Nationalism

# Historical overview of nationalism Nationalism emerged in the late eighteenth century as a political doctrine centered on the belief that the nation is the primary unit of political organization, aiming to align state borders with national boundaries. ### 1.1 Origins and early development The term 'nation' dates back to the thirteenth century, derived from the Latin 'nasci' meaning to be born, initially referring to groups united by birth or birthplace, without political connotations. It wasn't until the late eighteenth century that 'nationalism' acquired political meaning, first appearing in print in 1789. By the mid-nineteenth century, it was recognized as a significant political doctrine, notably influencing the revolutions of 1848 [1](#page=1). The French Revolution is considered the birth of modern nationalism. Revolutionaries in 1789 invoked the concept of the 'French nation' and popular self-government, influenced by thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau. This marked a shift from subjects owing allegiance to a ruler to citizens belonging to a nation, embodying the idea that the nation should be self-governing. French rationalist scholar Ernest Renan described the nation as a "daily plebiscite" [2](#page=2). During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), French invasions sparked resentment and a desire for independence across continental Europe. In fragmented regions like Italy and Germany, conquest fostered a sense of national unity and the adoption of nationalist ideas. Nationalist sentiments also reached Latin America, inspiring revolutions against Spanish rule led by figures like Simon Bolivar [2](#page=2). ### 1.2 Nationalism and nation-building in the nineteenth century Nationalism became a powerful force in reshaping Europe during the nineteenth century, contributing to the decline of multinational empires such as the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires. Nationalist uprisings occurred in the Italian states, among Czechs and Hungarians, and in Germany in 1848. The nineteenth century was a key period for nation-building, with Italy unifying in 1861 and completing its unification with Rome in 1870, and Germany unifying in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War [2](#page=2). > **Tip:** While nationalism aimed for national unity and independence, its realization in places like Italy and Germany was often facilitated by the ambitions of powerful states like Piedmont and Prussia, rather than solely by middle-class nationalist movements. The unification of Germany, for instance, was more a product of Prussian military victories than liberal nationalist aspirations [3](#page=3). By the late nineteenth century, nationalism had transformed into a popular movement fueled by symbols like flags, national anthems, patriotic literature, public ceremonies, and national holidays. This shift was enabled by increased primary education, mass literacy, and the growth of popular newspapers. The nature of nationalism also evolved; it transitioned from being associated with liberal movements to being increasingly adopted by conservative and reactionary politicians to counter the rise of socialism and international working-class solidarity. This new form of nationalism emphasized social cohesion and stability, integrating the working class into the nation to preserve the existing social order. Patriotic fervor was now directed towards commemorating past glories and military victories rather than political liberty. This development led to increased chauvinism and xenophobia, with nations asserting their unique or superior qualities and viewing others with suspicion or hostility. This climate contributed to intensified imperialism from the 1870s and 1880s, bringing much of the world under European control, and fostered international rivalries that led to World War I [3](#page=3). ### 1.3 Nationalism in the twentieth century and beyond The end of World War I saw the completion of nation-building in Central and Eastern Europe, with the principle of national self-determination advocated at the Paris Peace Conference. The German, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires were dismantled, leading to the creation of new states like Finland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Poland, intended as nation-states based on ethnic groups. However, unresolved national tensions contributed to further conflict. Frustrated ambitions in Germany, Italy, and Japan, fueled by defeat and treaty terms, paved the way for fascist and authoritarian movements promising national restoration through expansion and empire, making nationalism a key factor in both World War I and World War II [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). During the twentieth century, nationalism spread globally as colonized peoples in Asia and Africa resisted European rule. Western ideas, including nationalism, were adopted by anti-colonial movements. Nationalist uprisings occurred in Egypt in 1919, spreading across the Middle East, and in India, the Dutch East Indies, and Indochina. Following 1945, nationalist movements led to the disintegration of British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese empires in Africa and Asia, through negotiated independence or wars of national liberation. The collapse of the