word to create a new word. | | Conversion | A word formation process where a word is changed from one word class to another without any overt marking, also known as zero-derivation. | | Clipping | A word formation process where a word is shortened by removing one or more syllables, often from the beginning or end. | | Blends | Words formed by combining parts of two or more words, such as "smog" from "smoke" and "fog." | | Abbreviation | A shortened form of a word or phrase, often formed from initial letters or sounds. | | Acronym | An abbreviation formed from the initial letters of words that is pronounced as a single word (e.g., NASA). | | Initialism | An abbreviation formed from initial letters that is pronounced letter by letter (e.g., FBI). | | Back-formation | A word formation process where a new word is created by removing a supposed suffix from an existing word, often leading to a change in word class. | | Polysemy | The phenomenon where a single word has multiple related meanings. | | Homonymy | The phenomenon where two or more unrelated words have the same spelling or pronunciation. | | Homophones | Words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings (e.g., "to," "too," "two"). | | Homographs | Words that have the same spelling but different pronunciations and meanings (e.g., "lead" (metal) vs. "lead" (to guide)). | | Heteronyms | Homographs that have different pronunciations. | | Synonymy | The relationship between words that have similar meanings. | | Antonymy | The relationship between words that have opposite meanings. | | Hyponymy | A hierarchical relationship between words where one word (the hyponym) is a type of another word (the hyperonym). | | Meronymy | A part-whole relationship, where one word represents a part of a larger whole. | | Syntagmatic relation | The relationship between words that occur sequentially in a sentence or text, forming a linear chain of association. | | Paradigmatic relation | The relationship between words that can substitute for each other in a particular position within a sentence structure, forming a vertical set of options. | | Collocation | The tendency for certain words to co-occur regularly with other words, forming common "word partnerships." | | Idiom | An expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its individual words; its meaning is figurative or conventional. | | Semantic compositionality | The principle that the meaning of a sentence or phrase is determined by the meanings of its component words and the grammatical rules that combine them. | | Grammaticalization | A process of linguistic change whereby lexical items or constructions develop into grammatical forms or functions. | | Language Typology | The study and classification of languages based on their structural and functional features, rather than their genetic relationships. | | Linguistic Universal | A feature or pattern that is found in all human languages. | | Diachronic linguistics | The study of language change over time. | | Morphology (historical context) | Refers to the changes in the inflectional system of a language over time, such as the loss of cases in English. | | Syntax (historical context) | Refers to changes in word order and sentence structure over time, influenced by morphological changes. | | Lexicon (historical context) | Refers to the addition of loanwords and the evolution of word meanings throughout the history of a language. | | Great Vowel Shift | A series of changes in the pronunciation of long vowels in English that occurred between the 14th and 18th centuries. | | Semantic Change | Alterations in the meaning of words over time, including widening, narrowing, amelioration, pejoration, and metaphorization. | | Syntactic Change | Alterations in the grammatical structure of a language over time, such as changes in word order or the development of new grammatical constructions. | | Analogy (linguistic change) | A process of linguistic change where one form or pattern is restructured to match an existing, often more regular, pattern. | | Ease of effort | A proposed motivation for language change, suggesting that speakers tend to simplify or shorten linguistic forms to reduce articulatory or cognitive effort. | | Lexical Semantics | The study of the meaning of individual words and morphemes. | | Sentential/Phrasal Semantics | The study of the meaning of syntactic units larger than words, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. | | Discourse Semantics | The study of meaning created in context, closely related to pragmatics. | | Semiotic Triangle | A model representing the relationship between a word (linguistic form), a thought or concept, and the object or referent in reality. | | Sense | The conceptual meaning of a word or phrase, referring to something existing in the language itself, belonging to langue. | | Referent/Reference | The actual object or entity in the real world that a word or phrase refers to, occurring in parole. | | Denotation | The primary, literal, or dictionary meaning of a word. | | Connotation | The