Didactiek en pedagogiek 1 - Cursus 2526.pdf

# Understanding the initial situation of learners The initial situation of learners is the cornerstone of effective teaching, requiring analysis of both the general context and the specific lesson starting point to inform pedagogical decisions. ## 1. Understanding the initial situation of learners The initial situation of learners is the foundational element of a powerful learning environment, guiding all subsequent didactic decisions. It acknowledges that no teacher begins with an empty slate, as each student brings their unique background, pace, and learning style [13](#page=13). ### 1.1 The importance of the initial situation A strong lesson originates from understanding the learners' starting point. This principle, rooted in Bruner's work emphasizes the need to grasp students' prior knowledge and experiences. The initial situation influences [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14) : * The selection of learning content [13](#page=13). * The choice of teaching methods and differentiation strategies [13](#page=13). * The media used to access information [13](#page=13). * The forms of assessment [13](#page=13). * The teacher's style and classroom management [13](#page=13). Ignoring this initial state risks teaching too fast or too slow, or failing to meet students' genuine needs [14](#page=14). ### 1.2 The initial situation within the powerful learning environment framework The "powerful learning environment" schema illustrates how all classroom components are interconnected. The learner/initial situation on the left is the starting point from which the teacher, content, methods, media, and evaluation are aligned towards the learning goals on the right. A well-analyzed initial situation ensures balance among these elements [14](#page=14). > **Example:** If students require significant visual support, the media choices must be adapted. If they excel at collaboration, cooperative learning methods are appropriate. If a class is easily distracted, a clear structure and predictable transitions are necessary [14](#page=14). ### 1.3 The initial situation as a bridge between theory and practice The initial situation connects developmental psychology to didactics. Understanding child development helps interpret classroom behavior and learning. For lower primary school children (ages 6-12), the transition to concrete-operational thinking (Piaget, 1970) is key. They think logically with concrete examples, learn through action and collaboration, seek fairness, and develop strong peer relationships. Vygotsky highlighted learning within the zone of proximal development, emphasizing how theory informs understanding and observation reveals classroom specifics [14](#page=14) . ### 1.4 Executive functions in children Executive functions, the cognitive and behavioral processes students use to direct their learning and behavior, are crucial. These include [14](#page=14): * **Working memory:** Holding and manipulating information temporarily [15](#page=15). * **Impulse control:** Suppressing impulses and maintaining attention [15](#page=15). * **Cognitive flexibility:** Shifting perspectives or strategies [15](#page=15). * **Planning and goal-directed behavior:** Organizing and completing tasks [15](#page=15). Assessing the initial situation requires understanding not just what students know, but also how they self-regulate their thinking and behavior [15](#page=15). ### 1.5 The initial situation as a dynamic entity Both the general and specific initial situations are fluid and constantly evolving due to student development, external events (school, home), and teacher interventions. Teachers must continuously observe and adjust, reflecting Bruner's principle of active learning through environmental restructuring [15](#page=15) . ### 1.6 Reflection: your perspective as a future teacher Every observation is influenced by the observer's perspective. A professional teacher observes without judgment, treating the initial situation as an investigative task: "What do I see? What does this mean for my actions?". Developing a professional perspective helps in thoughtful lesson design [15](#page=15). ### 1.7 Summary The initial situation is the starting point of the "powerful learning environment" schema, informing didactic choices and fostering growth. It is further explored through the general and specific initial situations [15](#page=15). ## 2. The general initial situation The general initial situation provides the broader context for teaching, encompassing the school, class, and overall student population. It is the fertile ground from which the rest of the learning environment grows, emphasizing Bruner's concept of learning as active meaning-making within a context [16](#page=16) . ### 2.1 Components of the general initial situation A comprehensive initial situation combines factual data with pedagogical interpretation, including: * **School context:** Location, governing body, pedagogical project, vision, and culture. This shapes expectations, values, and resources [16](#page=16). * **Class context:** Class size, grade level, composition (gender, age), room setup, and available technology. This influences differentiation, organization, and interaction possibilities [16](#page=16). * **Student population:** Number of students, home language, socio-cultural and socio-economic background (SES indicators). This impacts language development, learning styles, and engagement [16](#page=16). * **School infrastructure:** Accessibility of classrooms, playgrounds, libraries, and support rooms. This affects the variety of teaching methods and activities [16](#page=16). * **Team and support:** Mentors, care coordinators, student support centers (CLB), parallel teachers, volunteers, and parents. Collaboration supports the teacher's practice [16](#page=16). ### 2.2 Developmental-psychological context Understanding students' developmental stage is crucial for analyzing the general initial situation [16](#page=16). #### 2.2.1 The lower primary school age (6-12 years) This age group is characterized by: * Transition to concrete-operational thinking (Piaget, 1970) [16](#page=16). * Growing logical and systematic reasoning [16](#page=16). * Increasing independence and responsibility [16](#page=16). * The importance of friendship and group norms [16](#page=16). * A strengthening sense of justice and empathy [17](#page=17). #### 2.2.2 The role of the teacher The teacher acts as a scaffolding figure (Vygotsky, 1978), supporting students within their zone of proximal development. Knowledge of developmental stages aids in balancing support and autonomy [17](#page=17). #### 2.2.3 Reference to further literature Summaries from "Groot worden" (Chapter 6: The lower primary school child) provide insights into physical, cognitive, social, moral, and play development, useful for observations during practical experience [17](#page=17). ### 2.3 Executive functions and their place in the general initial situation Executive functions, which help students regulate their behavior (Diamond, 2013), are important. In early primary school, "lower executive functions" are prominent [17](#page=17): * **Working memory:** Ability to remember and follow instructions. This suggests the need for short, clear instructions and repetition [17](#page=17). * **Impulse control:** Ability to suppress impulses. This requires clear rules and predictable routines [17](#page=17). * **Cognitive flexibility:** Ability to switch strategies. This benefits from varied teaching methods and opportunities to correct errors [17](#page=17). Integrating these functions offers a more complete picture of student learning. Higher-order executive functions are also discussed later [17](#page=17). ### 2.4 Environmental and family factors A child's living environment significantly influences their opportunities and challenges (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This includes [17](#page=17): * **Family situation:** Parenting style, parental involvement, stability [17](#page=17). * **Socio-cultural context:** Norms, values, expectations [17](#page=17). * **SES indicators:** Home language, mother's education level, eligibility for school grants [17](#page=17). Schools with a high SES student population receive extra resources, but teachers must translate this diversity into a supportive learning climate. Creating equal opportunities begins with recognizing unequal starting points [17](#page=17). ### 2.5 The school as a learning environment The school environment directly impacts student motivation and engagement. Factors to consider include [17](#page=17): * **Physical environment:** Light, space, materials [17](#page=17). * **Organizational structure:** Timetables, rules, transitions [17](#page=17). * **School culture:** Values, atmosphere, safety [17](#page=17). A positive school climate facilitates learning; warm teacher-student relationships and a safe school environment are strongly linked to motivation and well-being (Cornelius-White, 2007) [17](#page=17). ### 2.6 The role of observation Data for the general initial situation is gathered through observation and documentation. This includes observing classroom setup, routines, interactions, and listening to teacher-student communication. Schön emphasized "reflection-in-action" for professional development through attentive observation [18](#page=18) . > **Reflection Prompt:** What does the school context reveal about student learning? Which environmental factors influence student motivation? How does observation enhance understanding of the context [18](#page=18)? ### 2.7 Summary The general initial situation provides insight into the broader learning context, forming the basis for all didactic choices, making the context visible, aiding student understanding, and supporting realistic lesson design [18](#page=18). ## 3. The specific initial situation: the starting point of the lesson The specific initial situation is a concrete snapshot of the student group for a particular lesson or series of lessons. It bridges the general context and the specific lesson design choices. It answers: "What do I need to know about my students at this moment to ensure my lesson is effective?" [19](#page=19). ### 3.1 Why the specific initial situation is essential Analyzing the specific initial situation ensures lessons: * Connect with students' prior knowledge (Piaget, 1970; Hattie, 2009) [19](#page=19). * Address their motivation and needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness; Deci & Ryan, 2000) [19](#page=19). * Allow for differentiation [19](#page=19). * Set realistic goals [19](#page=19). This avoids lessons that are too difficult, too easy, or irrelevant to students' lives. Practically, it means knowing what students already know and can do, identifying those needing extra challenge or support, and understanding factors affecting their attention, motivation, or behavior [19](#page=19). ### 3.2 The domains of the specific initial situation The specific initial situation encompasses several domains: * **Prior knowledge:** New content becomes meaningful when it connects to existing knowledge (Piaget, 1970; Bruner, 1960). Teachers should assess existing knowledge, necessary prerequisite skills, and identify misconceptions [19](#page=19). > **Example:** Before teaching fractions, check if students understand division or partitioning into equal parts [19](#page=19). * **Cognitive skills:** This focuses on how students learn, not just what they learn. Questions include how they process information, their ability to apply strategies, and whether they need significant guidance. It also considers specific learning difficulties like dyslexia or dyscalculia. This helps determine the level of support and appropriate teaching methods (Vygotsky, 1978) [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20). * **Affective-dynamic factors:** These relate to emotions, motivation, and self-perception. Students learn better when they feel safe and believe in their ability to succeed. Factors include interest in the subject, attitude towards school and the teacher, self-confidence, fear of failure, perfectionism, and peer relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Pekrun, 2006) [20](#page=20). * **Psychomotor skills:** This domain explores the connection between perception, motor skills, and behavior. It assesses the development of fine and gross motor skills, how students write or perform actions, and how motor skills influence tempo and concentration [20](#page=20). > **Example:** A student with weak fine motor skills might understand the concept of aligning numbers but struggle with the execution [20](#page=20). ### 3.3 Executive functions in the specific initial situation Executive functions (working memory, impulse control, flexibility) directly influence how students handle instructions, tasks, and feedback. Key observation points include [20](#page=20): * Ability to remember multi-step instructions (working memory) [20](#page=20). * Impulsive reactions versus waiting (impulse control) [20](#page=20). * Adjusting approaches when encountering difficulties (flexibility) [20](#page=20). Consciously observing these aspects helps gauge how students learn and how to support that learning [20](#page=20). ### 3.4 How to determine the specific initial situation Data is gathered from various sources: * **Observation:** Behavior, engagement, collaboration, pace. This involves looking, noting, and discussing during practical experience [20](#page=20). * **Student interviews:** Insights into motivation, interest, self-perception. Use open-ended questions like, "What did you find difficult about the previous lesson?" [20](#page=20). * **Previous lessons:** Content progress, error patterns. Analyze worksheets or tests [20](#page=20). * **Mentor or care teacher:** Background information, needs, strengths. Ask targeted questions like, "What helps this student?" [20](#page=20). * **Student records (LVS/dossiers, reports, notebooks):** Objective learning data, used only if relevant to lesson goals [20](#page=20). A strong initial situation is built on facts, not assumptions [21](#page=21). ### 3.5 The specific initial situation in your lesson plan Every lesson plan should include a brief summary of the specific initial situation, placed before the goals to guide all didactic choices [21](#page=21). > **Example:** "Students already know the units of measurement meter and centimeter. They can estimate distances but often confuse length and height. Two students need extra practice time, and one student requires a challenge." [21](#page=21). This description aids both the teacher and mentors/colleagues in understanding the basis for lesson content and approach [21](#page=21). ### 3.6 The specific initial situation and differentiation The specific initial situation is the foundation for differentiation, highlighting differences in level, pace, interest, or support. Differentiation can occur in [21](#page=21): * **Content:** Different exercises or tasks [21](#page=21). * **Process:** More or less guidance [21](#page=21). * **Product:** Choice in the final assignment [21](#page=21). * **Pace:** More time or acceleration [21](#page=21). Each differentiation strategy should be linked to a specific observation from the initial situation (Black & Wiliam, 1998) [21](#page=21). ### 3.7 Dynamic and changeable The specific initial situation is constantly changing. Today's observations may differ tomorrow; a student's engagement can fluctuate, and external events or teacher actions can alter the learning process. Continuous observation and adjustment are necessary (Schön, 1983) [21](#page=21). ### 3.8 Reflection: your role as an observer The quality of a lesson begins with the quality of observation. Observation is not merely "looking" but directed observation with a purpose [21](#page=21). > **Reflection Questions:** What does student behavior reveal about their learning? How does your interpretation influence what you see? How can observations be translated into concrete lesson adjustments [21](#page=21)? ### 3.9 Summary The specific initial situation is a snapshot of the present moment, essential for formulating realistic goals, choosing appropriate methods, and optimally supporting each child's learning process. Combined with the general initial situation, it forms the foundation of every lesson in a powerful learning environment [22](#page=22). ## 4. The initial situation, dynamic and changeable The initial situation is not a static description but a continuous process of observation, action, evaluation, and adjustment. The dynamic nature is represented by the cycle in the "powerful learning environment" schema [23](#page=23). ### 4.1 What changes in the initial situation? Changes occur due to: * **Student development:** Children continually grow cognitively, socially, emotionally, and motorically (Piaget, 1970; Vygotsky, 1978). Observing evolution, not just current ability, is crucial [23](#page=23). > **Example:** A student struggling with reading comprehension in October might show significant progress by March due to improved vocabulary and attention span [23](#page=23). * **Events at school, in class, or at home:** Life experiences, such as moving, divorce, or new friendships, impact learning attitudes. Classroom dynamics also shift with events like conflicts, group work, or new students. Teachers must remain alert to these signals without premature judgment [23](#page=23). * **Your own actions as a teacher:** The teacher is an integral part of the changing situation (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Every decision, from classroom layout to feedback style, has an influence. Adjusting instructional style or introducing new routines can change student responses within days. The initial situation is a result of interaction, not just observation [23](#page=23). ### 4.2 The importance of continuous observation A dynamic initial situation necessitates ongoing observation. Observation is a skill used continuously, not just at the start of the school year. Teachers should regularly observe student engagement, collaboration, the effect of instruction, and their behavior and emotions. Employing multiple perspectives—student, teacher, and class group—is beneficial. Education is an ongoing dialogue between observation and action [23](#page=23) [24](#page=24). ### 4.3 The teacher as a researcher of their own practice The concept of the "researching teacher" (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993) involves: 1. Observing what happens [24](#page=24). 2. Reflecting on the reasons behind it [24](#page=24). 3. Experimenting with new approaches [24](#page=24). 4. Observing again [24](#page=24). This process fosters learning about both students and one's own teaching practices [24](#page=24). > **Observation Exercise:** Observe one student across two consecutive lessons, noting their behavior and engagement. Adjust one aspect of your approach (e.g., feedback, pace) and observe any changes to experience the dynamic nature of the initial situation [24](#page=24). ### 4.4 From observation to action Effective teaching involves translating observation into adjustments (Hattie, 2009) through three steps [24](#page=24): 1. **Recognize:** Identify what stands out (e.g., the group is easily distracted during group work) [24](#page=24). 2. **Understand:** Determine the cause (e.g., insufficient structure or too large groups) [24](#page=24). 3. **Act:** Implement a change (e.g., smaller groups, clear role distribution) [24](#page=24). This is followed by renewed observation, creating a reflective cycle where the initial situation is continually refined [24](#page=24). ### 4.5 The importance of communication A changeable initial situation also requires open communication within the school team. Discussing observations with mentors, care teachers, or colleagues provides different interpretations and a more complete understanding of students, leading to better-aligned approaches. A team that observes together sees patterns, whereas an individual teacher sees details [24](#page=24). ### 4.6 Documenting and following up Templates for the general and specific initial situations should be used as living documents, noting changes, possible explanations, and adjustments in teaching practice. This transforms the initial situation into a tool for reflection, not just a preparation requirement [25](#page=25). | Date / Moment | What Changed? | Possible Explanation | Adjustment in Teaching Practice | | :------------ | :------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------- | :------------------------------ | | 15/10 | Less engagement in group work | Groups too large | Next lesson: pairs instead of groups of 4 | | 22/10 | Better concentration in independent work | New instruction + visual timer | Continue structuring time | ### 4.7 The dynamic within the powerful learning environment The "powerful learning environment" schema highlights the reciprocity between all components; changes in one element affect others. Teachers maintain balance by continually revisiting the current initial situation, making the environment responsive [25](#page=25). ### 4.8 Reflection: the teacher grows along The classroom's dynamics encourage teacher growth. Repeated observation and adjustment lead to a sharper understanding of how students learn, how teachers influence learning, and the practical effects of didactic choices. Every change in the classroom offers a learning opportunity for both teacher and students [25](#page=25). ### 4.9 Summary The initial situation is not fixed but a dynamic process influenced by student development, events, and teacher actions. Understanding this process enables flexible and targeted teaching. Observations from this chapter form the basis for analyzing the initial situation and translating it into didactic choices [25](#page=25). ## 5. The initial situation in practice - work placement learning Translating theoretical knowledge of the initial situation into practical application during work placement is key to developing a powerful learning environment. The cycle of observation, goal setting, lesson design, and reflection comes together in practice [26](#page=26). ### 5.1 The goal of the practical assignment Work placement involves using two documents: 1. The general initial situation template (for class and school context) [26](#page=26). 