Soviet empire (1989–91) led to the widespread belief that the world had become a world of nation-states [4](#page=4). The early twenty-first century has witnessed a resurgence of nationalism in at least two ways. Firstly, it has reappeared as a reaction against globalization, particularly evident after the 2007–09 global financial crisis, with national populist parties gaining traction across Europe and beyond, exemplified by the UK's vote to leave the European Union (Brexit) in 2016. Opposition to immigration and cultural mixing played a significant role in this trend. Secondly, nationalism has grown due to intensifying great-power rivalries since the Cold War. China's economic resurgence has been accompanied by rising nationalism, while Russia under Vladimir Putin has demonstrated nationalist tendencies, such as the annexation of Crimea in 2014. In the USA, the election of Donald Trump in 2016 brought economic nationalism under the "America First" banner, aiming to reorder trade relationships, particularly with China. The Covid-19 pandemic further intensified these great-power rivalries [4](#page=4). > **Example:** The Covid-19 pandemic highlighted the strengthening of nationalism as national governments became the primary decision-making bodies, often implementing isolationist policies such as border closures and restrictions on international travel. This trend was exacerbated by Sino–US relations, with the USA focusing on China's role in the pandemic and China using its success in controlling the virus to showcase its system's superiority. National populist leaders in countries like the USA, Brazil, and the UK also adopted similar strategies, sometimes downplaying the crisis or using it to consolidate power [5](#page=5). --- # Core themes and concepts of nationalism Nationalism is fundamentally characterized by the acknowledgement of the nation's central importance to political life, encompassing a range of movements and ideas [6](#page=6). ### 2.1 Defining the nation The core belief of nationalism is that the nation should be the central principle of political organization. However, defining what constitutes a nation is complex and often leads to confusion with terms like 'state', 'country', and 'race'. Many political disputes revolve around whether a group qualifies as a nation deserving of nationhood rights [6](#page=6). #### 2.1.1 Objective versus subjective definitions **Objective factors** suggest nations are cultural entities bound by shared values and traditions, such as language, religion, and history, often occupying a specific geographical area. However, no definitive blueprint or objective criteria exist to establish when and where a nation exists [6](#page=6). **Subjective definitions** ultimately define nations by how their members perceive themselves. This view sees the nation as a psycho-political entity, a group that regards itself as a natural political community, united by shared loyalty or affection. Factors like land, population size, or resources are less significant if a group insists on 'national rights' [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.2 Key elements of nationhood * **Language:** Often considered the clearest symbol of nationhood, embodying distinctive attitudes and values that foster familiarity and belonging. However, shared language does not always equate to a common national identity (e.g., English speakers in the US, Australia, New Zealand), and some nations coexist with multiple languages (e.g., Switzerland) [7](#page=7). * **Religion:** Expresses common moral and spiritual values and can be a significant component of nationhood (e.g., Islam in North Africa and the Middle East). However, religious beliefs do not always align with national identity (e.g., Catholics in Europe) [7](#page=7). * **Ethnicity/Race:** Nations can be based on ethnic or racial unity, as seen in Nazi Germany. However, nationalism is usually based on cultural rather than biological factors, drawing on shared values and common cultural beliefs [7](#page=7). * **History and Traditions:** National identity is often preserved by recalling past glories, independence, significant events, or military victories. For immigrant nations like the USA, national identity can be based more on future expectations than on shared historical memories [7](#page=7). #### 2.1.3 Rival concepts of the nation Nations are understood as a blend of cultural and psycho-political factors, with disagreements arising over the balance between the two [8](#page=8). * **'Exclusive' concepts:** Emphasize ethnic unity and shared history, viewing national identity as inherent and unchangeable. This can blur the distinction between nations and races, with nations held together by 'primordial bonds'. Conservatives and fascists often adopt this view [8](#page=8). * **'Inclusive' concepts (Civic Nationalism):** Highlight civic consciousness and patriotic loyalty, allowing for multi-racial, multi-ethnic, and multi-religious nations. This blurs the distinction between the nation and the state, and between nationality and citizenship. Liberals and socialists tend to adopt this view [8](#page=8). > **Tip:** Understanding the 'inclusive' versus 'exclusive' debate is crucial, as it highlights the different philosophical underpinnings of various nationalist movements. > **Example:** Figure 6.1 visually represents