De samenleving_ sociologie voor sociaal werk (12).pdf

# The historical context and mechanisms of colonization in Africa ### Wat is sociologie? * De wetenschap die het gedrag van individuen en groepen zoekt te verklaren vanuit maatschappelijke invloeden [2](#page=2). ### Grondleggers van sociologie * Ibn Khaldun: Ontwikkelde het concept 'Asabiyah' (sociale solidariteit) in de Arabische wereld [3](#page=3). * Max Weber: Bestudeerde relaties in fabrieken en hoe mensen zichzelf begonnen te zien [3](#page=3). * Karl Marx: Analyseerde het kapitalisme en de negatieve impact op de armere bevolking [3](#page=3). ### Sociologie als wetenschap * Zoekt naar patronen en verklaringen van maatschappelijke processen door middel van systematisch onderzoek en concrete waarnemingen (empirie) [4](#page=4). * Focus op groepen mensen en patronen/structuren die sociale verbanden definiëren [4](#page=4). * Analyseert hoe sociale verbanden menselijk gedrag beïnvloeden [4](#page=4). ### Kernvragen van sociologie * Hoe en waarom leven mensen samen in diverse sociale verbanden [5](#page=5)? * Door welke wetmatigheden wordt dat samenleven gestuurd [5](#page=5)? * Waarom ervaren mensen dit samenleven als vanzelfsprekend [5](#page=5)? ### Sociale gedrag als rollenspel * **Dramaturgische benadering (Erving Goffman):** Vergelijkt sociale interacties met een toneelstuk, waarbij mensen rollen spelen afhankelijk van de context [5](#page=5). * **Zelfpresentatie:** Mensen creëren een gewenste publieke identiteit om sociale doelen te bereiken [6](#page=6). * **Interactie:** Basisvorm van sociaal contact waarbij het handelen van de ene persoon een aanleiding is voor het handelen van de ander [6](#page=6). * Communicatie en interactie verlopen vaak via symbolen [6](#page=6). * **Rollen en attributen:** Verschillende versies van onszelf worden neergezet afhankelijk van de situatie, geholpen door attributen die de rol vormgeven [6](#page=6). * Rollen leiden tot ordelijke interacties en wederzijdse verwachtingen [7](#page=7). * **Positie:** De plaats die iemand inneemt binnen een groep, in verhouding tot anderen [7](#page=7). * Posities kunnen toegewezen (sekse, afkomst) of verworven (diploma, ervaring) zijn [8](#page=8). * Posities zijn veranderbaar en kunnen vluchtig, levensfase-gebonden of langdurig zijn [8](#page=8). * **Rolconflict:** Tegenstrijdige verwachtingen binnen of tussen rollen [8](#page=8). * **Sanctie:** Gevolgen van het niet naleven van rolvoorschriften, variërend van juridische straffen tot sociale uitsluiting [9](#page=9). * **Stereotypes:** Clichés of vaststaande beelden van personen of groepen [9](#page=9). * **Impression management:** Proces waarbij mensen proberen de indrukken die anderen van hen vormen te beheersen [9](#page=9). * **Frontstage gedrag:** Zichtbare rol die op een publiek wordt neergezet [10](#page=10). * **Backstage gedrag:** Informele rol en acties in een privé setting [10](#page=10). ### Dubbel bewustzijn (W.E.B. Du Bois) ### Socialisatie ### Macht en sociale ongelijkheid ### Sociale stratificatie --- ## Social inequality and cultural concepts ### Core idea * Social inequality stems from the unfair distribution and unequal appreciation/treatment of individuals based on their societal position and lifestyle [26](#page=26). * Culture is a complex concept with multiple meanings, often oversimplified in societal discourse [36](#page=36). * Culture acts as a "way of life," encompassing all human-created elements that shape understanding and interaction [36](#page=36). ### Key facts * Bourdieu defined capital in three forms: economic (possessions), cultural (knowledge, tastes), and social (networks) [25](#page=25). * Social inequality results in societal divisions and can be categorized as material (income, wealth) or immaterial (status, privileges) [26](#page=26). * Polarization is a process where groups increasingly think in oppositional terms ("us vs. them"), fostering mistrust [28](#page=28). * Segregation occurs when people primarily interact within their own group, leading to reduced understanding and increased inequality [28](#page=28). * Apartheid in South Africa (1948-1990) was a system of racial segregation enforced by the white minority [29](#page=29). * Economic inequality arises when prosperity is unevenly distributed, regardless of individual contributions [30](#page=30). * Income inequality occurs when individuals are not rewarded uniformly for their work [30](#page=30). * Wealth inequality concerns the disparities in assets owned, after accounting for debts [31](#page=31). * Opportunity inequality in education is influenced by parents' income/education and school quality [31](#page=31). * Poverty creates a network of social exclusions that individuals struggle to overcome independently [31](#page=31). * The Matthew effect describes how those already doing well continue to gain, while unsuccessful individuals have less [31](#page=31). * Social networks are channels for the flow of social goods, including material and immaterial resources [32](#page=32) [33](#page=33). * Culture is defined as everything humans add to nature, including knowledge, language, religion, laws, and social relations [37](#page=37). * Culture's function is to enable interpretation and meaning-making, acting as the "engine of