2. The specific initial situation template (for personal lessons) [26](#page=26). These templates facilitate systematic observation, helping teachers identify classroom patterns and derive didactic choices, rather than merely filling out forms. This teaches objective observation, connecting characteristics to behavior, and aligning lesson design [26](#page=26). ### 5.2 General initial situation template This extensive 13-page document is completed during and throughout the work placement [26](#page=26). * **The children - general:** Number of students, age, home language, and notable observations regarding language use or behavior provide an initial class overview [27](#page=27). * **The children - name list:** Notes on special care needs, strengths, or points of attention (without sensitive details) aid differentiation and class organization [27](#page=27). * **The children - initial situation per learning area:** Details on previously covered topics in subjects like math and language, and the learning resources used, inform what can be reviewed or deepened [27](#page=27). * **The school - location and environment:** Description of the location, traffic, amenities, and neighborhood indicates the socio-cultural context [27](#page=27). * **The school - infrastructure:** An overview of classrooms, playgrounds, and ICT resources determines possibilities for teaching methods [27](#page=27). * **The class - hours and organization:** The timetable, rules, and rituals provide structure and predictability [27](#page=27). * **The class - habits and agreements:** How the school day starts and ends helps in smoothly integrating into classroom practice [27](#page=27). ### 5.3 Specific initial situation template A specific initial situation is required for each lesson plan, serving as the starting point for formulating lesson goals and didactic design choices [27](#page=27). #### 5.3.1 How to use this part of the lesson plan 1. **Review previous lessons:** What has been covered? What went well or poorly [28](#page=28)? 2. **Note relevant student characteristics:** What is known about the current group (prior knowledge, motivation, behavior, care needs, mentor's input) [28](#page=28)? 3. **Draw didactic conclusions:** How does this influence your lesson goals, methods, media, and evaluation [28](#page=28)? > **Example:** > **Initial Situation:** Students know basic colors and can name them. Some students struggle with color nuances (light/dark). The class enjoys working in pairs, but group work quickly becomes noisy [28](#page=28). > **Didactic Implication:** Short, varied tasks with visual support; instruction in pairs; class-wide conclusion with reflection questions [28](#page=28). ### 5.4 Observation in practice During work placement, continuous observation is employed using different approaches [28](#page=28): * **Free observation:** Broad view of class dynamics, atmosphere, and behavior; noted as a brief description in the observation report [29](#page=29). * **Focused observation:** Specific focus (e.g., work habits, language use, collaboration); uses observation grids or short tables [29](#page=29). * **Focus on one student:** Detailed tracking of a single student in various situations; noted per minute or activity [29](#page=29). * **Video reflection:** Recording a lesson segment (with permission) for later analysis; preferably done with a mentor [29](#page=29). Observation is about learning to see what truly happens, not what is expected [29](#page=29). ### 5.5 Reflecting and adjusting After each observation or lesson, take time to reflect: What stood out about the students? Was the initial situation assessment accurate? What does this say about the preparation? What will be adjusted next time?. This reflection can be briefly noted in the lesson plan [29](#page=29). ### 5.6 The teacher's initial situation Teachers, like students, have an initial situation. A student's prior knowledge, confidence, communication style, and organizational skills influence how they view the classroom. Formulating one's own initial situation at the start of work placement is beneficial, considering strengths, areas for growth, reactions to unexpected situations, and professional development. This, combined with student initial situations, frames teaching as a shared learning process. Knowing one's own initial situation leads to more conscious teaching [29](#page=29). ### 5.7 Tips from practice * Prepare observation questions before entering the classroom [29](#page=29). * Seek feedback from your mentor on your observations [29](#page=29). * Use observations not only for the current lesson but also for future planning [29](#page=29). * Do not fear adjusting your perspective, as this is fundamental to learning [29](#page=29). ### 5.8 Summary Practical assignments on the initial situation help students progress from observer to thinker and doer. They learn to observe purposefully, link student characteristics to didactic choices, manage change flexibly, and reflect on their own growth as teachers. The theory of the initial situation becomes a stance: a way of seeing that persists across all years, classes, and contexts. Effective teaching grows from what is done with this insight [30](#page=30). ## 6. Reflection and synthesis - from observing to acting ### 6.1 Review: what have we learned? The preceding chapters explored the core of didactic action: understanding student needs for learning. This began with the "why" (Chapter 1): the initial situation as the foundation of a powerful learning environment. The layers of the initial situation were examined [31](#page=31): * General initial situation (school, class, student population context) [31](#page=31). * Specific initial situation (concrete snapshot of the lesson) [31](#page=31). * Dynamic nature (continuous change) [31](#page=31). * Practice (observing and documenting during work placement) [31](#page=31). Knowing who is in front of you is the beginning of knowing what to do [31](#page=31). ### 6.2 The initial situation as a didactic compass The initial situation is not just an analytical tool but a compass guiding all other choices. It is visible in the "powerful learning environment" schema, starting from the student on the left, moving towards goals on the right, with the learning environment in the middle. A good teacher moves between these, from observation to action, lesson design to reflection, and individual needs to group goals. Knowing the initial situation allows for confident direction [31](#page=31). ### 6.3 Reflecting on your own learning process Just as students have an initial situation, so do teachers. Reflecting on how the perspective on the classroom has changed is essential [31](#page=31). #### 6.3.1 Individual reflection questions 1. What does "knowing the initial situation" mean now that you have been in a classroom [31](#page=31)? 2. What do you spontaneously focus on when observing a group of students [31](#page=31)? 3. How does your own school experience influence your way of seeing [31](#page=31)? 4. What are you already good at in observing students [31](#page=31)? 5. In what areas do you want to grow further [31](#page=31)? 6. How can you best organize yourself to observe effectively [31](#page=31)? 7. What tools have you learned to use for observation [31](#page=31)? #### 6.3.2 Reflection in pairs or groups * Discuss one student observed by both of you. What did you see similarly? Where did your interpretations differ [31](#page=31)? * What factors explain these differences (personal perspective, experience, prior knowledge, observation moment) [32](#page=32)? * What does this teach about the importance of objective observation [32](#page=32)? #### 6.3.3 The teacher as a reflective professional The reflective stance is a core competency for teachers. A reflective teacher systematically observes, interprets based on knowledge of development, behavior, and context, acts upon this interpretation, and evaluates the effects. This is an ongoing learning cycle. Reflection is not an extra task but a way of looking at what is already happening [32](#page=32). ### 6.4 From initial situation to goals The next step involves building upon the understanding of the initial situation to formulate realistic, measurable, and differentiated lesson goals. A goal that ignores the initial situation remains a wish; one that aligns with it becomes achievable education [32](#page=32). ### 6.5 Synthesis overview | Theme | Core Question | What you learn as a teacher | | :-------------------------- | :------------------------------------------ | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | General initial situation | In what context do I teach? | You understand how school, class, and environment influence learning. | [32](#page=32). | Specific initial situation | Who is in front of me, today? | You recognize what students already know, can do, and feel. | [32](#page=32). | Dynamic and changeable | How does the class evolve? | You learn to observe continuously and make adjustments. | [32](#page=32). | Work placement learning | How do I translate observation into action? | You learn to gather, interpret, and use data. | [32](#page=32). | Reflection and synthesis | What does this mean for my teaching? | You develop a professional, inquiring attitude. | [32](#page=32). ### 6.6 A final look ahead This theme began with "What is the initial situation?" and ends with the insight: "The initial situation is a way of seeing.". Knowledge, skills, and attitudes converge into pedagogical awareness, enabling one to see education as a living process of alignment, growth, and relationship. Teachers look not just at a class, but at developing individuals. The next step is formulating goals that are achievable, observable, and meaningful, fostering both learning and growth [32](#page=32) [33](#page=33). ### 6.7 Summary Key insights include: the initial situation is the starting point for didactic action; it has general and specific components; it is constantly changing; observation, reflection, and adjustment are part of professional identity; and the next step is goal-directed action based on observation [33](#page=33). --- # Defining and structuring learning goals Learning goals are central to effective teaching, acting as the bridge between a student's current understanding and desired future growth. They provide direction for instructional decisions, ensuring alignment between content, pedagogy, and assessment. This section explores the hierarchical nature of learning goals, from policy-level objectives to classroom-specific aims, the principles of SMART goal formulation, and various typologies for categorizing goals [36](#page=36). ### 2.1 From policy to practice: defining the chain of learning goals The formulation of learning goals is embedded within a larger educational policy framework, starting from national or governmental mandates and culminating in the teacher's classroom [37](#page=37). #### 2.1.1 From minimum goals to curriculum goals Governments establish "minimum goals," which represent the essential knowledge and skills every student should acquire by the end of a learning trajectory. These serve as a baseline, with educational networks or authorities translating these into "curriculum goals". Curriculum goals provide a more concrete, context-specific interpretation of the minimum goals, aligning them with the pedagogical vision of a particular network or school. For instance, a minimum goal related to understanding simple informative texts might be translated into a curriculum goal that specifies inferring main ideas and relevant information [37](#page=37). #### 2.1.2 From curriculum goals to lesson goals Teachers then translate curriculum goals into "lesson goals," which define what students should be able to know or do by the end of a single lesson. These goals are designed to be observable, achievable within the lesson timeframe, and focused on concrete student behavior. Some schools may implement an intermediate layer of "learning goals" that span a period or series of lessons, helping to structure learning over time. However, the direct translation from curriculum goal to lesson goal is the most immediate and frequent task for teachers [37](#page=37). > **Tip:** The progression from minimum goals to curriculum goals to lesson goals illustrates a top-down approach to educational planning, ensuring that classroom activities are aligned with broader educational objectives. #### 2.1.3 The policy-to-practice chain visualized The relationship between these levels can be summarized in a chain: | Level | Determined by | What is defined | Example | |-----------------|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Minimum goals | Government | What every student must minimally know and be able to do | The student understands simple informative texts. | | Curriculum goals| Educational network | How minimum goals are concretely implemented based on pedagogy | The student can infer the main idea and relevant information from informative texts. | | Lesson goals | Teacher (potentially via school learning goals)| What students concretely do or demonstrate in the lesson | The student indicates the main idea in a short informative text. | This process allows teachers to translate societal expectations into practical, meaningful, and observable learning experiences for students [38](#page=38). ### 2.2 Learning goals in context: initial situation and the hidden curriculum Lesson goals are not formulated in a vacuum; they are influenced by the specific context of the classroom and the teacher's own values and beliefs [38](#page=38). #### 2.2.1 The initial situation The "initial situation" refers to what students already know and can do, as well as their motivations and learning styles. Each class is unique, and lesson goals must be tailored to be achievable and appropriate for the specific group of learners [38](#page=38). #### 2.2.2 The hidden curriculum Beyond explicit learning goals, there exists a "hidden curriculum"—everything students learn unconsciously through the teacher's actions, words, omissions, and the content of the curriculum itself. This can include messages about who is valued, what is considered normal, and which perspectives are prioritized [39](#page=39). > **Example:** A history curriculum that primarily focuses on European events implicitly teaches students that European history is more significant than other narratives. Similarly, consistently using male examples for scientists or female examples for nurses can reinforce gender stereotypes. Awareness of the hidden curriculum requires self-reflection from the teacher regarding their language, examples, and the content they present. Addressing this conscious effort helps align lesson goals with a broader, more nuanced understanding of learning [39](#page=39). ### 2.3 Structure of a lesson goal A well-constructed lesson goal typically comprises three components: 1. **Content component** (always present): What students learn. 2. **Behavioral component** (always present): How students demonstrate their learning. 3. **Didactic component** (optional): The context or conditions under which learning occurs. #### 2.3.1 The content component: what students learn This component defines the subject matter of the learning, encompassing knowledge, skills, and attitudes [40](#page=40). * **Knowledge:** Refers to what students know and understand, including: * **Facts:** Discrete pieces of information like names, dates, or characteristics [40](#page=40). * *Example:* The student states the multiplication table of 7. * **Concepts:** Abstract terms that students understand and can use [40](#page=40). * *Example:* The student explains the meaning of "evaporation." * **Relationships:** Connections between facts or concepts [41](#page=41). * *Example:* The student explains the relationship between temperature and evaporation. * **Structures:** Organized systems of knowledge where relationships are integrated [41](#page=41). * *Example:* The student describes the structure of the human respiratory system. * **Skills:** Involve applying knowledge to achieve a goal, encompassing methods, procedures, and strategies [41](#page=41). * **Methods:** General approaches to working applicable in various situations [41](#page=41). * *Example:* The student applies a method to summarize a text. * **Action procedures:** Concrete steps for completing a task correctly [41](#page=41). * *Example:* The student uses the correct step-by-step procedure to look up a word in a dictionary. * **Approaches/Strategies:** Ways of thinking or problem-solving used purposefully [41](#page=41). * *Example:* The student chooses an appropriate strategy to understand a text. * **Procedures:** Established actions following rules or agreements, often related to technical or safety aspects [42](#page=42). * *Example:* The student logs into the computer safely using their own account. * **Attitudes:** Describe how students orient themselves towards learning, others, and the world, encompassing their disposition and values [42](#page=42). * **Attitudes (behavioral forms):** Observable behaviors indicating how a student presents themselves [42](#page=42). * *Example:* The student listens respectfully to classmates. * **Dispositions:** Habits or willingness to act in a certain way [42](#page=42). * *Example:* The student is willing to collaborate during group work. * **Orientations:** Values or ideals guiding a student; what they deem important [42](#page=42). * *Example:* The student shows respect for differences among people. | Content Type | Subdivisions | Core Question | Example | |--------------|------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | Knowledge | Facts, concepts, relationships, structures | What does the student know or understand? | The student explains how evaporation works. | | Skills | Methods, procedures, approaches, routines | What can the student do or apply? | The student uses a method to summarize a text. | | Attitudes | Attitudes, dispositions, orientations | How does the student orient themselves? | The student listens respectfully to others' opinions. | #### 2.3.2 The behavioral component: what students do This component translates the content into observable actions, demonstrating that learning has occurred. It is crucial for making learning visible and linking it to evaluation [43](#page=43). * **Types of observable behavior:** These range in complexity, similar to Bloom's Taxonomy: 1. **Reproductive behavior:** Repeating learned information [43](#page=43). * *Example:* The student lists the days of the week. 2. **Application behavior:** Applying knowledge or skills in a familiar context [43](#page=43). * *Example:* The student applies the multiplication table of 7 in practice exercises. 3. **Transfer behavior:** Using learned material in a new or complex context [43](#page=43). * *Example:* The student uses the multiplication table of 7 to solve a real-world problem. 4. **Creative or problem-solving behavior:** Combining or creating new solutions based on existing knowledge [44](#page=44). * *Example:* The student devises a game with math problems involving multiplication tables. > **Didactic Tip:** Select the behavioral level that matches the lesson's objective. A balance between reproduction, application, and transfer is important, especially in primary education. * **Language of the behavioral component:** Uses active verbs that describe observable actions [44](#page=44). * **Good verbs:** list, name, explain, apply, compare, organize, investigate, create. * **Avoid verbs:** know, understand, realize, learn (these describe internal processes). * **Guideline:** Use one behavioral verb per goal for clarity and measurability. * **Relationship between behavior and content:** These components gain meaning when combined, showing *how* students engage with the content [44](#page=44). | Content | Behavior | Full Lesson Goal | |--------------|----------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Fact | names | The student names the capitals of the three regions. | | Concept | explains | The student explains why evaporation happens faster in heat. | | Skill | applies | The student applies a method to summarize a text. | | Attitude | shows | The student shows care for materials during crafting. | * **From behavior to evaluation:** Observable behavior serves as an indicator of success, facilitating targeted evaluation [44](#page=44). | Behavior in Goal | Observable Sign | Evaluation Method | |------------------|----------------------------------------|---------------------------------------| | describes | oral or written explanation | oral questioning, written exercise | | applies | execution of action or exercise | observation, test | | investigates | process or report | observation, reflection report | | shows | attitude or interaction | observation list, self-reflection | #### 2.3.3 The didactic component: how or with what students learn This optional component describes the circumstances of learning, clarifying the means, context, or interaction form. It is used only when it adds necessary specificity [45](#page=45). > **Tip:** Avoid unnecessary details in the didactic component, such as specifying a particular color of pen, which can make the goal seem trivial or overly specific. * **Types of didactic components:** * **Resources:** The material or tool used [45](#page=45). * *Example:* The student measures using a tape measure. * **Environment:** The location or context of learning [45](#page=45). * *Example:* The student observes plants on the playground. * **Interaction:** The social or collaborative form [45](#page=45). * *Example:* The student solves math problems in pairs. * **Guidance:** The level of support or independence [46](#page=46). * *Example:* The student plans their steps independently. * **Evaluation Context:** How the result is demonstrated [46](#page=46). * *Example:* The student presents their design to the class. * **Relationship with other components:** The didactic component supports, but does not replace, the content and behavior. It adds context to the observable behavior related to the content [46](#page=46). | Content | Behavior | Didactic | Full Lesson Goal | |-------------------------|----------|-----------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Vocabulary around animals | uses | with the help of a digital dictionary | The student correctly uses animal names with the help of a digital dictionary. | | Fraction simplification | applies | in pairs with concrete materials | The student applies fractions in pairs with concrete materials. | | Showing respect for opinions | shows | during a