these contrasting views of the nation, placing liberal and socialist perspectives on the 'civic' or 'inclusive' side, and conservative and fascist views on the 'ethnic' or 'exclusive' side [9](#page=9). ### 2.2 Organic community Nationalists share the belief that nations are **organic communities**, meaning humankind is naturally divided into distinct nations with unique characters and identities. This belief posits a 'higher' loyalty to the nation than to other social groups, viewing national ties as fundamental, enduring, and operating at an instinctual level [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.1 Theoretical perspectives on organic community * **Primordialism:** Views national identity as historically embedded, with nations rooted in common cultural heritage and language that long predate statehood. It emphasizes deep emotional attachments akin to kinship ties. Anthony Smith highlighted the continuity between modern nations and pre-modern 'ethnies' [9](#page=9). * **Modernism:** Suggests national identity is forged in response to changing situations and historical challenges, particularly linked to modernization and industrialization. Ernest Gellner linked nationalism to the need for cultural cohesion in industrial societies. Benedict Anderson described modern nations as 'imagined communities' shaped by capitalism and mass communications [9](#page=9). > **Tip:** Benedict Anderson's concept of the 'imagined community' is a cornerstone for understanding how vast numbers of people can feel connected to a nation despite never meeting most of their fellow nationals. * **Constructivism:** Regards national identity as largely an ideological construct serving the interests of powerful groups. Eric Hobsbawm argued that beliefs in historical continuity and cultural purity are often 'invented traditions' created by nationalism itself. Marxism, for instance, views nationalism as a tool for the ruling class to counter social revolution by prioritizing national loyalty over class solidarity [10](#page=10). ### 2.3 Self-determination Nationalism emerged as a political ideology when the concept of national community intersected with the doctrine of **popular sovereignty**. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's ideas on the 'general will' influenced the notion that government should be based on the collective will of the community, not absolute monarchical power [10](#page=10). #### 2.3.1 The nation-state and self-determination The French Revolution exemplified this by asserting the French people as 'citizens' with sovereign power residing in the 'French nation'. This led to nationalism being based on a people or nation governing itself, forming a **natural political community** [10](#page=10). * **Nationhood and Statehood:** In this tradition, nationhood and statehood are intrinsically linked. The desire for political independence, expressed through **national self-determination**, is the litmus test of national identity. The ultimate goal is the establishment of a 'nation-state' [11](#page=11). * **Methods of Nation-State Formation:** * **Unification:** Bringing together disparate territories or groups into one nation-state (e.g., German unification) [11](#page=11). * **Independence:** Achieving self-government and statehood by breaking away from foreign control (e.g., Poland's struggle for independence) [11](#page=11). * **Legitimacy of the Nation-State:** For nationalists, the nation-state is the most desirable political organization, offering both cultural cohesion and political unity. It legitimizes government authority through popular sovereignty and the concept of the 'national interest' [11](#page=11). > **Tip:** The concept of self-determination is a powerful force in international relations, often driving movements for independence and statehood. #### 2.3.2 Beyond the nation-state Nationalism is not always exclusively tied to the nation-state or self-determination. Some nations may seek political autonomy short of full statehood, expressed through federalism or devolution (e.g., Welsh, Breton, Basque nationalism). However, the sufficiency of these arrangements for nationalist demands remains a point of contention [11](#page=11). ### 2.4 Culturalism While 'classical' nationalism focuses on political goals like statehood, other forms emphasize ethnocultural aspirations [11](#page=11). #### 2.4.1 Cultural nationalism **Cultural nationalism** prioritizes the strengthening or defense of cultural identity over overt political demands. It focuses on regenerating the nation as a distinctive civilization, viewing the state as secondary or alien. Unlike the 'rational' political nationalism, cultural nationalism is often seen as 'mystical', rooted in a romantic belief in the nation as a unique historical and organic whole. It draws on popular rituals, traditions, and legends, often possessing an anti-modern character but capable of serving as an agent of modernization by facilitating national self-recreation [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). * **Key Figure:** Johann Gottfried Herder is considered the architect of cultural nationalism, emphasizing the **V olksgeist** (spirit of the people) reflected in a nation's culture and language. Herder's work inspired a focus on appreciating national traditions and collective memories rather than solely