secondary, associative, emotional, or cultural meanings of a word. | | Intension | The set of semantic features or properties that define a concept; what an object must be like to fall within a word's denotation. | | Extension | The set of actual entities in the real world that satisfy the intension of a word or concept. | | Prototype Theory | A theory of categorization that suggests categories are organized around a typical or prototypical example, with other members varying in their degree of typicality. | | Family Resemblance | Wittgenstein's concept suggesting that members of a category are linked by a network of overlapping similarities rather than a single set of defining features. | | Constituent | A group of words that functions as a single unit within the hierarchical structure of a sentence. | | Phrase Structure Rules | Rules that describe the possible combinations of constituents and their order within different types of phrases and sentences. | | Head | The most important element of a phrase, which determines its category and often its main meaning. | | Dependents | Elements within a phrase that modify or complete the meaning of the head. | | Complement | A constituent that is semantically or grammatically necessary for a predicate (like a verb) to form a complete clause; an obligatory argument. | | Adjunct | An optional constituent that provides additional information about the clause or phrase, but is not required for grammatical completeness. | | Transitivity | A property of verbs that describes whether they take direct objects. | | Agent | The entity that performs an action, typically with volition. | | Experiencer | The entity that receives a sensory or emotional input or undergoes a mental state. | | Patient/Theme | The entity that undergoes a process or is affected by an action, without necessarily changing its state. | | Goal | The end point or destination of an action or movement. | | Source | The starting point of an action or movement. | | Location | The place where an action occurs. | | Instrument | The entity used to carry out an action. | | Pronominalization/Substitution | A constituent test where a string of words is replaced by a pronoun or pro-form to determine if it functions as a unit. | | Movement | A constituent test where a string of words is moved to a different position in the sentence to see if it remains grammatically sound. | | Coordination | A constituent test where a string of words is joined with another similar string using a coordinating conjunction (like "and") to see if it forms a constituent. | | Gapping | A test where a gap is left in a tag question or a coordinated clause to see if a constituent can be inferred. | | Sentence Fragments/Question Tests | A constituent test where a string of words is used as an answer to a question, indicating it functions as a unit. | | Hierarchy (syntactic) | The layered structure of constituents within a sentence, where smaller constituents are embedded within larger ones. | | Recursivity | The property of a grammar that allows for the embedding of linguistic structures within themselves, leading to potentially infinite sentence generation. | | Ambiguity (syntactic) | The property of a sentence having more than one possible interpretation due to its syntactic structure. | | Syntactic form | The internal properties of a linguistic unit, such as its word class or phrase type. | | Syntactic function | The role that a linguistic unit plays within a larger grammatical context, such as subject, predicate, or object. | | Subject | The constituent in a sentence that typically performs the action or is described; often precedes the verb in English. | | Predicate | The part of a sentence that contains the verb and states something about the subject. | | Direct Object | A constituent that directly receives the action of a transitive verb. | | Indirect Object | A constituent that indirectly receives the action of a ditransitive verb, often indicating the recipient. | | Subject Complement | A constituent that follows a copular verb and provides information about the subject. | | Object Complement | A constituent that follows a direct object and provides information about it. | | Prepositional Object | A constituent that follows a preposition and forms a prepositional phrase, often functioning as an argument of the verb. | | Adverbial | A constituent that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb, providing information about manner, time, place, etc. | | Modifier | A word or phrase that describes or qualifies another word or phrase. | | Complementation Patterns | The set of arguments and complements that a verb typically requires or can take. | | Intransitive Verb | A verb that does not take a direct object. | | Monotransitive Verb | A verb that takes one direct object. | | Ditransitive Verb | A verb that takes both a direct object and an indirect object. | | PP-complement Verb | A verb that requires a prepositional phrase as a complement. | | Copular Verb | A verb (like "be" or "become") that links the subject to a subject complement. | | Old