group discussion | The student shows respect during a group discussion. | * **Illustrative Example:** * **Full lesson goal:** The student describes (behavioral) the functioning of the water cycle (content) with the help of a simple drawing (didactic). ### 2.4 Formulation frameworks: working with SMART The SMART framework helps create clear, concrete, and achievable lesson goals [47](#page=47). * **Meaning of SMART:** * **S - Specific:** Clear and concrete; what exactly will students do [47](#page=47)? * **M - Measurable:** Observable in behavior; how will you know they can do it [47](#page=47)? * **A - Acceptable:** Aligns with curriculum goals and class context; why is this goal important [47](#page=47)? * **R - Realistic:** Achievable within one lesson and with the current students [47](#page=47). * **T - Time-bound:** Defined by time or context; by when or in what situation [47](#page=47)? > **Tip:** When formulating goals, ensure they are specific enough to guide instruction and evaluation, but not so rigid that they stifle creativity or independent learning. #### 2.4.1 Why work with SMART? SMART goals provide: * **Clarity:** Everyone understands the goal [48](#page=48). * **Focus:** Guides lesson planning, activities, and assessment [48](#page=48). * **Measurability:** Allows for determining if the goal has been met [48](#page=48). * **Achievability:** Prevents goals from being too vague or overly ambitious [48](#page=48). * **Accountability:** Demonstrates alignment with higher-level learning objectives [48](#page=48). #### 2.4.2 Examples of SMART versus non-SMART goals | Less effective | Why not SMART? | Better formulated | |-----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Students understand fractions. | too vague, not observable | The student explains what a fraction is using concrete materials. | | Students learn to cooperate. | not measurable, no context | The student actively listens to a classmate's ideas during group work. | | Students become acquainted with magnets. | too broad, no behavior or specific goal | The student demonstrates with an experiment which materials are magnetic. | | Students write a story. | no quality criterion or time indication | By the end of the lesson, the student writes a short story with a beginning, middle, and end. | ### 2.5 Typologies of goals Lesson goals can be categorized to better understand the type of learning being targeted and how to assess it. #### 2.5.1 Product goals vs. process goals * **Product goals:** Focus on the visible outcome or end result of learning. The goal is achieved when the product meets set criteria [49](#page=49). * *Characteristics:* Assessable end result, often measurable and tangible, typically for knowledge or skills [49](#page=49). * *Link to evaluation:* Evaluation is on the product (e.g., a letter, a drawing) using rubrics or scoring keys [49](#page=49). * *Example:* The student writes a letter without spelling errors. * **Process goals:** Emphasize the way a student learns or works. The goal is met when a purposeful approach is demonstrated, regardless of the final outcome [50](#page=50). * *Characteristics:* Focus on strategy or thinking/working process, often linked to metacognition or collaboration, typically for attitudes and complex skills [50](#page=50). * *Link to evaluation:* Evaluation through observation or reflection on method, engagement, and progress [50](#page=50). * *Example:* The student plans and follows the steps for group work. > **Tip:** Effective lessons often integrate both product and process goals to provide a holistic learning experience. #### 2.5.2 Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor goals These three domains represent different types of development in students. * **Cognitive goals:** Relate to thinking and understanding; students acquire, process, and use knowledge [50](#page=50). * *Link to evaluation:* Assessed through tests, written assignments, and discussions, measuring understanding and reasoning [50](#page=50). * *Example:* The student explains why seasons occur. * **Affective goals:** Pertain to feelings and values; students develop attitudes, values, and feelings towards learning, others, or the world [51](#page=51). * *Link to evaluation:* Assessed through observation, self-reflection, and conversations, using qualitative feedback on attitude and motivation [51](#page=51). * *Example:* The student shows respect for different opinions in class. * **Psychomotor goals:** Focus on doing and moving; students develop motor or technical skills through practice [51](#page=51). * *Link to evaluation:* Assessed through demonstration or observation of execution, focusing on accuracy, coordination, and tempo [51](#page=51). * *Example:* The student correctly uses a compass to draw a circle. ### 2.6 Links to other sections * **Evaluation:** Lesson goals directly inform what and how assessment is conducted, as what students are intended to learn dictates how their learning is measured [52](#page=52). * **Differentiation:** Lesson goals must be made accessible to diverse learners, considering individual differences in pace, prior knowledge, and learning styles. Differentiation aims to achieve the same goals through varied means for different students [52](#page=52). The new minimum goals (from September 2025) emphasize ICT and attitudes as fundamental, integrating them across all learning areas and focusing on conscious, critical, and responsible use. Goal-oriented teaching requires understanding both the starting point (initial situation) and the destination (learning goals). Together, the initial situation and learning goals form a dual foundation that guides all subsequent didactic actions [52](#page=52) [53](#page=53). --- # Utilizing media effectively in the learning environment This section explores the crucial role and multifaceted functions of didactic media within a powerful learning environment, emphasizing their integration with teaching strategies and learning objectives [57](#page=57). ### 3.1 Introduction: Media in a powerful learning environment Didactic media are defined as all resources and tools used to convey and deepen knowledge, insights, skills, or attitudes. They act as a bridge between learners and content, helping to give meaning to what is learned, sparking motivation, and ensuring participation regardless of background or prior knowledge. Media are not neutral; they influence what and how students learn, and the teacher's role is to ensure this influence is constructive. Within the framework of a powerful learning environment, media connect and support all other components: content, teaching methods, evaluation, and the teacher's role. Effective media use requires alignment with the learners' starting point, the learning goals, and the specific context of the classroom or school [57](#page=57) [58](#page=58). #### 3.1.1 The starting point as a beacon The learner's starting point—what they already know, can do, and have experienced—is the primary consideration for any media choice. Media can help bridge the gap between what a student can do independently and what they can achieve with support, thereby aiding in their zone of proximal development. They facilitate learning by making content more concrete, visual, or interactive, allowing each student to progress from their individual starting point. This involves considering learners' prior knowledge and experience, language proficiency, motivation and interest, and technical feasibility. A well-chosen medium lowers the threshold for learning and increases engagement [58](#page=58) [59](#page=59). #### 3.1.2 Goals as a beacon Media gain meaning when they contribute to achieving learning goals. The starting point determines where learning begins, while goals define the destination. Media help make goals visible by visualizing complex concepts, motivating learners, and facilitating the transfer of knowledge to other situations. The process of selecting media should follow the goal and the chosen teaching method, not the other way around. Clear, achievable, and visible goals increase engagement and learning outcomes [60](#page=60). #### 3.1.3 Media within the five puzzle pieces of a powerful learning environment Media are not isolated components but rather connect the core elements of a powerful learning environment: learning content, teaching method, media, the teacher, and evaluation [61](#page=61). * **Media and learning content:** Media bring content to life, concretize abstract concepts, and support meaningful learning by making it visible and helping learners establish connections [61](#page=61). * **Media and teaching method:** Media enhance active learning by enabling interaction, collaboration, and differentiation. Interactive quizzes, for instance, can stimulate engagement and provide immediate feedback [61](#page=61). * **Media and the teacher's role:** The teacher is the director of media use. Media are only didactic when guided pedagogically by the teacher, who models usage, supports learners, and manages focus versus distraction [61](#page=61). * **Media and evaluation:** Media make learning visible and support formative evaluation by offering opportunities for observation, feedback, and self-reflection. Examples include photos of group work or videos of presentations [61](#page=61). * **Media as a connecting link:** Media strengthen the coherence between the puzzle pieces, clarifying content, supporting methods, making reflection visible, and aiding teacher evaluation [62](#page=62). #### 3.1.4 Summarizing schema: From beacons to puzzle pieces | Schema | Question | Role of media | Example | | :--------------------- | :------------------------- | :----------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------- | | Starting point | Who is in my class? | Media should align with learners' world, prior knowledge, and skills. | A picture series with recognizable context. | | Goals | What do I want to achieve? | Media support and visualize the learning goal. | A demonstration video for a skill-based goal. | | Learning content | What is central? | Media make the content visible and experiential. | MAB material for mathematics. | | Teaching method | How do learners learn? | Media enhance interaction and activity. | A digital quiz during group work. | | Teacher | Who guides the process? | Media require guidance, modeling, and coaching. | The teacher demonstrates how to search for information. | | Evaluation | How do we know the goal is met? | Media make learning visible and promote reflection. | A portfolio or a photo of work. | ### 3.2 Functions of didactic media Didactic media are more than just tools; they are carriers of meaning, mediators between knowledge and experience, and drivers of engagement. They transform passive knowledge transfer into active, meaningful learning. Media should always be used purposefully to support learning [63](#page=63). * **Media as a means of visualization and anchoring:** Media make abstract concepts concrete, show relationships, and create mental images that deepen understanding. The cognitive theory of multimodal learning suggests that combining visual and auditory information enhances learning, provided it's not overwhelming or distracting. Examples include animations of physical processes, realia for mathematical concepts, and schemas illustrating relationships [63](#page=63). * **Media as a means of structuring and integration:** Media provide structure and coherence to learning content, helping learners see connections within a lesson or across subject areas. A well-structured medium aids in "learning to learn" by organizing knowledge and linking it to existing understanding. Examples include clear board schemas, graphical representations, and mind maps [64](#page=64). * **Media as a means of activation and motivation:** Media can engage and motivate learners by fostering autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as described in Self-Determination Theory. Digital learning routes can offer autonomy, visual feedback can build competence, and collaborative digital tools can foster relatedness. The teacher must balance engagement with learning value, ensuring media stimulate rather than distract [64](#page=64). * **Media as a means of differentiation:** Media enable personalized learning by offering variations in resources and tasks to cater to differences in pace, level, style, and interest. This includes visual and auditory aids for language or concentration difficulties, adaptive digital platforms, and manipulative materials for younger learners. The key is customization, not the technology itself [64](#page=64) [65](#page=65). * **Media as a means of processing and evaluation:** Media help learners consolidate knowledge and skills through practice (e.g., digital exercises, simulations) and make their learning process visible for evaluation. They facilitate reflection, peer feedback, and formative assessment by making feedback quick, visual, and interactive. Examples include digital portfolios, video recordings of presentations, and quiz tools for immediate feedback [65](#page=65). #### 3.2.1 Summarizing overview of media functions | Function of media | Core meaning | Examples in the classroom | | :--------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------ | :------------------------------------------------------------ | | Visualization and anchoring | Media bring reality into the classroom and make learning visible. | Realia, pictures, demonstrations, videos. | | Structuring and integration | Media organize information and clarify connections. | Board schemas, mind maps, graphs. | | Activation and motivation | Media make learning attractive and interactive. | Games, quizzes, digital simulations. | | Differentiation | Media enable tailored learning. | Adaptive software, visual aids. | | Processing and evaluation | Media showcase the learning process and outcome. | Portfolios, recordings, feedback tools. | ### 3.3 Typology of didactic media Media can be categorized to help teachers make targeted choices for lesson design and learning pathways [66](#page=66). * **Tangible and concrete media:** These are physical objects (realia) that bring reality into the classroom, engage multiple senses, and reduce abstraction. They are particularly effective for learning mathematical and scientific concepts, geography, history, science, technology, and language development. Examples include measuring instruments, plants, manipulatives like MAB materials, and models [66](#page=66). * **Visual media:** These include chalkboards, pictures, photos, maps, tables, and infographics. They help structure abstract information and visualize connections between concepts. Visual media support verbal explanations, especially for young or language-weak learners, and are valuable for class discussions. Examples include posters, mind maps, comic strips, and educational illustrations [66](#page=66) [67](#page=67). * **Auditory media:** These engage the sense of hearing and are important for learners who benefit from listening, rhythm, or spoken language. They support language and listening skills, evoke atmosphere, and train auditory discrimination. Examples include sound recordings, podcasts, spoken instructions, and music fragments [67](#page=67). * **Digital media:** This category encompasses electronic tools like computers, tablets, smartboards, apps, and online platforms. They offer possibilities for visualization, simulation, immediate feedback, remote collaboration, differentiation, and access to vast resources. However, their use requires careful planning to avoid cognitive overload and to address digital literacy [67](#page=67) [68](#page=68). * **Social and multimodal media:** These facilitate social interaction and often combine various modalities (text, image, sound, video). They are useful for collaboration, reflection, creativity, and connecting learning to the outside world. Examples include class blogs, Padlet, Microsoft Teams, and digital portfolios [68](#page=68). #### 3.3.1 Summarizing overview of media types | Type of medium | Key characteristics | Didactic strengths | Examples | | :-------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------ | :-------------------------------------------------- | :----------------------------------------- | | Tangible and concrete media | Sensory, experiential, concrete | Reduce abstraction, promote active learning | Realia, models, game materials | | Visual media | Image-focused, supportive | Clarify, structure, visualize | Chalkboard, pictures, schemas | | Auditory media | Listening-focused, imaginative | Develop language and concentration | Podcasts, music, stories | | Digital media | Interactive, flexible | Motivate, differentiate, connect | Apps, smartboard, websites | | Social and multimodal media | Communicative, integrated | Collaborate, reflect, create | Padlet, portfolio, vlog | ### 3.4 Quality criteria for media choice Not all media contribute to learning. Effective media choices are purposeful, thoughtful, and context-aligned. The quality of media use depends on pedagogical-didactic choices, not just technology [69](#page=69). * **Representativeness:** A medium is representative if it reflects what needs to be learned, showing the essence of the learning goal without being misleading or too narrow. It should also connect with learners' everyday experiences [69](#page=69). * **Clarity:** A clear medium is understandable, readable, and visually or aurally distinct. It avoids unnecessary complexity that could distract from the learning objective, aligning with cognitive load theory. Simplicity and functionality are key, especially for digital media [69](#page=69) [70](#page=70). * **Efficiency:** An efficient medium supports learning with minimal resources and effort, helping learners and teachers achieve goals more quickly, easily, or effectively. It means using the most impactful medium for the given situation [70](#page=70). * **Inclusive accessibility:** Accessible media allow every child to participate, regardless of background, language level, or disability. This involves clear language, visual support, subtitles, and avoiding stereotypes, aligning with Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles [70](#page=70) [71](#page=71). * **Pedagogical added value:** The most important criterion is what the medium adds to learning beyond mere activity. It should foster engagement, independence, and critical thinking, not just knowledge acquisition [71](#page=71). #### 3.4.1 Summarizing overview of quality criteria | Quality criterion | Core meaning | Application in classroom practice | | :------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------------------- | | Representativeness | The medium reflects the essence of the content. | Use multiple examples and recognizable contexts. | | Clarity | The medium is visually and linguistically clear. | Avoid unnecessary details or distractions. | | Efficiency | The medium enhances learning with limited resources. | Choose what contributes most relative to time and attention. | | Inclusive accessibility | Every child can participate and feel recognized. | Use understandable language and diverse imagery. | | Pedagogical added value | The medium promotes engagement and the learning process. | Consciously choose what contributes to deep learning. | ### 3.5 Media and differentiation Differentiation with media means using resources to address student diversity in pace, level, interest, and learning style without fragmenting the group. Media can offer varied ways to present content and provide tailored support [72](#page=72). * **Differentiation in pace:** Media allow learners to work at their own speed, offering extra time for processing or extension activities for those who work faster. Digital tools like adaptive platforms and instructional videos are useful, as are non-digital options like differentiated worksheets or multi-level games [72](#page=72). * **Differentiation in level:** Media make content more accessible for those needing more support or more challenging for advanced learners. Examples include step-by-step instructional videos, interactive apps with adaptive feedback, and realistic games with varying difficulty levels. It's crucial that differentiated media remain connected to the common learning content [72](#page=72) [73](#page=73). * **Differentiation in interest and motivation:** Media can bridge learning content with students' personal interests, making learning more engaging and relevant. Varying media choices can appeal to different learning styles and preferences, and digital media allow for the integration of student interests into assignments [73](#page=73). * **Differentiation in support and learning style:** Media can address diverse learning styles by appealing to multiple senses simultaneously, combining visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and textual approaches. This also supports students with specific needs, such as visual aids for weak readers or auditory support for language-weak learners [73](#page=73) [74](#page=74). #### 3.5.1 Examples per grade level * **First grade:** Concrete materials for experiential learning in math and Dutch; repeat videos or step-by-step picture series for pace differentiation [73](#page=73). * **Second grade:** Listening fragments or short videos in Dutch to support different language levels; individual digital quizzes for self-paced feedback [74](#page=74). * **Third grade:** Digital portfolios where students choose their own methods to present a theme; extension activities via interactive websites or research apps [74](#page=74). #### 3.5.2 Summarizing overview of differentiation with media | Differentiation type | Meaning | How media support | Example | | :---------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------ | :------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------- | | Pace | Learners work at their own pace. | Media enable repetition or acceleration. | Instructional videos, adaptive software. | | Level | Learners work at an adjusted difficulty level. | Media offer step-by-step or in-depth learning routes. | Apps with feedback, variable worksheets. | | Interest & motivation | Learners learn through personal interests. | Media connect content to their everyday lives. | Documentaries, games, student videos. | | Support & learning style | Learners learn in different ways. | Media appeal to different senses. | Pictograms, auditory explanations, realia. | ### 3.6 Didactic media and inclusion An inclusive learning environment