pursuing statehood. Examples include the Brothers Grimm's folk tales and Richard Wagner's operas in 19th-century Germany [12](#page=12). > **Example:** The revival of folk traditions, the collection of myths and legends, and artistic expressions like operas based on national epics are common manifestations of cultural nationalism. #### 2.4.2 Ethnic nationalism **Ethnic nationalism** is fueled by a strong sense of ethnic distinctiveness and the desire to preserve it. Ethnicity refers to belonging to a particular population, cultural group, or territory through cultural bonds. Ethnic groups are often perceived as having common ancestors, akin to extended kinship groups united by blood, and a link to a historical territory or 'homeland' [13](#page=13) [6](#page=6). * **Characteristics:** Since one cannot 'join' an ethnic group in the same way as a civic community, ethnic nationalism tends to be **exclusive** and can overlap with racism. It often emphasizes particularism and a perceived unique national 'spirit' [13](#page=13). #### 2.4.3 Ethnocultural nationalism The terms 'culture' and 'ethnicity' overlap, leading to the concept of **ethnocultural nationalism**, which views cultural and ethnic forms of nationalism as closely related or part of the same phenomenon. This perspective often distinguishes between [13](#page=13): * **Inclusive or 'open' political nationalism:** Characterized by universalism, equal nations, rational principles, national sovereignty, voluntarism, citizenship, and civic loyalty [13](#page=13). * **Exclusive or 'closed' cultural nationalism:** Characterized by particularism, unique nations, mystical emotions, national 'spirit', organic ties, descent, and ethnic allegiance [13](#page=13). Cultural nationalism, from this viewpoint, can be chauvinistic or hostile towards other nations or minority groups, fueled by pride and fear. Demands for assimilation and cultural 'purity' make it incompatible with multiculturalism [13](#page=13). > **Tip:** The distinction between civic nationalism (inclusive) and ethnocultural nationalism (exclusive) is a key analytical tool for understanding the diverse manifestations and political implications of nationalism. --- # Types and manifestations of nationalism Nationalism is a complex and often contradictory ideology that can manifest in various forms, each with distinct characteristics, historical contexts, and political implications. This section explores the most significant traditions of nationalism: liberal, conservative, expansionist, and anti-colonial/postcolonial nationalism [14](#page=14). ### 3.1 Liberal nationalism Liberal nationalism, originating with the French Revolution, is characterized by its emphasis on self-determination, individual liberty, and constitutionalism. Key figures like Giuseppe Mazzini and Woodrow Wilson championed the idea that nations, like individuals, possess inherent rights, chief among them the right to self-government. This form of nationalism opposes foreign domination and promotes democratic governance. It posits that all nations are equal and are entitled to political independence, aiming for a world composed of sovereign, democratic nation-states. Liberal nationalists believe that a peaceful international order can be achieved through national interdependence and the establishment of international organizations, such as the League of Nations and the United Nations, to foster cooperation and resolve conflicts. Liberal internationalism seeks to mitigate the potential for conflict arising from a world of sovereign states by promoting free trade and collective security arrangements [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). > **Tip:** Liberal nationalism's core principle is that national boundaries should align with national identities, promoting both internal unity and external peace through mutual respect for sovereign rights. ### 3.2 Conservative nationalism Conservative nationalism, while initially viewed as a radical force, has become a cornerstone of modern conservatism. It prioritizes social cohesion, public order, and the preservation of traditional institutions and ways of life over abstract principles of self-determination. This form of nationalism often emerges in established nation-states and emphasizes patriotic loyalty and national pride as a bulwark against divisive ideologies like class solidarity. Conservative nationalists tend to be nostalgic, drawing strength from a nation's past glories and historical narratives, often expressed through rituals and commemorations [17](#page=17). > **Example:** The strong association of English nationalism with the monarchy, including the national anthem and the royal family's role in national events, exemplifies conservative nationalism's appeal to tradition and established institutions. Concerns about immigration and supranationalism are particularly prominent in conservative nationalism, as cultural diversity is seen as a potential source of instability and conflict. Conservatives advocate for restricted immigration or the assimilation of minority groups to maintain a common culture and shared values. They also express reservations about supranational bodies like the European Union, viewing them as threats to national identity and sovereignty, a sentiment evident in phenomena like 'Euroscepticism' [18](#page=18). ### 3.3 Expansionist