English (OE) | The earliest recorded stage of the English language, spoken from roughly the 5th to the 11th century. | | Middle English (ME) | The stage of the English language spoken from roughly the 12th to the 15th century, significantly influenced by Norman French. | | Early Modern English (EME) | The stage of the English language spoken from roughly the 15th to the 17th century, marked by the Great Vowel Shift and the works of Shakespeare. | | Modern English (ModE) | The stage of the English language spoken from roughly the 17th century to the present day. | | Phonological Reduction | The simplification or loss of sounds in pronunciation, often leading to changes in word forms and the erosion of inflections. | | Morphological Case Marking | A system where the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun is indicated by its form (ending). | | Loanword | A word adopted from one language into another. | | Norman Conquest | The invasion of England in 1066 by William the Conqueror, which had a profound impact on the English language and culture. | | Statute of Pleading | A law passed in England in 1362 that mandated the use of English in legal proceedings. | | The Canterbury Tales | A collection of stories by Geoffrey Chaucer, written in Middle English, considered a seminal work of English literature. | | Word Formation Processes | Methods by which new words are created in a language (e.g., compounding, affixation, conversion). | | Semantic Bleaching | The process where a word loses some of its original semantic content over time, becoming more general or abstract. | | Metaphorization | The use of a word or phrase with a concrete meaning to express a more abstract or figurative idea. | | Semantic Role (Theta Role) | The underlying relationship that a semantic argument (e.g., noun phrase) has with the predicate (verb) in a clause, such as Agent, Patient, or Experiencer. | | Predicate | In semantics, the element (usually a verb) that describes an action, state, or relation and selects semantic arguments. | | Semantic Argument | A noun phrase or pronoun that fills a semantic role required by the predicate. | | Animate | Having the quality of being alive. | | Inanimate | Lacking the quality of being alive. | | Amelioration (Semantic Change) | A process where the meaning of a word gains a more positive evaluation over time. | | Pejoration (Semantic Change) | A process where the meaning of a word gains a more negative evaluation over time. | | Narrowing (Semantic Change) | A process where the meaning of a word becomes more specific, reducing the number of contexts in which it can be used. | | Widening (Semantic Change) | A process where the meaning of a word becomes more general, increasing the number of contexts in which it can be used. | | Syntactic Change | Alterations in the grammatical structure of a language over time, such as changes in word order or the development of new grammatical constructions. | | Grammaticalization | A process where lexical items or constructions develop into grammatical forms or functions. | | Analogical Change | A mechanism of linguistic change where one form or pattern is restructured to match an existing one. | | Overgeneralization | In language acquisition, the application of a regular grammatical rule to an irregular form, such as "goed" instead of "went." | | Hypercorrection | An attempt to avoid a non-standard pronunciation or usage that leads to an incorrect or exaggerated correction. | | Ease of Articulation | A proposed psychological motivation for language change, suggesting that speakers simplify sounds or structures to make them easier to produce. | | Economy (cognitive motivation) | A proposed motivation for language change, suggesting a tendency towards simplification and regularity in language. | | Fixed Form | A word or phrase that maintains a consistent spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. | | Natural Relation | A connection that is inherent or logical, as opposed to arbitrary or conventional. | | Conventionalized Sign | A sign whose meaning is established by social agreement and common usage. | | Arbitrary | Lacking a necessary or inherent connection; based on convention or chance. | | Productivity (language) | The ability of a language to generate an infinite number of novel utterances from a finite set of elements. | | Cultural Transmission | The process by which language is learned from one generation to the next through social interaction and teaching. | | Duality / Double Articulation | The property of human language that allows for the combination of meaningless sounds or morphemes into meaningful words and sentences. | | Recursion | The ability to embed linguistic structures within themselves, allowing for the creation of complex and potentially infinite sentences. | | Displacement (language) | The ability of language to refer to things, events, or ideas that are not present in the immediate time or space. | | Reflexivity (language) | The ability of language to refer to itself, allowing speakers to talk about language itself. |