recognizes differences as richness and ensures every child can participate and see themselves reflected. Didactic media are never neutral; they carry values and norms and contribute to the hidden curriculum. Inclusive media choices promote equal opportunities, break down stereotypes, and show that diversity is a valuable part of learning together [75](#page=75). * **Accessibility as a basic principle:** Every child must have the opportunity to see, hear, and understand what is being learned. This aligns with UDL principles, providing multiple ways to present content, engage learners, and express understanding [75](#page=75) [76](#page=76). * **Representation:** Media shape perceptions of roles, gender, origin, and family composition. Inclusive media critically examine who is depicted and who speaks, ensuring multiple narratives are represented and fostering critical thinking [76](#page=76). * **Language, multilingualism, and media use:** Media can support language acquisition and clarify meaning, especially for learners with different home languages. They can also acknowledge and value linguistic diversity in the classroom [76](#page=76) [77](#page=77). * **Participation and ownership:** When learners create media themselves, they actively participate in meaning-making, increasing their ownership and demonstrating that their perspectives matter. This connects teaching methods, media, evaluation, and the teacher's role [77](#page=77). #### 3.6.1 Summarizing overview of inclusive aspects | Inclusive aspect | Connection with powerful learning environment handles | Pedagogical-didactic significance | | :---------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------------------- | | Accessibility | Content - Method - Media | Multiple modalities for learning and understanding. | | Representation and hidden curriculum | Content - Teacher | Conscious engagement with imagery and value transfer. | | Language and multilingualism | Content - Method - Media | Connection between home and school language, language comprehension through experience. | | Participation and ownership | Method - Media - Evaluation - Teacher | Learners co-create, show learning, and take responsibility. | | Critical stance | All handles | Reflection on images, perspectives, and power in media. | ### 3.7 Practical examples with didactic media Real-world classroom contexts illustrate the use of didactic media across different grade levels and subjects. These examples highlight how media can activate, differentiate, and encourage reflection, integrating the five elements of a powerful learning environment [78](#page=78). * **First grade - Learning through experience (Mathematics and Dutch):** A "classroom shop" role-play using realia (packaging, play money, price tags, dialogue cards) for functional math and oral language skills [78](#page=78). * **Second grade - Learning through research (Science and Technology, Geography, ICT):** A "classroom weather station" project using self-made tools (rain gauge, wind vane, thermometer) combined with digital data (spreadsheets, online weather maps) for data observation, registration, and interpretation [79](#page=79). * **Third grade - Learning through creation and reflection (History, Arts, Attitudes in French, Physical Education):** A "Living History" project where students bring local historical events to life through performance, incorporating movement, spoken French, and reflection on collaboration, using historical photos, costumes, props, and recording devices [79](#page=79). #### 3.7.1 Didactic media per subject discipline The document provides extensive lists of potential didactic media for various subjects, emphasizing cost-effective and readily available materials, as well as specialized resources. These lists cover subjects such as Mathematics, Dutch, Science and Technology, Geography, History, Arts, Physical Education, ICT, and French [80](#page=80) [81](#page=81) [82](#page=82). ### 3.8 Media in evaluation and reflection Media enhance evaluation and reflection by making learning visible, showcasing not only what students know but also how they learn [83](#page=83). * **Formative evaluation:** Media make feedback concrete and immediate, facilitating discussions about learning rather than just judgments [83](#page=83). * **Self-reflection:** Media act as mirrors, allowing students to see their own actions and learn to reflect on their choices and learning processes [83](#page=83). * **Peer feedback:** Media platforms can facilitate the viewing of each other's work, focusing feedback on the product [83](#page=83). * **Summative evaluation:** Diverse forms of evidence (photos, videos, demonstrations) captured through media make learning visible, benefiting students who may not excel in written tasks [83](#page=83). The teacher remains the director, choosing what to document, guiding reflection, and ensuring respect, privacy, and pedagogical relevance [83](#page=83). ### 3.9 Future-oriented media use in education Educational media are constantly evolving. The challenge lies in critically and thoughtfully integrating new possibilities, not just following trends. Future-oriented media use involves teaching students to engage with information, algorithms, images, and artificial intelligence consciously and ethically. Digital literacy extends beyond basic operation to understanding how media work, the values they convey, and their influence on thought and action. The teacher's role is crucial in guiding students, fostering critical thinking, creativity, and responsible sharing. A future-oriented teacher remains curious, critical, and reflective, experimenting with new media while prioritizing meaningful learning [83](#page=83). --- # Understanding and selecting learning content Learning content acts as the crucial link between a student's starting point and their desired learning outcomes, shaping what, how, and why they learn. ### 4.1 What constitutes learning content and its relation to goals When designing educational experiences, the foundation is always the learning goals – what we want students to achieve. Learning content provides the concrete means by which students will achieve these goals, serving as the bridge between intention and reality. Each learning goal typically comprises three components: the behavioral component (what the student does), the content component (what it is about), and the didactic component (under what circumstances). The learning content directly addresses the content component, defining the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are central to the learning process. Without clear learning content, a goal remains too abstract to effectively plan or evaluate [85](#page=85) [86](#page=86). #### 4.1.1 Defining learning content Learning content broadly refers to everything students learn. It encompasses three interconnected categories: * **Knowledge:** Facts, concepts, rules, and insights [86](#page=86). * *Example:* Multiplication tables, provinces of Belgium, the concept of 'symmetry' [86](#page=86). * **Skills:** Actions, strategies, or procedures [86](#page=86). * *Example:* Measuring with a ruler, summarizing a text, collaborating in a group [86](#page=86). * **Attitudes:** Dispositions, values, and motivation [86](#page=86). * *Example:* Caring for materials, being open to different opinions, persevering through difficulties [86](#page=86). In classroom practice, these three often overlap. For instance, an activity on 'sustainability' might include knowledge about waste separation, skills in sorting, and an attitude of care for the environment [86](#page=86). #### 4.1.2 Criteria for selecting learning content The selection of learning content is purposeful and informed by learning goals, the students' current situation, and the broader curriculum framework. Effective learning content adheres to several key criteria [86](#page=86): * **Relevance:** The content must effectively contribute to the intended learning goal [86](#page=86). * **Alignment with learners:** It should be feasible, recognizable, and meaningful to the students [86](#page=86). * **Balance:** Knowledge, skills, and attitudes should be addressed in appropriate proportions [86](#page=86). * *Example:* A goal like "Students can compare fractions" requires content such as understanding fraction notation, visual representations, and concrete materials. If the teacher solely focuses on symbolic manipulation without meaning, the content is not aligned with the goal [86](#page=86). #### 4.1.3 From learning content to learning activities Once the learning content is determined, educators can plan how students will engage with it. The learning content bridges the "what" (the goal) and the "how" (the teaching method, media, and evaluation) [87](#page=87). * *Example:* For the learning content "the workings of the heart," possible activities include watching and discussing a video, examining a model of the heart, or performing an experiment with a balloon pump to simulate blood circulation. The core principle is the didactic translation: identifying essential aspects of the content and how students can actively acquire them [87](#page=87). ### 4.2 Societal, political, and school-level influences on content selection Learning content is not determined solely by the teacher; it results from a dynamic interplay of societal, policy, and school-level factors [90](#page=90). #### 4.2.1 The bridge between classroom and society While previous chapters focused on the classroom and the teacher's role in defining learning content based on goals and student needs, this section broadens the perspective to the macro-level of society and educational policy. Decisions made at higher levels significantly influence the choices a teacher makes [88](#page=88). #### 4.2.2 The non-neutrality of learning content What students learn invariably reflects societal choices. Education is embedded within society and carries its values, beliefs, and priorities [88](#page=88). * **Historical perspective:** The emphasis on what is important to learn has evolved over time. Historically, knowledge transmission and obedience were prioritized, whereas contemporary education stresses critical thinking, collaboration, and digital literacy [88](#page=88). * **Cultural and moral influences:** Every curriculum implicitly contains a view of humanity and society, determining what is valued and what is omitted [88](#page=88). * *Example:* The focus on sustainability or citizenship is deliberate, reflecting their societal importance [88](#page=88). #### 4.2.3 Societal and political influences Educational content is driven by political and economic forces in addition to cultural ones [88](#page=88). * **Role of government:** Governments establish minimum learning goals that all students must achieve, with commissions developing these goals and inspections ensuring compliance [88](#page=88). * **Economic factors:** Education is often viewed as preparation for the labor market, leading to an emphasis on STEM, digital skills, and entrepreneurship [88](#page=88). * **Cultural and societal expectations:** Parents, media, and public opinion exert influence, often holding distinct ideas about "good education" regarding language use and conduct [88](#page=88). #### 4.2.4 From policy to classroom: the translation process Decisions made at the societal or policy level are not directly implemented in the classroom. Instead, they undergo a chain of translations: society $\rightarrow$ policy $\rightarrow$ minimum goals $\rightarrow$ curricula $\rightarrow$ school $\rightarrow$ classroom. At the policy level, values are converted into minimum goals. Educational bodies then translate these into curricula, which schools incorporate into their work plans or pedagogical projects. Finally, teachers select concrete learning content and activities based on these frameworks [89](#page=89). * *Example:* The societal theme of digital literacy led to policy goals, then curriculum objectives, and finally, lessons teaching students to engage with media safely and critically [89](#page=89). #### 4.2.5 The school as a co-determinant of learning content Each school has its unique profile and pedagogical choices within legal parameters [89](#page=89). * **Pedagogical project and school work plan:** Schools establish their own priorities [89](#page=89). * *Example:* Community-based education might emphasize critical citizenship, while project-based schools focus on independence and experiential learning [89](#page=89). * **Context and student population:** Schools tailor their choices to their students and environment [89](#page=89). * *Example:* An urban school might prioritize language acquisition, while a rural school focuses on nature experiences [89](#page=89). #### 4.2.6 The teacher as a conscious decision-maker Despite established curricula, the teacher remains the ultimate interpreter and implementer [89](#page=89). * **Professional autonomy:** Teachers decide how to translate goals and content into classroom practice [89](#page=89). * **Pedagogical responsibility:** Every choice conveys a message about what constitutes valuable learning [89](#page=89). * **Seeking balance:** Teachers must balance freedom, accountability, and feasibility in their classroom practice [89](#page=89). * *Example:* Two teachers working towards the goal "students can collaborate" might use different approaches: one through group work on technology, the other through drama. Both are valid if the choices are conscious and well-considered [89](#page=89). ### 4.3 Structuring content within subject disciplines The organization of knowledge within the curriculum, specifically into subject disciplines, is crucial for strengthening coherence, depth, and knowledge acquisition. Flanders, for instance, has shifted from "learning areas" to "subject disciplines" to emphasize this structured approach to knowledge. This shift reflects a vision where knowledge forms the foundation for deep and coherent learning [90](#page=90). #### 4.3.1 From learning areas to subject disciplines: a shift in thinking Previously, learning content in primary education was often organized into learning areas like world orientation, artistic education, and mathematics. The aim was to present content broadly and integrated, aligning with children's lived experiences. However, the new minimum goals specifically use the term "subject disciplines" (with "learning areas" in parentheses), signifying a move towards prioritizing knowledge-rich subject content that is systematically built. This aligns with an international trend of revaluing knowledge as a cornerstone of learning and citizenship. The minimum goals aim to provide a common, knowledge-rich foundation for understanding, reasoning, and critical thinking [91](#page=91). #### 4.3.2 Defining a subject discipline A subject discipline is a defined domain of knowledge and skills with its own distinct thinking and language structures. Each discipline possesses unique core concepts, methods, and reasoning processes – mathematics differs from history, art, or physical education. Together, they form the building blocks of a broad education [91](#page=91). The new minimum goals for primary education in Flanders include the following subject disciplines: * Dutch * French * Mathematics * Geography (formerly part of Science and Technology) * History (formerly part of Human and Society) * Science and Technology * Artistic Education * Physical Education * ICT * Attitudes (learning support, personal development, and socialization) [91](#page=91). Each discipline clearly outlines knowledge ("students know...") and skills ("students can..."), providing teachers with a precise understanding of what students should build and in what sequence [92](#page=92). #### 4.3.3 The value of knowledge-rich subject disciplines The premise of the new minimum goals is that knowledge is the engine of learning. Knowledge influences perception, comprehension of new information, and learning efficiency. Therefore, education should not start from isolated skills but from well-structured, meaningful knowledge within subject disciplines [92](#page=92). This approach is important because: * **Knowledge promotes understanding:** Students can only fully grasp texts, images, or events if they possess sufficient background knowledge [92](#page=92). * **Knowledge stimulates critical thinking and problem-solving:** Individuals with more domain knowledge can reason better and make creative connections [92](#page=92). * **Knowledge reduces inequality:** A knowledge-rich curriculum provides all children access to the same valuable knowledge, regardless of their home circumstances or socioeconomic background [92](#page=92). * **Knowledge creates commonality:** Shared knowledge forms the basis for culture, dialogue, and democracy [92](#page=92). #### 4.3.4 Coherence within and between subject disciplines A knowledge-rich curriculum necessitates coherence, both within individual disciplines and across them. This means learning content should follow a logical progression and mutually reinforce one another [92](#page=92). * **Vertical coherence:** Within a discipline, learning content builds systematically. Knowledge acquired in previous years serves as the foundation for new knowledge, following a spiral principle [92](#page=92). * *Example:* In geography, children first learn the name of their country and then European countries, enabling them to interpret world maps in the sixth grade [92](#page=92). * **Horizontal coherence:** Disciplines reinforce each other. Language proficiency supports reading comprehension in history, and scientific knowledge aids in understanding texts about the environment or energy [92](#page=92). #### 4.3.5 Critical considerations and professional attention points Working with subject disciplines offers many opportunities but also requires subject matter expertise and thoughtful didactics [93](#page=93). Potential areas for attention include: * The emphasis on knowledge should not result in mere memorization of facts without understanding [93](#page=93). * Integration remains important but must respect the distinct structure of each discipline [93](#page=93). * Teachers must know where students are in the learning progression to build upon existing knowledge [93](#page=93). * Autonomy persists but demands professionalism: making choices within clear frameworks [93](#page=93). #### 4.3.6 The link between subject disciplines and competence A competence is understood as a combination of four interconnected components: domain-specific knowledge (organized and accessible), cognitive strategies for application, metacognition (knowing when and how to use strategies), and affective components (motivation, interest, attitudes, and values within a domain). The new minimum goals in primary education strongly align with the first three components [93](#page=93): * They emphasize systematically built knowledge within disciplines [93](#page=93). * They promote cognitive strategies like reasoning and problem-solving within subject content [93](#page=93). * They support metacognition by encouraging reflection on knowledge and learning approaches [93](#page=93). The affective component's place in the new minimum goals is less explicit, with a conscious shift in focus towards knowledge-rich and coherent content rather than personal development as a standalone objective. However, the affective dimension remains present in three ways [93](#page=93): 1. **Through attitude goals:** A separate discipline for "Attitudes" exists, covering learning support (perseverance, planning), learning to learn (self-regulation, reflection), and personal/social skills (respect, responsibility) [93](#page=93). 2. **Through engagement with knowledge:** A knowledge-rich curriculum implicitly conveys that knowledge is valuable. Building knowledge systematically and experiencing success can foster self-confidence and enjoyment. Motivation stems not only from choice but also from understanding and competence [94](#page=94). 3. **Through the teacher:** The affective component largely shifts to the teacher's pedagogical role, creating a safe, motivating environment and sparking curiosity and engagement within subject disciplines [94](#page=94). A balanced teacher's perspective integrates knowledge building with motivation, interest, and engagement, thus cultivating competent learners [94](#page=94). ### 4.4 The order of learning content Once learning content is selected, a critical question arises: in what sequence should it be presented? The order significantly impacts how students learn, helping them establish connections, activate prior knowledge, and grasp new insights. Conversely, a poor sequence can lead to confusion, superficial understanding, or overload [95](#page=95). #### 4.4.1 The importance of ordering learning content Learning is a cumulative process. The arrangement of learning content facilitates the utilization of prior knowledge. A logical sequence makes learning meaningful by enabling students to integrate new information into existing knowledge schemas. Therefore, effective teachers consider not only what content to present but also the order in which to present it [95](#page=95). #### 4.4.2 Three methods for ordering learning content There are several ways to structure learning content within a curriculum or lesson series, broadly categorized into three classic ordering methods [95](#page=95): 1. **Elaborating ordering:** This method begins with core ideas or basic concepts that are progressively elaborated, refined, and deepened over time. Content is revisited at different points, each time at a higher level of complexity or abstraction [95](#page=95). * **Characteristics:** Key concepts or principles are repeated with expansion; prior knowledge consistently serves as the starting point; it prioritizes insightful learning over mere repetition [96](#page=96). * *Example:* In human and societal studies, students learn about seasons in the first year, the sun's influence in middle grades, and climate zones in sixth grade. Knowledge grows incrementally, connected to the core concept of nature's variability [96](#page=96). * **Advantages:** Aligns with natural knowledge growth; promotes deeper understanding; prevents overload by building content in phases [96](#page=96). * **Disadvantages:** Requires a good overview of the learning line; can be more challenging to plan within textbooks or themes [96](#page=96). 