nationalism Expansionist nationalism is characterized by aggression, militarism, and a belief in national superiority, starkly contrasting with the ideals of liberal nationalism. This form of nationalism gained prominence in the late nineteenth century through European imperialism, where national prestige became linked to colonial expansion and territorial gains. It is marked by chauvinism, the belief that certain nations are inherently superior to others and possess a right to dominate. This ideology was used to justify European imperialism, often framed as a civilizing mission or the "white man's burden" [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). > **Tip:** Chauvinism, a key feature of expansionist nationalism, fuels the belief in a hierarchy of nations, often rationalized by notions of racial or cultural superiority. Varieties of expansionist nationalism include pan-nationalism, which aims to unify disparate peoples, such as pan-Slavism in Russia, advocating for Slavic unity and Russian leadership. German nationalism, particularly in the Nazi era, exhibited extreme chauvinism and racialist doctrines, leading to policies of imperial expansion and world domination. Expansionist nationalism often fosters an intense, emotional patriotism that can lead to aggression, war, and militarism, where individual lives are deemed secondary to national honor and glory. This can manifest as "integral nationalism," as described by Charles Maurras, where individuals and groups lose their identity within an all-powerful nation [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20). | Feature | Liberal Nationalism | Expansionist Nationalism | | :------------------ | :------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------- | | **Core Principle** | National self-determination, equality | National superiority, dominance | | **Orientation** | Inclusive, universalist | Exclusive, hierarchical | | **Approach** | Voluntary, principled | Organic, instinctual | | **Goal** | Peace, cooperation, human rights | Power, conquest, national interest | | **International View**| Collective security, internationalism | Power politics, international anarchy | ### 3.4 Anti-colonial and postcolonial nationalism Nationalism became a global phenomenon through imperialism, inspiring anti-colonial movements in Asia and Africa. This nationalism often emerged from a desire for "national liberation" in response to colonial rule. While some anti-colonial movements adopted the language of liberal nationalism, they also grappled with economic underdevelopment and subordination to industrialized states. Consequently, anti-colonialism frequently encompassed both political and economic liberation [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). > **Example:** Mahatma Gandhi fused Indian nationalism with an ethic of non-violence and self-sacrifice rooted in Hinduism, viewing "home rule" as a spiritual condition beyond mere political independence. Some anti-colonial nationalists developed non-European models of liberation. Frantz Fanon, for instance, emphasized the psychological dimensions of colonial subjugation and argued for the necessity of violence for psycho-political regeneration. Socialist ideas, particularly Marxism, strongly appealed to nationalists in the developing world, offering an analysis of inequality and exploitation through which colonialism could be challenged. V. I. Lenin's theories on imperialism provided a framework for understanding colonialism as an extended form of class oppression, leading to the view that overthrowing colonial rule implied both political independence and social revolution [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22). This led to various forms of nationalistic socialism in post-colonial states, ranging from adherence to Marxist-Leninist principles and centrally planned economies (e.g., China, North Korea) to more ideologically flexible forms focused on economic and social development (e.g., "African socialism" in Tanzania). While socialism appears more aligned with internationalism, its emphasis on community and cooperation resonated with traditional societies, and its analytical tools helped challenge colonial exploitation [22](#page=22). --- # The future and resilience of nationalism Nationalism, despite frequent pronouncements of its demise, demonstrates remarkable resilience and adaptability in the face of globalization and internal pressures, continuing to hold significant political relevance [23](#page=23) [24](#page=24). ### 4.1 Challenges to nationalism Nationalism faces considerable internal and external pressures that challenge its traditional hold [23](#page=23). #### 4.1.1 Internal pressures * **Centrifugal forces:** Modern nations are increasingly subjected to centrifugal pressures arising from an upsurge in ethnic, regional, and multicultural politics [23](#page=23). * **Erosion of collective identity:** Heightened concerns with ethnicity and culture may stem from the perception that nations are no longer capable of providing a collective identity or a sense of social belonging in the era of economic and cultural globalization [23](#page=23). * **Challenge from multiculturalism:** The politics of ethnic assertiveness, present in all diverse modern nations, challenges the very principle of the nation. This led to suggestions in the late