2. **Linear or cursorial ordering:** This is the most systematic approach, building content step-by-step in a fixed sequence where each step forms the basis for the next. It is particularly suited for procedural knowledge and cumulative skills like reading, arithmetic, or grammar. Within this method, three underlying principles exist [96](#page=96): * **Ordering by real-world occurrence:** Following the natural sequence of phenomena [96](#page=96). * *Example:* Teaching the growth of a plant in order: seed - sprout - stem - leaf - flower - fruit [96](#page=96). * **Ordering by application frequency:** Presenting what students need most often first [96](#page=96). * *Example:* In math, practicing addition and subtraction before multiplication and division [96](#page=96). * **Ordering by subject-specific structure:** Determined by the logical progression of the discipline itself [96](#page=96). * *Example:* In math, number concepts precede operations; in language, oral communication precedes writing [96](#page=96). * **Didactic principles within linear ordering:** Moving from concrete to abstract, simple to complex, and near to far [97](#page=97). * **Advantages:** Guarantees systematic progression; prevents gaps in foundational knowledge; easy to follow in methods and learning lines [97](#page=97). * **Disadvantages:** Can lead to mechanical learning if coherence is lost; less room for differentiation or thematic connections [97](#page=97). 3. **Thematic or exemplary ordering:** Content is grouped around a theme, problem, or significant example rather than a fixed sequence. Themes serve as a framework to connect different subject disciplines [97](#page=97). * **Thematic approach:** Starts with a central topic relevant to the child's world, such as water, space, or health [97](#page=97). * **Exemplary approach:** Selects a representative example illustrating a broader principle [97](#page=97). * *Example:* The French Revolution as an example of societal change; a bee as an example of an ecosystem [97](#page=97). * **Emphasis:** Focuses on meaningful and integrated learning, showing how knowledge from various domains converges in a single context [97](#page=97). * **Advantages:** Increases motivation and engagement; promotes transfer between subjects; makes learning concrete and realistic [97](#page=97). * **Disadvantages:** Risk of superficiality if subject depth is lost; requires extensive preparation and coordination among teachers [97](#page=97). #### 4.4.3 The teacher's role in ordering learning content The choice of ordering method is never neutral. Professional teachers make deliberate decisions based on [98](#page=98): * Students' starting points [97](#page=97). * Learning goals [98](#page=98). * Available time and resources [98](#page=98). * Coherence between disciplines [98](#page=98). Sometimes, a strict linear approach is needed (e.g., learning multiplication tables), other times an elaborating approach (e.g., knowledge of natural phenomena), and sometimes a thematic approach (e.g., sustainable living). Effective teaching lies in the conscious combination of these ordering methods [98](#page=98). ### 4.5 Analyzing learning content Beyond ordering, analyzing learning content critically is essential. This involves examining what is being taught, how it is structured, and its suitability for the students and learning goals. Teachers should not passively accept content from methods or curricula but investigate its relevance, meaningfulness, and feasibility within the classroom context [99](#page=99). #### 4.5.1 What does analyzing learning content entail? Analyzing learning content means systematically assessing precisely what is to be learned, how that content is structured, and the cognitive and pedagogical demands it places on students. It goes beyond mere comprehension to understanding the content's structure, difficulty, and relevance. Three forms of analysis are distinguished [99](#page=99): 1. **Content analysis:** What exactly is in this learning content? Which knowledge, skills, and attitudes are involved [99](#page=99)? 2. **Level determination:** How difficult or abstract is this content for my students? What prior knowledge is necessary [99](#page=99)? 3. **Context analysis:** In what situation or context does this learning content appear? How does it connect with the students' lives and classroom goals [99](#page=99)? #### 4.5.2 Why analyze learning content? Thorough analysis helps prevent learning content from being too difficult, vague, or insufficiently meaningful. It ensures teachers understand the rationale behind teaching specific content, not just the method. Analyzing learning content empowers teachers to [99](#page=99): * Better align learning goals with what is achievable and relevant [100](#page=100). * Estimate cognitive load (is the content too simple, too difficult, too abstract?) [100](#page=100). * Maintain a balance between knowledge, skills, and attitudes [100](#page=100). * Better prepare for differentiation by understanding the content's demands [100](#page=100). * Establish meaningful connections between disciplines or themes [100](#page=100). Content analysis serves as a tool for more conscious action, transforming teachers into reflective professionals who consider the quality of learning [100](#page=100). #### 4.5.3 The 9 didactic tools for analysis When analyzing learning content, teachers can ask both cognitive questions ("What are they learning?") and didactic questions ("How do they best learn this?"). The nine didactic tools offer a framework for viewing content from various angles that contribute to a powerful learning environment [100](#page=100): 1. **Activity - knowledge construction:** Learning is active; students build knowledge through action, thought, and reflection. The analysis question: How actively can students engage with this content? Is there room for discovery, investigation, self-explanation, or application [100](#page=100)? 2. **Integration:** Learning is strengthened when students see connections between different subjects or contexts. The analysis question: How does this content connect with other subject disciplines or themes ? 3. **Concreteness - tangible work:** Students understand better when they can see, hear, or do what they are learning. The analysis question: How can I make this content visible or tangible? Am I using materials, images, examples, or actions ? 4. **Individualization:** Each student learns at a different pace and level. A good analysis considers variations in approach: Can the content be simplified, deepened, or paced differently ? 5. **Student initiative:** Allow students space to make choices, ask questions, or explore ideas. The analysis question: Is there room for student input, or is everything predetermined ? 6. **Goal-oriented work:** Always analyze if the content is clearly linked to the learning goal. Does it contribute to the objective, or does it detract ? 7. **Interactive learning:** Learning occurs through dialogue. The analysis question: How can students engage in discussion with each other or with you about the content ? 8. **Reality-based education:** Learning gains meaning when connected to the child's reality. The analysis question: How recognizable or relevant is this content for my students ? 9. **Atmosphere and classroom climate:** A positive learning environment enhances any learning process. Consider the pedagogical context: Is there room for mistakes, curiosity, and collaboration ? These nine tools act as a "didactic lens" for analyzing content, assessing its potential for active, engaging, and motivating learning beyond mere knowledge transmission . #### 4.5.4 Aspects of learning content analysis Various criteria can be used to analyze learning content, evaluating its quality and classroom applicability : 1. **Relevance:** Does the content effectively contribute to the learning goal ? 2. **Complexity:** Is the cognitive level achievable and appropriate ? 3. **Transfer possibilities:** Can students apply this knowledge elsewhere ? 4. **Balance:** Are knowledge, skills, and attitudes addressed equitably ? 5. **Age and context suitability:** Does the content match the students' world and development ? 6. **Didactic potential:** Does the content offer opportunities for active, coherent, and meaningful learning ? #### 4.5.5 Tools for analyzing learning content Analysis can be supported by various models and tools: * **Conceptual analysis:** Identifying core concepts and their relationships within the content . * **Learning line analysis:** Determining where the content fits within the progression across grade levels . * **Concept maps or diagrams:** Visualizing the coherence between different components . #### 4.5.6 Examples from practice Good analysis is always concrete . * **Mathematics:** When analyzing the concept of fractions, consider prerequisite knowledge (number sense), thinking steps (division as repeated subtraction), and context (part-whole relationships) . * **Dutch:** For a reading comprehension lesson, examine the knowledge, strategies, and vocabulary students need to understand a text . #### 4.5.7 The link with learning goals and evaluation Analysis helps maintain consistency between goals, content, and evaluation. Learning content should be directly derived from a goal, and evaluation should verify if that goal has been met. Thorough analysis reveals whether the content aligns with the goal, the expected mastery level, and the appropriate evaluation method . #### 4.5.8 The teacher as an inquiring professional A teacher who analyzes learning content takes their profession seriously. Analysis is a form of didactic research: observing, questioning, adjusting, and justifying. It transforms teaching from routine into a continuous process of learning about learning . ### 4.6 The teacher as a conscious choice-maker of learning content Every teacher constantly makes decisions about what students learn and how. After analyzing learning content, the next step is to consciously decide what to keep, what to adapt, and why. These choices significantly influence the quality of learning in the classroom. A professional teacher is not merely an executor of textbooks but a designer of learning. They navigate between policy frameworks, curricula, and concrete classroom practice, making informed choices within this space. Autonomy here means freedom coupled with responsibility – the ability to explain the rationale behind teaching or omitting certain content . When choosing learning content, teachers consider: * Learning goals – what do we aim to achieve ? * Students' starting point – what do they already know and can do ? * Coherence – how does this fit into the learning line or other subject disciplines ? * Relevance and values – what is meaningful for these students, today ? Every choice is both pedagogical and societal. What is taught expresses a vision of what knowledge is valuable. Therefore, teachers must be able to justify their choices to students, colleagues, and themselves. Conscious choosing also demands continuous reflection and growth. A learning teacher reviews their lessons, seeks feedback, and aligns choices with colleagues, fostering ongoing professional development as a thoughtful shaper of learning . --- # The teacher's role and impact on learning The teacher is central to creating a powerful learning environment, acting as a conscious designer and facilitator of learning processes, deeply influencing educational outcomes through their perceptions, theoretical understanding, and classroom management skills . ### 5.1 The teacher in a powerful learning environment The teacher is a pivotal element within the five building blocks of a powerful learning environment: learning content, teaching methods, assessment, media, and the teacher themselves. They connect these elements to foster active, meaningful, and independent learning in students. The teacher's core question is: "How do I facilitate learning in children?". Their choices in designing, guiding, and evaluating learning processes reflect their perception of children and their understanding of learning, serving as the foundation for a powerful learning environment. The teacher's actions are guided by the students' starting situation and the desired learning goals . #### 5.1.1 The teacher in a competency-based context The current educational landscape in Flanders is competency-based, emphasizing the integrated development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, rather than just knowledge transmission. Teachers support students in acquiring key competencies and ensure learning is meaningful and transferable. As competent professionals, teachers model lifelong learning through reflection and research, thinking in terms of learning objectives, contexts, evaluation criteria, and growth opportunities . #### 5.1.2 Connection to the teacher's core competencies The role of the teacher within a powerful learning environment aligns with the core competencies for bachelor teachers (Flemish Government, 2018). These competencies describe the teacher as a reflective, research-oriented professional guiding learning and development processes within a broad societal mandate. Key pillars include : * **The teacher as a designer of education:** Developing and planning powerful learning environments . * **The teacher as a facilitator of learning and development:** Actively supporting learning, self-direction, and collaboration . * **The teacher as an educator and pedagogue:** Creating a safe, stimulating climate for child development . * **The teacher as a communicator and partner:** Collaborating with students, colleagues, parents, and external stakeholders . * **The teacher as a reflective professional:** Continuously evaluating and improving their own practice . These competencies view teaching not as a set of tasks, but as an interconnected set of professional capabilities developed through interaction . ### 5.2 The teacher's perception of the child A teacher's perception of children significantly shapes their approach to education, influencing goals, differentiation, handling of mistakes, feedback, and classroom organization. A teacher viewing children as curious explorers will foster self-direction and inquiry, while one seeing them as knowledge recipients might favor explanation and control. Awareness of one's own child perception is crucial as it silently guides practice . #### 5.2.1 The child perception as the foundation of learning and teaching Powerful learning stems from a positive view of children as active, competent, and motivated learners eager to understand the world. A positive child perception recognizes that : * Every child can and wants to learn . * Development varies in pace and form . * Mistakes are learning opportunities . * Learning thrives through interaction and engagement . This view underpins developmental and competency-based education, focusing on strengths and potential for growth rather than deficits . #### 5.2.2 The child perception and the teacher's core competencies The teacher's core competencies (Flemish Government, 2018) emphasize promoting the development and learning of all students from a positive perspective on humanity and children, respecting diversity and equal educational opportunities. This implies : * Recognizing and utilizing student differences for differentiation . * Adopting a developmental approach, considering current abilities and future learning potential . * Connecting care and learning, integrating pedagogical and didactical actions . This approach builds a classroom where every child feels seen and challenged . #### 5.2.3 Educators with a positive child perception Historical figures like Maria Montessori, Célestin Freinet, Loris Malaguzzi, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Janusz Korczak have all highlighted children's innate curiosity, activity, and readiness to grow . * **Maria Montessori:** Emphasized children's intrinsic drive to learn and the teacher's role in creating an environment for self-discovery . * **Célestin Freinet:** Advocated for learning through real experiences and collaboration, valuing expression, independence, and responsibility . * **Loris Malaguzzi (Reggio Emilia):** Believed children have "hundred languages" of expression, with teachers as research partners . * **Jean Piaget:** Demonstrated children actively construct knowledge through interaction with their environment, aligning education with children's cognitive levels . * **Lev Vygotsky:** Highlighted the social dimension of learning, where interaction with others enables learning beyond current capabilities within the zone of proximal development . * **Janusz Korczak:** Championed respect and equality for children, viewing them as full persons with rights . These educators share a positive, relational, and developmental view of children, seeing the teacher as a facilitator of growth, autonomy, and engagement . #### 5.2.4 Reflection framework: exploring your child perception A teacher's child perception develops through experience, observation, and dialogue. A reflective framework involves : 1. **Observation:** Noting how children learn, interact, and handle mistakes . 2. **Articulating:** Formulating beliefs about children and learning . 3. **Recognizing:** Connecting personal statements with pedagogical ideas . 4. **Comparing:** Discussing perspectives with peers . 5. **Conscious Choice:** Drawing conclusions for practice and revising one's child perception. The goal is awareness, not a single "correct" view . #### 5.2.5 Summary of part 2 A positive child perception is fundamental to powerful, developmental education, fostering trust in children's potential and viewing learning as a growth process. Self-awareness of one's child perception enables more targeted actions, better student connection, and effective implementation of powerful learning environment principles . ### 5.3 The teacher as a facilitator of learning processes Children learn continuously, but in a school context, teachers structure and deepen this learning through organized, goal-directed offerings. This guidance supports three pedagogical tasks identified by Gert Biesta: qualification (acquiring knowledge/skills for society), socialization (learning to belong to a community and develop values), and subjectification (growing as unique, responsible individuals). Facilitating learning is intentional, involving conscious choices about the level of support, timing of intervention, and teaching students to direct their own learning . #### 5.3.1 Understanding learning: from knowledge to insight Learning is more than acquiring knowledge; it is constructing meaning by building upon existing knowledge and new experiences. According to Piaget and Vygotsky, children learn through active processing and social interaction. The facilitating teacher helps students make connections, articulate thoughts, use mistakes for insight, and share strategies. Learning thus becomes a process of making meaning, not just processing information . #### 5.3.2 The teacher's role in activating executive functions Learning requires executive functions such as sustained attention, planning, perseverance, impulse control, and cognitive flexibility. The teacher actively supports the development of these functions by helping students structure work, use strategies, practice concentration, and persevere through difficulties. Further details on executive functions are available in a dedicated chapter . #### 5.3.3 Scaffolding: temporary support for independence Scaffolding, as described by Bruner involves providing temporary support to help students master a new skill or concept, which is then gradually withdrawn as the student gains proficiency. Typical forms include modeling, prompting, hints, reflection questions, and process-focused feedback. Effective scaffolding requires careful observation of the student's learning stage and connects directly to the development of executive functions . #### 5.3.4 Feedback as a lever for learning Feedback is a potent form of guidance that helps students understand their progress and next steps. Effective feedback is timely, specific, goal-oriented, and focuses on the process rather than just the outcome. The facilitating teacher uses feedback to encourage reflection and student ownership of their learning in a safe environment where mistakes are seen as opportunities . #### 5.3.5 The teacher as a motivator Motivation and engagement flourish when students feel competent, autonomous, and connected to others, according to Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The facilitating teacher motivates by giving meaning to activities, offering choices within structure, valuing effort over solely results, and fostering trust and safety . #### 5.3.6 Connection to the teacher's core competencies Facilitating learning processes engages several core teacher competencies (Flemish Government, 2018), including guiding learning and development purposefully, stimulating student independence, collaboration, and reflection, supporting broad student development, and reflecting on and adapting one's own practice. Facilitation is central to professional teaching . #### 5.3.7 Summary of part 3 While children learn continuously, the school context allows teachers to structure, deepen, and accelerate this learning. Through observation, support, feedback, and motivation, teachers guide students toward independence, fostering growth not only in knowledge but as a whole person . ### 5.4 Understanding learning: learning processes and views on learning Learning is a complex process involving a relatively permanent change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behavior resulting from experience, practice, and reflection. It is more than memorization, encompassing growth in insight, thinking, and being . #### 5.4.1 Maturation and development Development involves both maturation (biologically driven changes) and learning (experience-driven changes). These processes are interconnected, with learning building on maturation and maturation enabling new learning. For teachers, this means understanding that learning is embedded in a child's overall development and recognizing developmental possibilities and limitations . #### 5.4.2 Learning in the school context Schools organize learning purposefully and systematically to accelerate, broaden, and deepen it, designing activities that help students acquire knowledge and skills they might not develop spontaneously . #### 5.4.3 Learning as an active, social, and contextual phenomenon Learning is viewed as an active, social, and contextual process where students construct knowledge through active thinking, collaboration, and making meaning within recognizable contexts. The teacher acts as a facilitator and designer of learning processes, creating opportunities for discovery, reflection, and growth. Various learning theories (e.g., behaviorism, cognitivism) offer valuable perspectives for specific situations . #### 5.4.4 Types of learning processes Learning encompasses five interconnected types of processes: cognitive, socio-affective, motor, creative, and metacognitive. Powerful learning activities integrate these processes for holistic development . * **Cognitive learning processes:** Focus on thinking, understanding, and knowledge construction, involving memory, analysis, reasoning, and explanation. Teachers support active thinking by helping students connect new information with prior knowledge, use strategies, and reflect on their thinking . * **Socio-affective learning processes:** Relate to interacting with oneself and others, developing attitudes, values, and social skills through interaction. Learning occurs in connection with peers, the teacher, and the learning content, fostering relationship building alongside knowledge development. A safe climate, collaboration opportunities, teacher role modeling, and reflection are crucial . * **Motor learning processes:** Involve action and movement, such as writing, cutting, or playing an instrument, requiring coordination, concentration, and repetition. Teachers support this through demonstration, practice, feedback, and variation . * **Creative learning processes:** Involve imagination, expression, and originality, where students generate new ideas or forms. Creativity is linked to motivation and ownership of learning. Teachers foster this through open-ended tasks, valuing diversity, and providing space for experimentation . * **Metacognitive learning processes:** Pertain to thinking about learning itself, enabling students to plan, monitor, evaluate, and adjust their learning strategies. Metacognition is essential for lifelong learning and self-directedness. Teachers make metacognition visible through thinking aloud, modeling strategies, and incorporating reflection . The interplay of these learning processes is crucial; a cohesive learning environment connects them, with the teacher consciously activating specific processes based on learning goals and student development . #### 5.4.5 Views on learning - a brief overview of learning theories Teachers' implicit or explicit views on learning shape their educational practices. Key influential perspectives include : * **Behaviorism:** Focuses on observable behavior change through conditioning, reinforcement, and repetition. Effective for basic skills but less so for insight and self-direction . * **Cognitivism:** Views learning as information processing, where students actively organize, store, and apply new information, linking it to prior knowledge. Emphasizes activating prior knowledge, structuring information, and limiting cognitive load . * **Social-constructivism:** Posits that knowledge is constructed through social interaction, emphasizing collaboration, context, and active meaning-making. Key concepts include the zone of proximal development and scaffolding . * **Humanistic approaches:** Highlight the importance of safety, value, and motivation for learning. Modern interpretations include Self-Determination Theory (autonomy, competence, relatedness), Control-Value Theory (control and value influencing emotions), and the significance of teacher-student relationships . * **Connectivism:** A contemporary theory relevant to the digital age, viewing learning as the process of creating and maintaining connections within networks of people, resources, and technology . No single theory is sufficient; professional teachers integrate and adapt these perspectives based on context, goals, and students . #### 5.4.6 Synthesizing learning theories The power of a professional teacher lies in recognizing, combining, and aligning different theoretical perspectives. Behaviorism is useful for automation, cognitivism for insight, social-constructivism for collaborative learning, humanistic theories for motivation, and connectivism for digital and lifelong competencies. Didactic thinking involves making informed choices, justifying approaches rather than relying on routine . #### 5.4.7 The vision of learning in Flemish education Flemish minimum learning objectives are competency-based, viewing learning as the integrated application of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in meaningful situations. The student is central as the actor of their learning process, engaging actively in discovery, research, practice, reflection, and adjustment. The teacher designs the environment and guides the process. Learning objectives are framed within knowledge, skills, and attitudes, all interconnected. The vision also emphasizes that learning is cohesive, process-oriented, and transdisciplinary. The teacher acts as designer, facilitator, and assessor, translating goals into practice and making learning visible . ### 5.5 The teacher as a director of the classroom The teacher acts as a director, orchestrating the complex dynamics of the classroom to create a coherent environment where learning is possible. This role involves giving direction, coordinating, and aligning students, content, methods, time, and space, balancing structure with freedom, and leading with letting go. Effective classroom management encompasses three interconnected dimensions : 1. **Structure and organization:** Ensuring clarity, predictability, and a sense of security . 2. **Relationship and climate:** Cultivating a safe, positive atmosphere that fosters learning . 3. **Didactic direction:** Guiding the group purposefully towards learning outcomes and engagement . Non-verbal communication plays a significant role in all these dimensions . #### 5.5.1 Structure and predictability Clear structure and predictability provide safety, calm, and a foundation for learning. This involves conscious planning of time, space, materials, and routines . * **Class rhythm:** A clear daily structure with recognizable beginnings, transitions, and endings helps students orient themselves. Routines support autonomy and gradually increase student responsibility . * **Physical space:** Classroom layout influences behavior, interaction, and concentration. Proximity encourages collaboration, while distance offers overview. Non-verbal cues like movement and proximity guide behavior subtly . * **Rules and routines:** These form the backbone of an organized class, making behavior predictable and reducing cognitive load. Positive, consistently applied rules, collaboratively developed, are most effective . * **Transitions and time management:** Managing transitions between activities is crucial to prevent unrest. Ritualized transitions with signals or routines provide support and reduce stress . The balance between structure and freedom is key: clear expectations within which students can act independently foster ownership . #### 5.5.2 Classroom management and behavioral guidance Classroom management extends beyond maintaining order; it is the comprehensive act of organizing, guiding, and monitoring learning. It focuses on prevention, engagement, and positive guidance, aiming for calm that facilitates learning, not just silence. The teacher as a director of behavior sets boundaries and creates developmental space, relying on presence, proximity, and clarity rather than force . * **Effective principles (Kounin, Marzano):** Key principles include withitness (alertness and timely response), overlapping (managing multiple events simultaneously), momentum (smooth lesson flow), group focus, and clear, consistent expectations. High expectations, consistency, and positive relationships are strong predictors of positive behavior . * **Non-verbal interventions:** Guiding behavior non-verbally is often more effective and calmer than verbal interventions. This includes purposeful movement, eye contact, posture, silence, facial expressions, and strategic positioning . * **From order to engagement:** Order is a result of engagement. Prevention involves clear structure, meaningful activities, attention to motivation, and positive feedback. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) focuses on explicitly teaching and reinforcing desired behavior . * **Restorative practices:** When conflicts arise, restorative approaches focus on repairing relationships and taking responsibility rather than just assigning blame . * **Self-reflection:** Effective classroom management begins with self-awareness of the teacher's own attitude, voice, and emotions, enabling conscious, rather than impulsive, responses . #### 5.5.3 Relationship and climate: the pedagogical dimension of classroom management A well-organized classroom is also warm, safe, and respectful, reflecting the teacher's pedagogical approach. The quality of the teacher-student relationship is a significant predictor of motivation, engagement, and learning outcomes. Warmth combined with clarity, respect, reliability, and consistent behavior are foundational . * **Creating a safe climate:** This is built through daily interactions, the teacher's tone, listening skills, and how mistakes are handled. Humor, recognition, and predictability contribute to safety, where students feel accepted even during difficulties. Fairness and consistent application of rules are essential . * **Non-verbal communication and presence:** Body language, tone, gaze, and posture convey messages that build trust and authority, demonstrating "teacher presence" – a calm, alert, and involved demeanor . * **Restorative approach to conflicts:** Handling tensions and conflicts restoratively focuses on understanding what happened, who was affected, and what is needed for repair, fostering responsibility and trust . Classroom management and relationships are two sides of the same coin; effective teachers combine structure with warmth and clarity with consistency . #### 5.5.4 The role of care and transition moments Moments of care (eating, resting, comforting) and transitions (between activities) are vital for well-being and development, shaping the class rhythm, atmosphere, and pedagogical quality . * **Caring moments as learning opportunities:** These moments strengthen the teacher-student relationship and offer chances to foster language, responsibility, social rules, and self-regulation . * **Transition moments as pedagogical bridges:** These are vulnerable points requiring shifts in tempo and concentration. Well-managed transitions prevent unrest and maintain engagement, serving as bridges between activities. Rituals and clear steps provide orientation and reduce stress . * **The teacher as a ritual director:** Routines create cohesion and identity, while also providing order and meaning . #### 5.5.5 The teacher as a team member and organizer Classroom management extends beyond the classroom door, involving collaboration within the school team. Shared agreements and consistent approaches school-wide create a predictable and safe environment for students. School-wide management practices, like PBIS or restorative policies, strengthen individual teachers' capacity. The teacher contributes to building a shared school culture through active participation in team discussions and problem-solving . #### 5.5.6 Summary and reflection framework Effective classroom management is the art of integrating pedagogy and didactics to direct classroom life, creating an environment where students feel safe, know expectations, and are motivated to learn. It balances structure, relationship, and direction, three interdependent dimensions. A reflection framework helps analyze classroom management by observing structure, relationship, non-verbal actions, behavioral guidance, and transitions, focusing on learning potential and engagement . ### 5.6 The teacher: synthesis and professional growth Synthesizing insights on child perception, facilitation, learning theories, and classroom direction culminates in a professional profile. Key takeaways for a teacher include : * **Child perception as a compass:** Viewing students as competent learners shapes choices in guidance, feedback, and expectations . * **Facilitating is intentional action:** Observing, scaffolding, and releasing responsibility to foster student ownership . * **Understanding learning:** Approaching learning as active, social, and contextual, and purposefully combining learning theories . * **Classroom direction:** Integrating structure, relationship, and guidance, supported by non-verbal communication . Professional action is defined by the ability to justify one's pedagogical choices in specific contexts with particular students. A reflective framework helps profile one's professional signature, identifying areas to maintain and areas for development . #### 5.6.1 Connections The teacher's role connects to various aspects of curriculum design, including understanding the student's starting situation, translating minimum goals into clear learning objectives, selecting functional teaching methods, combining instructional approaches with executive functions, and making learning visible through assessment . #### 5.6.2 Mini-portfolio assignment A mini-portfolio assignment encourages reflection on a specific teaching situation, critically justifying choices based on child perception, facilitation, learning theories, and classroom management, supported by evidence and identifying a concrete improvement step . #### 5.6.3 Checklists Checklists for lesson design, in-lesson management, and post-lesson reflection help teachers self-scan and improve their practice . #### 5.6.4 Reflection questions Concluding reflection questions prompt teachers to consider how their child perception influences choices, how to adapt theoretical approaches, how to use non-verbal communication effectively, and how to measure the impact of classroom management experiments . --- # Developing and utilizing executive functions This section explores executive functions (EF) as crucial self-regulatory skills for effective learning, detailing their definition, development, and practical strategies for enhancement in the classroom . ### 6.1 Introduction: Executive functions in a powerful learning environment Executive functions are the core self-regulatory skills that enable learners to manage their behavior, attention, and emotions to act purposefully. They are integral to the learning process, acting as the link between thinking, doing, and learning. Within the framework of a powerful learning environment, EF are present in the learner (heart of self-regulation), the teacher (model and facilitator), and the learning environment itself (context that supports cognitive load). The objective for future teachers is to actively promote these functions in their students . ### 6.2 What are executive functions? Executive functions (EF) are the cognitive and regulatory processes learners employ to direct their own behavior, attention, and emotions. They function as the "conductor of the brain," ensuring that various components like memory, language, motor skills, and emotions collaborate for goal-directed action. Strong EF are essential for learning, enabling students to sustain attention during instruction, process information in working memory, adapt to changes, execute tasks planfully, and regulate emotions. EF are a prerequisite for learning, not a subject in themselves. Teachers play a vital role in supporting EF development by providing structure, modeling thinking processes, giving learners language to discuss their learning, and explicitly explaining how attention, planning, and self-control work. When teachers externalize their own thinking and regulatory processes, they act as an "external prefrontal cortex" for students . #### 6.2.1 Lower and higher-order executive functions Researchers typically categorize EF into two levels: * **Lower-order EF:** These include impulse control (inhibition), working memory, and cognitive flexibility . * **Higher-order EF:** These encompass planning and organizing, problem-solving, behavioral evaluation (metacognition), and emotion regulation . Lower-order functions develop first, forming the foundation for higher-order functions. For instance, insufficient impulse control can hinder planning and perseverance. The development of EF is a gradual process influenced by brain maturation and the learning environment . #### 6.2.2 The role of the teacher Teachers are crucial facilitators of EF development by: * Providing structure and predictable routines . * Modeling thinking processes aloud . * Equipping learners with language to discuss their learning . * Explicitly explaining the functions of attention, planning, and self-control . Teachers acting as an "external prefrontal cortex" guide students to understand and apply self-regulation . #### 6.2.3 Theoretical background Research highlights the importance of EF: * Approximately 10% of primary school students experience learning difficulties due to weaker working memory . * EF are not solely individual but are pedagogically influenceable; teachers can explicitly support them . * Classroom organization and a clear, calm environment support working memory and reduce cognitive overload . These insights underscore that EF are intrinsically linked to teaching practices, connecting learning, behavior, and environment . ### 6.3 The development of executive functions in children The development of EF is closely tied to brain maturation and the child's environment. Children are born with the potential to develop EF, which are largely governed by the prefrontal cortex, a brain area that matures more slowly. EF development occurs in phases and is influenced by experience, upbringing, and education . #### 6.3.1 Connection with developmental psychology EF growth is interconnected with: * **Cognitive development:** Advances in memory, language, and reasoning . * **Social-emotional development:** Learning to manage feelings, relationships, and rules . * **Moral development:** Developing responsibility and thoughtful decision-making . Understanding a child's developmental phase helps teachers gauge which EF are emerging and which require more support, linking directly to the "Initial situation" chapter . #### 6.3.2 From young learner to self-directed learner EF development is gradual, progressing through distinct phases: * **Phase 1 (5-6 years): Initial regulation:** * Growth in impulse inhibition: learning to sit still, wait, and listen . * Early cognitive flexibility: adapting to simple rule changes . * Basic planning: organizing short sequences of actions . * The prefrontal cortex is highly plastic, making practice impactful. Games, routines, and clear boundaries are beneficial . * **Phase 2 (6-7 years): Leap in working memory:** * Significant improvement in working memory: following short sequences of instructions . * Enhanced impulse inhibition: longer waiting periods before responding . * Emergence of planning: organizing multi-step tasks like crafts . * Teacher support involves short, clear instructions, visualization, and task breakdown . * **Phase 3 (8-10 years): Growth in organization and perseverance:** * Enhanced planning and organization: forward-thinking, goal-setting, task division . * Refined cognitive flexibility: perspective-taking and generating alternatives . * Increased task initiation and sustained attention . * Early metacognition: learners begin to understand their own learning processes . * Teachers can foster this by giving more responsibility within predictable structures like weekly plans and reflection questions . * **Phase 4 (10-12/13 years): Building self-regulation:** * Development of complex planning and problem-solving . * Improved behavioral evaluation: learners can review and adjust their approach . * Refined emotion regulation: recognizing, naming, and communicating emotions . * Strengthened sustained attention and perseverance . * Teachers continue to model by verbalizing planning, reflection, and frustration management . #### 6.3.3 Influences on development Variations in EF development can be attributed to: * **Biological factors:** Maturation, temperament, neurodiversity . * **Environmental factors:** Structure, calm, emotional safety at home or school . * **Educational experiences:** Quality of instruction, feedback, routines . * **Socio-emotional circumstances:** Stress, attachment, motivation . Children with neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., ADHD, dyslexia, ASD) may require extra support, understanding, and a strong, supportive structure from teachers . #### 6.3.4 From growth to guidance EF continue to develop into adolescence. The teacher's role is to provide timely support, recognize progress, and gradually withdraw support as learners become more self-directed. Guiding EF means teaching learners how to manage themselves rather than taking over tasks . ### 6.4 Lower-order executive functions Lower-order EF form the foundation for all other cognitive and regulatory processes and are crucial throughout a learner's development. Difficulties with these functions often lead to challenges with attention, task execution, and emotion regulation. The three core lower-order functions are impulse control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, all of which are interconnected . #### 6.4.1 Impulse control * **Meaning:** The ability to suppress automatic responses. It is essential for attention, concentration, and social behavior . * **Development:** Begins developing around age three and continues into early adolescence. Learners aged five to seven learn to inhibit short impulses, while around age eight, they can use conscious regulatory strategies . * **Learner Needs:** Predictable structures, opportunities to practice waiting and adjusting behavior, and positive feedback . * **Teacher Role:** Explicitly naming self-controlled behavior and providing visual or verbal cues. Consistent routines reduce cognitive load and promote more considered responses . * **Practical Examples:** Waiting for a signal in quizzes, using a "Stop-Think-Do" routine, and raising a finger to speak . #### 6.4.2 Working memory * **Meaning:** The capacity to hold and manipulate information temporarily while performing a task. It is used for remembering instructions, executing steps, and maintaining the thread of a narrative . * **Development:** Grows significantly between six and ten years old, reaching