twentieth century that nationalism was being supplanted by multiculturalism, with ethnic, regional, and cultural groups seeking alternative political structures, sometimes through federal governance [23](#page=23). #### 4.1.2 External threats * **Intergovernmental and supranational bodies:** Advances in warfare technology, particularly the advent of nuclear weapons, have spurred demands for international peacekeeping by intergovernmental and supranational bodies, leading to organizations like the League of Nations and the United Nations [23](#page=23). * **Globalization of economies:** The progressive globalization of economic life, with world markets, transnational corporations, and instantaneous capital flows, raises questions about the future of nationalism when national governments do not fully control their economic destinies [23](#page=23). * **Environmental concerns:** Nations' primary focus on their own strategic and economic interests can lead to disregard for the ecological consequences of their actions, posing a threat to the global ecological balance. The Chernobyl disaster in 1986, which released radiation across Northern Europe, serves as a stark example of this folly [23](#page=23). ### 4.2 The resilience and appeal of nationalism Despite these challenges, nationalism has consistently defied predictions of its decline and continues to possess a strong appeal [23](#page=23) [24](#page=24). #### 4.2.1 Mechanisms of resilience * **Chameleon-like adaptability:** A key factor in nationalism's resilience is its capacity to adopt various ideological identities as circumstances require. It has been employed to support democratic and dictatorial rule, to fuel national liberation and expansionism, to counter and forge alliances with globalization, and to consolidate liberalism and fuel populism [23](#page=23). #### 4.2.2 Enduring appeal * **Security, self-respect, and pride:** Nationalism offers a strong appeal to individuals who feel isolated and powerless, providing them with a sense of security, self-respect, and pride [24](#page=24). * **Sense of socio-cultural belonging:** It fosters a heightened sense of socio-cultural belonging [24](#page=24). * **Simple solutions to complex problems:** By creating a clear distinction between 'us' and 'them', nationalism provides simple and seductive solutions to complex issues. This often involves identifying an 'other' to fear or hate, which can be framed in populist terms as a conflict between the elite and the people [24](#page=24). * **Psychological inclination in uncertainty:** Social psychology suggests that, particularly during times of disruption, uncertainty, and anxiety, people tend to divide the world into an 'in group' and an 'out group.' The 'out group' then serves as a scapegoat for the misfortunes and frustrations of the 'in group,' reinforcing nationalist sentiments [24](#page=24). > **Tip:** Understanding nationalism's adaptability and its appeal to a sense of belonging and security is crucial for grasping its continued relevance in contemporary politics. > **Example:** The rise of certain populist movements in recent years, often employing strong nationalist rhetoric and emphasizing an 'us versus them' dynamic, demonstrates the enduring psychological and political appeal of nationalism, particularly during periods of economic uncertainty and social change [24](#page=24). ### 4.3 Postcolonial nationalism Postcolonial nationalism has evolved significantly, often emphasizing a rejection of Western ideas and culture more than an attempt to reapply them. In reaction to perceived Western oppression and exploitation, postcolonial nationalism has sought an anti-Western voice, partly expressed through religious fundamentalism [23](#page=23). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Nation | A collection of people bound together by shared values and traditions, a common language, religion and history, and usually occupying the same geographical area. | | Nationalism | A belief that the nation is the central principle of political organization, based on the assumptions that humankind is naturally divided into distinct nations and that the nation is the most appropriate unit of political rule. | | Patriotism | A sentiment, a psychological attachment to one's nation, literally a "love of one's country." It provides the affective basis for nationalist belief and underpins all forms of nationalism. | | Independence | The process through which a nation is liberated from foreign rule, usually involving the establishment of sovereign statehood. | | Unification | The process through which a collection of separate political entities, usually sharing cultural characteristics, are integrated into a single state. | | Imperialism | The policy of extending the power or rule of the state beyond its boundaries, typically through the establishment of an empire, often involving political, economic, and ideological domination. | | Chauvinism | Uncritical and unreasoned dedication to a cause or group, typically based on a belief in its superiority, as in "national chauvinism." | | Xenophobia | A fear or hatred of foreigners; pathological ethnocentrism. | | Nation-state | A sovereign political association within which citizenship and nationality overlap; one nation within a single state. | | Empire | A structure of domination in which diverse