adult capacity around adolescence. Approximately 10% of primary school students have notably weaker working memory, impacting their academic performance . * **Learner Needs:** Repetition, visual aids, clear links between auditory and visual information, and routines to reduce cognitive load . * **Teacher Role:** Presenting information in small chunks, using visual aids (icons, step cards, mind maps), having learners repeat or verbalize tasks, and minimizing classroom distractions . * **Practical Examples:** Marking keywords in reading comprehension, using a step-by-step visual guide for crafts, and having students verbalize calculation steps in math . #### 6.4.3 Cognitive flexibility * **Meaning:** The ability to shift perspectives or strategies. It is crucial for problem-solving, collaboration, and creative thinking . * **Development:** Develops later than impulse control and working memory, with early signs appearing in early childhood. Between eight and twelve years old, learners can switch between rules, solutions, and viewpoints . * **Learner Needs:** Opportunities to practice with multiple solutions, a safe space for experimentation and restarting, and teachers who model strategy changes . * **Teacher Role:** Varying assignments, asking reflective questions (e.g., "What else can you try?"), and using group work and role-playing to foster listening and adaptation . * **Practical Examples:** Solving the same math problem with different strategies, brainstorming and combining ideas in language arts, and adapting game rules in physical education . #### 6.4.4 Summary The lower-order EF work in synergy: * Without impulse control, attention is difficult to maintain . * Without working memory, remembering steps or planning is challenging . * Without cognitive flexibility, adapting to new situations is hindered . Well-developed lower-order EF create the space for higher-order EF like planning, organizing, reflecting, and emotion regulation . ### 6.5 Higher-order executive functions Higher-order EF build upon lower-order functions, enabling learners to plan purposefully, make choices, reflect, and regulate emotions. These functions typically develop from mid-primary school onwards and continue to grow through adolescence. The four key higher-order EF are planning and organizing, behavioral evaluation (metacognition), problem-solving, and emotion regulation . #### 6.5.1 Planning and organizing * **Meaning:** The ability to think ahead, maintain an overview, sequence steps, estimate time, and prioritize tasks. It involves both the execution of tasks and the approach to one's own work . * **Development:** Starts around age eight, progressing from planning short tasks to organizing longer projects . * **Learner Needs:** Visual aids (daily/weekly plans), time for foresight and estimation, clear deadlines, and consistent routines . * **Teacher Role:** Helping learners visualize plans, co-creating step-by-step plans, and gradually reducing direct structure to foster internal planning . * **Practical Examples:** Reviewing daily tasks, using timelines or timers, and collaboratively creating weekly project plans . #### 6.5.2 Behavioral evaluation and metacognition * **Meaning:** The capacity to reflect on one's own actions and learning processes. Metacognition means thinking about thinking, knowing what one knows and what one needs to learn . * **Development:** Initial forms of reflection appear around age eight, with systematic self-evaluation and improvement developing between ten and twelve years old . * **Learner Needs:** Language and reflective questions (e.g., "What went well?", "What could I do differently?"), safe spaces for discussing mistakes, and feedback focused on process, not just outcome . * **Teacher Role:** Modeling reflection by thinking aloud about personal choices, successes, and pitfalls. Self-reflection forms or class discussions can enhance awareness of learning strategies . * **Practical Examples:** Completing short self-reflection forms after group work, teachers openly discussing their own error correction, and students maintaining a "learning logbook" . #### 6.5.3 Problem-solving thinking * **Meaning:** The ability to identify a problem, generate solutions, make choices, and evaluate outcomes. This requires the integration of multiple EF like attention, planning, flexibility, and reflection . * **Development:** Young children use trial and error, while learners between eight and twelve years old develop step-by-step reasoning . * **Learner Needs:** A clear problem-solving plan, opportunities for multiple solutions, and feedback focused on process and perseverance . * **Teacher Role:** Guiding by asking questions instead of providing answers (e.g., "What could you try first?"). Allowing for mistakes and revisions fosters flexible problem-solving . * **Practical Examples:** Using a problem-solving framework (problem-ideas-choose-execute-evaluate), exploring alternatives when something doesn't work in technical or math subjects, and collaboratively solving conflicts in social situations . #### 6.5.4 Emotion regulation * **Meaning:** The capacity to recognize, understand, and express emotions appropriately. Strong emotions can impede cognitive processes, but regulating them improves concentration and perseverance . * **Development:** Children learn to name basic emotions (5-7 years), understand nuanced feelings (8-10 years), and regulate emotions in social contexts (10-12 years) . * **Learner Needs:** A safe environment where emotions can be named, teachers who normalize emotions and offer coping strategies, and opportunities to find calm or distance during stress . * **Teacher Role:** Modeling emotion regulation by calmly naming personal emotions and demonstrating calming strategies. This teaches learners that feelings are acceptable and manageable . * **Practical Examples:** Using breathing exercises or counting to ten when stressed, discussing conflicts instead of walking away, and having a "calm-down corner" or "quiet space" . #### 6.5.5 Interconnection of higher-order functions Planning, reflection, problem-solving, and emotion regulation collectively form the building blocks of self-regulation. When learners effectively use these functions, they can manage time and tasks better, justify their choices, adapt to challenges, and cope with stress or setbacks. The teacher's role is vital in making these processes visible, discussable, and practiceable, guiding learners towards internal self-control . ### 6.6 Strengthening executive functions in classroom practice EF develop through targeted support, repetition, and awareness within a learning environment that combines structure, safety, and challenge. The teacher's actions in organizing the classroom, providing instruction, giving feedback, and managing challenges significantly influence students' EF development. A powerful learning environment operates on three interconnected levels: instructional, organizational, and emotional . #### 6.6.1 Instructional level: explicit and modeling action At the instructional level, teachers help students understand how learning works by making EF explicit. Key principles include : * **Modeling:** Thinking aloud, demonstrating personal approaches, and explaining the rationale behind actions . * **Explicitation:** Clearly defining EF and providing language for the processes involved . * **Repetition and automation:** Regularly practicing routines and strategies to make them more automatic . Teachers acting as an external prefrontal cortex guide thinking until learners can self-regulate . #### 6.6.2 Organizational level: structure and predictability A classroom with clear agreements, consistent routines, and organized work structures reduces the cognitive load on EF. Predictability allows students to focus on learning content rather than organizational details. Key principles include : * **Fixed classroom routines:** Recognizable daily schedules, consistent start and end activities . * **Visual support:** Planning boards, icons, timelines, timers . * **Calm physical environment:** Minimizing unnecessary stimuli . * **Gradual transition:** Moving from external teacher-led direction to internal learner self-direction . A school that implemented monthly EF focuses and consistent routines demonstrated that shared structure brings calm through clarity and predictability, which is essential for learning . #### 6.6.3 Emotional level: safety, relationships, and self-awareness EF thrive in an environment where learners feel safe and supported. Emotion regulation, sustained attention, and self-reflection require trust, allowing learners to take risks and try again after mistakes. Key principles include : * **Emotional safety:** A classroom where mistakes are viewed as part of learning . * **Positive feedback:** Focusing on growth rather than just outcomes . * **Relationship-oriented actions:** Teachers recognizing and naming emotions helps learners regulate their own . * **Promoting self-awareness:** Discussing what helps or hinders learning . Teachers who recognize and model their own EF help learners do the same, making unconscious behaviors conscious . #### 6.6.4 Practicing together and making transfer Strengthening EF requires both repetition and transfer. While specific exercises are valuable, the true learning effect emerges when learners apply these skills beyond play to their academic tasks. This involves : * Using games to practice specific EF . * Explicitly discussing the link between the game and learning . * Encouraging learners to apply strategies across different subjects . EF are strengthened through awareness and repeated practice in varied contexts . #### 6.6.5 The teacher as the key to self-regulation A powerful learning environment fosters EF in both learners and teachers. Teachers who strengthen their own self-regulation become credible models for their students. The development of EF is a two-way process: teachers influence student behavior, and working with EF enhances the teacher's own skills in planning, regulation, and reflection . ### 6.7 Practice-oriented assignments Effective teachers can not only understand EF but also observe, name, and strengthen them in the classroom. These assignments help students bridge theory and practice, aligning with the goal of promoting EF in learners . #### 6.7.1 Assignment 1: Observing executive functions in the classroom * **Goal:** To learn to observe student behavior through the lens of EF . * **Approach:** Observe three students with varying self-regulation, noting specific EF-related behaviors, analyzing strengths and weaknesses, and describing behavior objectively . * **Reflection:** Focuses on observations of students with weaker EF, teacher reactions, and the impact of teacher strategies . * **Link to Powerful Learning Environment:** Connects the "learner" puzzle piece (self-regulation) and the "teacher" puzzle piece (support and structure) . #### 6.7.2 Assignment 2: Analysis of classroom organization * **Goal:** To assess how classroom context supports EF . * **Approach:** Describe the classroom environment, analyze organization across instructional, organizational, and emotional levels, identify risks and opportunities, and propose a concrete improvement . * **Reflection:** Examines how organizational elements support working memory and impulse control, and where the context might be too stimulating or unclear . * **Link to Powerful Learning Environment:** Focuses on the "learning environment" puzzle piece and contextual influence . #### 6.7.3 Assignment 3: Design a lesson activity that strengthens one executive function * **Goal:** To design a didactic activity that explicitly integrates the strengthening of a specific EF . * **Approach:** Choose an EF as an area for development, design a short activity (15-20 minutes), describe learning objectives, age group, teacher's role, and student self-regulation practice, and use the powerful learning environment framework . * **Reflection:** Considers how to make the EF explicit, provide structure without taking over, and build in space for process reflection . #### 6.7.4 Assignment 4: Reflection on personal teaching behavior * **Goal:** To gain insight into one's own EF as a future teacher . * **Approach:** Reflect on a moment during training where personal EF were challenged, describe strengths and weaknesses, identify helpful strategies, and formulate a personal learning goal for EF development . * **Reflection:** Explores personal impulsive actions or loss of overview, how to improve self-regulation as a model, and personal learning from the exercise . * **Link to Powerful Learning Environment:** Connects the "teacher" and "learner" puzzle pieces, emphasizing that developing student self-regulation starts with the teacher's own self-regulation . #### 6.7.5 Assignment 5: Transfer and discussion in the learning group * **Goal:** To learn from peers' experiences and practical examples . * **Approach:** Discuss observations or designs related to EF in small groups, using guiding questions about visible EF, teacher responses, and takeaways, and formulate "building blocks" for EF-enhancing classroom practice . * **Result:** A concise overview of "EF in the classroom: five guiding principles" to be shared . ### 6.8 From theory to classroom floor The chapters on initial situation, developmental psychology, and executive functions form a cohesive whole, providing teachers with the necessary perspectives to understand learning and support students. While the initial situation helps understand who the learner is, and developmental psychology shows how they grow, EF clarify how learners self-regulate within that growth process . #### 6.8.1 The coherence between the three perspectives In the powerful learning environment framework: * The **learner** brings their unique initial situation (background, motivation, needs) . * The **learning environment** provides opportunities for growth (safety, structure, challenge) . * The **teacher** connects these worlds, guiding the learner's understanding of themselves, their learning, and their behavior . Developmental psychology explains why learners develop at different paces, and EF provide tools to actively guide this development. Self-regulation emerges through interaction with the teacher and environment. Teachers who are aware of the initial situation understand a child's starting point, knowledge of developmental psychology informs them about growth, and working on EF helps the child self-regulate their own development . #### 6.8.2 The place of the teacher The teacher's role is central across all these areas: observing the learner's initial situation, understanding developmental psychology to gauge capabilities, and supporting EF development to foster self-regulation. This means focusing not only on content but also on the learning process itself, shifting from "What must the student know?" to "What does the student need to learn, plan, persevere, and reflect?" . #### 6.8.3 Towards a self-regulated learning climate When these three perspectives are balanced, a learning climate emerges where students feel safe to make mistakes, recognize their growth, learn to plan, reflect, and persevere, and understand that learning is an active, self-directed process. Teachers support this climate through clarity, structure, space, and trust. EF serve as the means by which students become owners of their learning, rather than an end in themselves . #### 6.8.4 From knowledge to action Translating theory into classroom practice requires integrating knowledge of the initial situation, developmental psychology, and executive functions into daily teaching. By considering these questions in lesson design, instruction, and interactions, teachers build a powerful learning environment that supports each child's growth at their own pace . --- # Providing clear and effective instruction Providing clear and effective instruction is a cornerstone of a powerful learning environment, bridging the gap between learning objectives and student engagement. ### 7.1 The role of instruction within a powerful learning environment Instruction is a crucial element in the pedagogical process, serving as the link between learning goals and student activities. It guides students in understanding what they need to do, how to do it, and why it is important. A well-structured instruction not only facilitates learning but also contributes to classroom management by establishing clarity and reducing confusion . ### 7.2 The importance of clear instruction Clear instruction is essential for learning because it provides the necessary structure and clarity that students need to engage actively and effectively. It reduces cognitive load, allowing students to focus their working memory on the learning content rather than on deciphering instructions. Research by figures like Barak Rosenshine and Robert Marzano highlights that clear expectations and learning objectives are strong predictors of academic performance. Moreover, clear instructions enhance student motivation and autonomy by fostering a sense of competence and safety . #### 7.2.1 The impact of unclear instruction Unclear instruction leads to student uncertainty, resulting in lost learning time and potential behavioral issues. It can cause cognitive confusion and stress, particularly for students who require more structure or language support. This lack of clarity can also negatively impact classroom atmosphere and a student's sense of competence . ### 7.3 The structure of effective instruction Effective instruction follows a structured, step-by-step approach that guides learners through the material. This structured approach makes the learning process predictable and safe, maintains focus, prevents misunderstandings, and allows for differentiation. The six key phases of effective instruction are : #### 7.3.1 Phase 1: Capturing attention The initial seconds of an instruction are critical for gaining students' mental engagement. This involves creating a calm environment, making eye contact, using a recognizable signal, and ensuring all students are aware that the instructional moment is beginning. This step is vital for opening the gateway to memory . #### 7.3.2 Phase 2: Clarifying the goal Following attention, clarity is paramount. Students need to understand the objective of the lesson and its importance. Explicitly stating learning goals, using student-friendly language (e.g., "You will learn to..."), and potentially visualizing the goal can increase motivation and direct learning . #### 7.3.3 Phase 3: Explaining and/or demonstrating Once the goal is clear, the teacher can explain or demonstrate the skill. This phase involves breaking down information into short, manageable steps, using simple language, and explicitly stating the rationale behind each step. This modeling approach, rooted in Bandura's social learning theory, helps reduce cognitive load and allows for processing of new information . #### 7.3.4 Phase 4: Checking for understanding A common pitfall is assuming students understand without verification. This phase involves actively checking comprehension through targeted questions, asking students to rephrase the material, and observing non-verbal cues. This step is crucial for preventing small misunderstandings from escalating . #### 7.3.5 Phase 5: Facilitating active processing This is where learning takes place as students apply new knowledge through practice. The teacher selects appropriate tasks, provides guidance, observes, and offers feedback. Allowing for mistakes as learning opportunities and encouraging students to explain their reasoning promotes metacognition . #### 7.3.6 Phase 6: Review and feedback The final phase solidifies learning by summarizing key takeaways, emphasizing their importance, providing feedback on process and outcome, and encouraging student reflection. This can include methods like exit tickets or brief class summaries to anchor knowledge in long-term memory . ### 7.4 Criteria for clear instruction Clarity in instruction goes beyond audibility; it encompasses understandable communication, logical structure, and active engagement. Clear instruction translates complexity into simplicity without oversimplification, makes thinking visible, ensures predictability, supports autonomy through structure, and accommodates diversity in language, pace, and support . #### 7.4.1 Language and structure Instruction should use language appropriate for the students' comprehension level, employing short, active sentences, concrete words, and visual aids. Structuring explanations logically, from simple to complex, and using signposting words (e.g., "First," "Next," "Finally") enhances understanding . #### 7.4.2 Didactic clarity Instructional clarity also involves aligning with students' prior knowledge, building upon it with recognizable examples, emphasizing the purpose of the activity, and providing both demonstrations and practice opportunities . #### 7.4.3 Interaction and feedback Effective instruction is interactive, encouraging questions and clarifications. Teachers should use questions, peer explanations, and feedback directed at the process, not just the outcome. Feedback should cover "feed up" (goal), "feedback" (current progress), and "feed forward" (next steps) . #### 7.4.4 Non-verbal behavior and pacing A teacher's calm speaking pace, deliberate pauses, and supportive body language contribute significantly to clarity and student processing time. Non-verbal immediacy, such as eye contact and gestures, increases engagement . #### 7.4.5 Differentiation in instruction Clear instruction considers the diverse needs of learners by adapting to differences in pace, language support, and learning styles. This might involve providing extra repetition for some or more challenging tasks for others, all while maintaining the core learning objective . ### 7.5 Pitfalls in instruction and how to address them Even experienced teachers can fall into common instructional traps. Recognizing and addressing these pitfalls is a mark of professional growth . #### 7.5.1 Pitfall 1: Too much information at once Overloading students with excessive information taxes their working memory. Instructions should focus on essential content, breaking it down into manageable chunks . #### 7.5.2 Pitfall 2: Unclear expectations Vague phrases like "Do your best" or "Work well together" lack concrete criteria for success. Instructions should define observable behaviors and specific goals . #### 7.5.3 Pitfall 3: Insufficient checking for understanding Asking "Is everything clear?" often yields polite but uninformative responses. Active comprehension checks, such as asking students to rephrase or demonstrate, are essential . #### 7.5.4 Pitfall 4: Speaking or acting too quickly An overly rapid pace can leave students behind. Deliberate pacing, conscious pauses, and allowing processing time are crucial for effective instruction . #### 7.5.5 Pitfall 5: Insufficient use of examples Abstract instructions benefit greatly from concrete examples, including both correct and incorrect illustrations to help students differentiate and understand the thought process . #### 7.5.6 Pitfall 6: Lack of closure or review Abruptly ending an instruction without a summary or feedback leaves students without a clear understanding of what has been learned and what the next steps are . ### 7.6 Instruction in relation to diverse learners Instruction must be responsive to the differences among students, including variations in language proficiency, pace, prior knowledge, motivation, and concentration . #### 7.6.1 Differentiating based on preparation Differentiated instruction begins during lesson planning by identifying the core learning content, anticipating potential difficulties, and determining the level of support needed for various students . #### 7.6.2 Language support For students with limited language proficiency, teachers should employ short, clear sentences, explain key terms with examples or visuals, encourage paraphrasing, and write keywords on the board . #### 7.6.3 Extended and shortened instruction Students who need more time may benefit from extended instruction with extra repetition or concrete materials, while quicker learners can be offered shortened explanations or more challenging tasks . #### 7.6.4 Preteaching and scaffolding Preteaching key concepts before the main lesson can equip students with necessary prior knowledge. Scaffolding, a temporary support structure within the zone of proximal development, helps students gradually gain independence . #### 7.6.5 Visual and multimodal support Combining verbal and visual information through diagrams, pictograms, or videos enhances understanding for all learners, aligning with Mayer's multimedia learning principle . #### 7.6.6 Emotional safety and pacing Creating an emotionally safe environment where students feel comfortable asking questions or working at their own pace is vital. Respectful communication and recognition of effort foster competence and connection . ### 7.7 Instruction and classroom organization Effective instruction relies heavily on a well-organized classroom that promotes structure and predictability . #### 7.7.1 Routines as a foundation Routines for instructional transitions, material handling, and questioning reduce cognitive load and ensure that students know what is expected, freeing up mental resources for learning . #### 7.7.2 Attention-grabbing moments and signals Predictable visual, auditory, or verbal signals help mark transitions and gain student attention at the appropriate time, reducing disruption . #### 7.7.3 The teacher's physical position The teacher's positioning in the classroom influences student attention and behavior. Maintaining visibility, projecting calm control, and being able to approach students who might disengage are key . #### 7.7.4 Time and pace during instruction Short, frequent instructional segments interspersed with active processing are more effective than long monologues, especially for younger learners . #### 7.7.5 Managing disruptions Responding to minor disruptions calmly and purposefully, using non-verbal cues or brief acknowledgments, helps maintain the lesson's momentum . #### 7.7.6 Shared responsibility for classroom organization Involving students in understanding and upholding routines and expectations fosters a sense of shared responsibility for a conducive learning environment . --- # Structuring and preparing lessons A well-prepared lesson is the foundation of effective teaching, integrating learning theories, curriculum goals, and didactic principles into a concrete plan that supports student learning and growth . ### 8.1 The lesson preparation: a didactic thinking process Lesson preparation is more than a document; it's a didactic thinking process that justifies instructional choices based on curriculum, learning theories, and student observations (#page=221, 222). A strong preparation demonstrates understanding and application of principles for a powerful learning environment: purposefulness, engagement, differentiation, coherence, and reflection . #### 8.1.1 Core components of a lesson preparation The key building blocks of a lesson preparation include: * **Context and starting situation:** This involves understanding the specific class and group of students. * **General starting situation:** Structural characteristics of the class (language level, age, class size, home language, school context) are noted in a workplace folder . * **Specific starting situation:** Information relevant to the particular lesson, such as prior knowledge, recent experiences, observations, and motivation, is recorded in the lesson preparation itself . * This analysis helps connect with student learning, a core principle of the didactic model, and informs lesson goals and methods . * **Goals:** Goals provide direction and meaning to the lesson. They stem from the Flemish curriculum framework: learning outcomes (eindtermen) or developmental goals (ontwikkelingsdoelen), curriculum goals (leerplandoelen), and the key competencies they support. Lesson goals are concrete, observable, and achievable within a single lesson . * **Characteristics of a good lesson goal:** * **Concrete:** Observable behavior or result (#page=222, 225) . * **Measurable:** It can be verified if the goal is achieved . * **Realistic:** Achievable within the available time, space, and starting situation . * **Purposeful:** Aligned with the curriculum goal and didactic choices . * **Actively formulated:** Uses action verbs to clarify what the student does or shows. For example, instead of "The student knows the multiplication tables of 5 and 10," a better goal is "The student multiplies numbers by 5 and 10 without aids" . * Formulating goals involves understanding different learning theories to determine the central learning type (knowledge, insight, skill, or attitude) . * **Learning content:** This specifies what students will learn in relation to the goal: knowledge, skills, attitudes, or insights. It is the means by which the objective is achieved. The learning content is always linked to the learning activity; the depth of learning depends on how students engage with the content (e.g., discovery, practice, application, reflection) . * **Teaching method, organization, and media:** A powerful learning environment requires active teaching methods that align with lesson goals and the starting situation. Methods should engage students, encourage thinking and collaboration, and stimulate executive functions like planning, persistence, and reflection. Classroom organization (space arrangement, seating, materials, media) and attention distribution are crucial for student safety and efficient time use . * **Phases and lesson flow:** Every lesson follows a logical structure, though it doesn't always have to be a simple "introduction-core-conclusion". Lessons can have varying numbers of phases depending on subject-specific didactics and the nature of the learning activity. The lesson flow details student actions, teacher actions, questions asked, and differentiation or adjustments made. This detailed description makes the application of the didactic model visible and helps reflect on the coherence between goals, content, methods, and evaluation, as well as lesson pacing and transitions . * **Evaluation and reflection:** Making learning visible involves observing not just what students do, but how they learn. Evaluation methods should match the goals, and observation is used to track progress. Post-lesson reflection on what went well, what didn't, and why, is essential for teacher growth and future lesson refinement . #### 8.1.2 Summary overview of lesson preparation components | Building block | Core question | Link to educational goals | | :------------------ | :--------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Starting situation | What do my students already know and can do? | General and specific starting situation; developmental psychology | | Goals | Where do I want to go? | Learning outcomes, curriculum goals, lesson goals | | Learning content | What exactly will students learn? | Learning theories, development-oriented work | | Teaching methods & organization | How do I organize learning? | Didactic model, classroom organization, executive functions | | Phases & lesson flow | How does the lesson proceed step-by-step? | Structure and instruction | | Evaluation & reflection | How do I make learning visible and enable growth? | Observation, evaluation, reflection | ### 8.2 From curriculum to lesson goals A powerful lesson originates from a clear goal that aligns with the broader curriculum. This involves understanding different goal levels: learning outcomes/developmental goals, curriculum goals, and lesson goals. A lesson goal is the concrete, observable outcome intended within a single lesson or activity . #### 8.2.1 The hierarchy of goals The progression from curriculum to lesson preparation follows three steps: 1. **Learning outcomes (ET/OD) or minimum goals:** These describe the minimum students should achieve by the end of a learning trajectory or developmental phase . 2. **Curriculum goals (LPD):** These concretize learning outcomes for a specific educational consortium or school, indicating how and with what the learning outcomes are addressed . 3. **Lesson goals:** These are the teacher's specific translation of a curriculum goal within a particular lesson or activity . The lesson preparation should document the learning outcome, corresponding curriculum goal, and the derived lesson goal to ensure coherence between policy and practice . #### 8.2.2 Lesson goals and the didactic model Lesson goals serve as the anchor point within the didactic model, linking the starting situation to evaluation . | Element | Question | Example | | :--------------- | :------------------------------------------------------ | :------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Starting situation | What do students already know and can do? | Students learned to write the letter 'p' last week. Most can still write it, I noticed during observation. | | Goal | What should they be able to do after this lesson? | Students will write the letter 'b' with correct letter formation. | | Learning content | What will I use to achieve that goal? | Writing exercises with letter guides and words containing 'b'. | | Teaching method | How will I organize the learning? | Guided practice, classroom demonstration, individual practice. | | Evaluation | How will I know if the goal has been achieved? | Observation of writing movement, error analysis. | Clear goals lead to a more logical preparation, with teaching methods, instruction, and evaluation becoming more consistent . #### 8.2.3 Lesson goals and evaluation A lesson is successful when it's known what students have effectively learned. Each lesson goal must be linked to a form of evaluation, which can range from observation during an activity to a targeted question, a short test, or a reflection moment. The goal dictates the evaluation, not the other way around; for a skill goal, observe actions; for a knowledge goal, ask thinking questions; for an attitude goal, observe behavior or collaboration. Evaluating in function of the goal makes learning visible and allows for targeted feedback, integrating evaluation into the learning process . ### 8.3 Structuring a lesson A lesson is a deliberate sequence of learning moments, built step-by-step with a focus on student learning and experience. The lesson structure helps maintain focus, manage pace, and actively involve students . #### 8.3.1 The common thread: from goal to activity A strong lesson structure starts with the lesson goal, and each phase contributes recognizably to this goal. The goal, teaching method, media, and learning activity should be reiterated for each phase. A new phase begins whenever the organizational form or teaching method changes. Each phase is a mini-unit with a clear goal, concrete activity, active teacher role, and a form of evaluation . #### 8.3.2 Transitions and care moments Effective teachers recognize that learning also occurs during transitions between lesson phases. These transitional times can be used to reinforce executive functions like planning, focusing, tidying up, making choices, or reflecting . > **Tip:** Utilize transitions for short relaxation exercises after busy activities, assign responsibilities for material distribution, or have students articulate their learning before closing a lesson. * **Example:** * After a strenuous activity, implement a brief breathing or relaxation exercise . * When distributing materials, designate a student to manage the organization . * Before the lesson concludes, ask students to state what they have learned . ### 8.4 Examples of lesson preparation elements The document provides examples of various sections of a lesson preparation form, including: * **Header information:** Student name, mentors, workplace details, grade level, subject area, topic, lesson number, date, lesson time, and personal focus . * **Specific starting situation:** Details about student prior knowledge, specific needs (e.g., managing disruptive behavior), and classroom routines (e.g., instrument storage) . * **Goals:** Outlines a learning outcome (ET/OD), a curriculum goal (LPD), a lesson goal, and the evaluation method for that lesson goal. For instance, a lesson goal focusing on writing the letter "m" correctly and recognizing it in words, with evaluation through observation of writing and spelling . * **Phase overview:** Lists the phases of a lesson with their titles and durations . * **Detailed phase description:** Includes the phase title, didactic method, classroom arrangement, media used, the goal for that phase, and a detailed description of the learning content and activities, including teacher instructions, student actions, differentiation, and evaluation strategies. An example phase, "Introduction - warming up the writing muscles," details specific warm-up exercises for shoulders, elbows, wrists, and fingers, followed by instructions on proper sitting posture . The document also mentions that the form for self-completion is available in specific courses and advises keeping it alongside the current course for better understanding . --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Didactiek | The theory and practice of teaching; the methods and principles used in education. | | Pedagogiek | The theory and practice of education, focusing on the upbringing, development, and teaching of children. | | Krachtige leeromgeving | A learning environment designed to activate, support, and motivate learners towards meaningful learning, integrating various pedagogical and didactic elements. | | Beginsituatie | The starting point of a learner or class concerning knowledge, skills, attitudes, and context, which is considered during planning and differentiation. | | Algemene beginsituatie | The broad framework of the school, class, and student population within which teaching takes place, encompassing school context, class context, student demographics, infrastructure, and team support. | | Specifieke beginsituatie | The concrete snapshot of a group of learners for a specific lesson or series of lessons, focusing on their current knowledge, skills, needs, and attitudes relevant to that particular learning activity. | | Executieve functies (EF) | Cognitive and regulatory processes that enable individuals to manage their behavior, attention, emotions, and learning. These include functions like impulse control, working memory, and planning. | | Impulscontrole (inhibitie) | The ability to suppress inappropriate or automatic responses, allowing for more deliberate and goal-directed behavior. | | Werkgeheugen | The cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information during complex tasks such as learning, problem-solving, and comprehension. | | Cognitieve flexibiliteit | The ability to switch between different tasks, adapt to changing demands, and adjust strategies or perspectives when faced with new information or challenges. | | Plannen en organiseren | The executive functions involved in setting goals, developing step-by-step strategies, managing time, and organizing tasks and materials effectively. | | Gedragsevaluatie (metacognitie) | The process of reflecting on one's own thinking and learning processes, understanding how one learns best, and monitoring and adjusting one's cognitive strategies accordingly. | | Emotieregulatie | The capacity to recognize, understand, and manage one's own emotions, and to respond to emotional triggers in a way that is adaptive and does not hinder cognitive or social functioning. | | Didactische werkvorm | The specific method or approach used by a teacher to organize and facilitate learning, such as direct instruction, group work, or discussion. | | Scaffolding (steunstructuur) | Temporary support provided by an educator to help a learner accomplish a task that they could not yet do independently, gradually withdrawn as the learner gains competence. | | Leerdoelen | Specific, observable statements outlining what learners are expected to know, be able to do, or demonstrate by the end of a lesson or learning period. | | SMART-kader | A mnemonic acronym used to guide the formulation of effective goals or objectives, standing for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. | | Media (didactische media) | All tools and resources used to support, structure, or make learning content accessible and understandable, including visual, auditory, digital, and tactile materials. | | Taalsteun in instructie | The targeted use of language strategies and resources to make instructional content more accessible for learners, particularly those with language barriers or learning differences. | | Reflectie | The process of consciously thinking back on one's own actions, learning experiences, and performance in order to gain insights and improve future practice. | | Evaluatie | The systematic process of gathering information about learning to inform teaching, provide feedback, and make decisions about student progress and development. | | Formatieve evaluatie | Assessment conducted during the learning process to monitor student understanding and provide ongoing feedback for improvement, guiding both teaching and learning. | | Summatieve evaluatie | Assessment conducted at the end of a learning period to measure achievement and determine the extent to which learning goals have been met, often used for grading or reporting. | | Observeren | The deliberate and systematic act of watching and noting specific behaviors, interactions, or events to gather information for assessment or understanding. | | Feedback | Information provided to a learner about their performance or progress, intended to guide improvement, clarify understanding, and motivate further learning. | | Zelfevaluatie | The process by which learners assess their own work, progress, and learning strategies against set criteria or goals, fostering self-awareness and metacognitive skills. | | Peer-evaluatie | The process where students provide feedback to one another on their work or performance, promoting collaborative learning and critical evaluation skills. | | Minimumdoelen | Essential learning objectives set by the government that all students are expected to achieve by the end of a specific educational stage or curriculum. | | Leerplandoelen | Specific learning objectives developed by educational networks or schools that translate government-mandated minimum goals into concrete learning outcomes tailored to their pedagogical vision. | | Vakdisciplines | Distinct fields of study within education, such as mathematics, language, or science, each with its own knowledge base, methodologies, and ways of thinking, organized to provide depth and coherence in learning. | | Elaborerende ordening | A sequencing method where core concepts are introduced and then revisited and elaborated upon in increasing complexity or depth throughout the curriculum, fostering spiral learning. | | Lineaire of cursorische ordening | A sequencing method that presents learning content in a systematic, step-by-step progression, where each step builds directly upon the previous one, often used for procedural or cumulative skills. | | Thematische of exemplarische ordening | A sequencing method that organizes learning content around central themes, problems, or representative examples, often integrating knowledge from multiple disciplines to foster contextual understanding and transfer. | | Leerinhoud | The specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes that learners are intended to acquire during a lesson or learning process. | | Instructie | The process by which a teacher guides learners through learning activities, providing explanations, demonstrations, and feedback to ensure understanding and task completion. | | Modelleren | A teaching strategy where the educator demonstrates a skill, process, or way of thinking aloud, allowing learners to observe and imitate the modeled behavior. | | Teacher clarity | The extent to which a teacher's explanations, instructions, and expectations are clear, understandable, and actionable for learners, significantly impacting learning outcomes. | | Cognitive Load Theory | A theory suggesting that the human cognitive architecture has limited processing capacity, meaning instruction should be designed to minimize extraneous load and maximize relevant load for effective learning. | | Withitness | A classroom management concept referring to a teacher's ability to be aware of and respond to student behavior throughout the classroom, giving the impression of being everywhere at once. | | Momentum | A classroom management principle focused on maintaining the flow and pace of lessons by managing transitions efficiently and preventing disruptions that might halt learning progress. | | Teacher presence | The palpable sense of a teacher's engagement, attentiveness, and availability in the classroom, fostering a sense of safety, connection, and support for learners. |