cultural, ethnic, or national groups are subjected to a single source of authority. | | Economic nationalism | An economic policy that seeks to bolster the domestic economy through protectionism, involving the use of tariffs and non-tariff barriers. | | Political nationalism | A form of nationalism that regards the nation as a natural political community, usually expressed through the idea of national self-determination. | | Cultural nationalism | A form of nationalism that places primary emphasis on the regeneration of the nation as a distinctive civilization rather than on self-government. | | Ethnic nationalism | A form of nationalism that is fueled primarily by a keen sense of ethnic distinctiveness and the desire to preserve it. | | Ethnicity | The quality of belonging to a particular population, cultural group, or territorial area; bonds that are cultural rather than racial. | | Organic community | The belief that nations are naturally occurring collective entities, with deep-rooted bonds and a distinctive character, possessing greater significance than other social groups. | | Primordialism | The belief that nations are ancient and deep-rooted, fashioned variously out of psychology, culture, and biology, with national identity stemming from deep emotional attachments akin to kinship ties. | | Modernism (in nationalism) | The theory that national identity is forged in response to changing situations and historical challenges, particularly linked to modernization and industrialization, requiring a new source of cultural cohesion. | | Constructivism (in nationalism) | The theory that national identity is largely an ideological construct, often serving the interests of powerful groups, suggesting that nationalism creates nations rather than the other way around. | | Self-determination | The principle that a nation has the right to govern itself and to control its own political destiny, free from external interference. | | Sovereignty | The principle of absolute or unrestricted power expressed either as unchallengeable legal authority or unquestionable political power. | | General will | The genuine interests of a collective body, equivalent to the common good; the will of all, provided each person acts selflessly. | | Civic nationalism | A form of nationalism that emphasizes political allegiance based on a vision of a community of equal citizens, allowing for significant levels of ethnic and cultural diversity. | | Exclusive nationalism | Concepts of the nation that stress the importance of ethnic unity and a shared history, viewing national identity as fixed and unchangeable, often implying common descent. | | Inclusive nationalism | Concepts of the nation that highlight the importance of civic consciousness and patriotic loyalty, allowing for multi-racial, multi-ethnic, and multi-religious populations. | | Separatism | The quest to secede from a larger political formation with a view to establishing an independent state. | | Devolution | The transfer of power from central government to regional institutions, without relinquishing sovereignty. | | Volksgeist | (German) Literally, the spirit of the people; the organic identity of a people reflected in their culture and particularly in their language. | | Culturalism | The belief that human beings are culturally defined creatures, with culture being the universal basis for personal and social identity. | | Liberal nationalism | A form of nationalism that fuses a belief in the nation with liberal principles of individual freedom, rights, and self-government, advocating for a world of independent, democratic nation-states. | | Conservative nationalism | A form of nationalism that emphasizes social cohesion, order, and the preservation of traditional institutions and way of life, often appealing to history and national pride. | | Expansionist nationalism | A form of nationalism characterized by aggression and militarism, believing in the superiority of one nation over others and pursuing imperial expansion and domination. | | Jingoism | A mood of nationalist enthusiasm and public celebration provoked by military expansion or imperial conquest. | | Pan-nationalism | A style of nationalism dedicated to unifying a disparate people either through expansionism or political solidarity, believing in the superiority and historic mission of a particular group. | | Anti-colonial and postcolonial nationalism | Nationalism that emerged in Asia and Africa as a response to colonial rule, seeking political and economic liberation and often drawing on socialist or non-Western ideologies. | | Internationalism | The theory or practice of politics based on transnational or global cooperation, rooted in universalist assumptions about human nature that can be at odds with political nationalism. | | Cosmopolitanism | The belief in a "world state" or the idea that the world constitutes a single moral community, with individuals having obligations towards all other people regardless of nationality, ethnicity, etc. | | Supranationalism | The ability of bodies with transnational or global jurisdictions to impose their will on nation-states, often raising concerns about national sovereignty. | | Militarism | The achievement of ends by military means, or the extension of military ideas, values, and practices to civilian society, often linked to national honor and glory. |