life" [37](#page=37). * Values are general principles and ideals, while norms are concrete rules of behavior derived from these values [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39). * Language norms are crucial for social behavior, facilitating communication and conveying social identity [48](#page=48). ### Key concepts * **Cultural capital:** The non-financial assets (education, knowledge, tastes) that promote social mobility [25](#page=25). * **Social stratification:** The hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society based on multiple factors like class, status, and power [26](#page=26). * **Inherente superioriteit/minderwaardigheid:** The flawed ideas that certain groups are naturally better or worse than others, leading to discrimination [29](#page=29). * **Social exclusion:** A situation where individuals are cut off from mainstream societal patterns and resources [31](#page=31). * **Ecogram:** A tool used in social work to visualize a client's social network size and quality [32](#page=32). * **Homophily:** The principle that people tend to associate with others from similar backgrounds [35](#page=35). ### Implications --- ## The colonial history of society ### Race as a social construct * Europeans exploring the Americas after 1492 found the climate ideal for plantations, requiring cheap, strong labor resistant to harsh conditions [61](#page=61). * Africans were deemed "more suitable" due to their resistance to tropical diseases and higher survival rates, making them more "productive" from a European plantation perspective [61](#page=61). * Africans were degraded into "cargo" through trade, violence, and abduction, shipped under inhumane conditions to be sold in America [61](#page=61). * Slavery was justified by a racial system labeling Black people as an "inferior race" destined for generations of enslavement [61](#page=61). * The Trans-Atlantic slave trade involved commercial hunting of Africans and dispossession of indigenous peoples [61](#page=61). * In the Americas, slavery existed from 1619 to 1865, legally enforced and characterized by extreme violence and exhausting conditions, leading to a low life expectancy of around 37 years [61](#page=61). * Spanish and Portuguese conquerors introduced racism by labeling all indigenous peoples "Indians" and creating a dichotomy between "strong" Africans and "weak" Native Americans [62](#page=62). * This distinction facilitated the justification of importing enslaved Africans and the extermination of many indigenous peoples [62](#page=62). * An estimated 10 to 20 million Africans were enslaved and deported [62](#page=62). * An estimated 50 to 75 million Native Americans died due to violence, disease, and exploitation [62](#page=62). * A new racial system emerged in the New World, with judgment based on appearance and origin; European immigrants became "white," while Africans were defined as "black" [62](#page=62). * Racism exists, but race itself is a social construct [62](#page=62). * Scientific racism in the late 17th/early 18th century categorized people and assigned characteristics, consolidating race as a division based on supposed biological differences [62](#page=62). * This created a hierarchy of the "civilized white man" versus the "wild dark man," defining four races with Europeans at the top [62](#page=62). * Race functions as a tool of power, assigning inherent rights and social, cultural, and economic capital to the dominant "white" group [62](#page=62). * Modern slavery affects an estimated 50 million people globally, including debt bondage, forced labor, sexual exploitation, and forced marriages [63](#page=63). ### Our colonial past * From the 16th century, most of North and South America, Asia, and Africa were colonized by European countries [64](#page=64). * The largest colonial powers were Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands [64](#page=64). * Belgium had colonies in Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi, with an attempted colony in Guatemala [64](#page=64). * Colonization is defined as the occupation and exploitation of overseas territories through the settlement of the dominant power [64](#page=64). * Key characteristics of colonization include violent conquest, political/social/economic control by a superior foreign state, and systematic dispossession and exploitation of original inhabitants [65](#page=65). * The imposition of the colonizer's mindset and practices, prioritizing the mother country's interests, was also central [65](#page=65). - Motivations for colonization were diverse, including economic gain through trade, political ambition and competition between European nations, religious missionary zeal to "civilize" perceived inferior races, and social aspirations for wealth * Scientific exploration and exploitation also played a role, with researchers conducting studies that served colonial exploitation [66](#page=66). ### History of Congo's colonization * The Congo Free State was established in 1885 by King Leopold II as his personal property, not a Belgian colony, officially claimed at the Berlin Conference [66](#page=66). --- ## The mental legacy of colonization * Colonization left a lasting legacy of "white superiority" and "black inferiority" [74](#page=74). * Colonial mindsets persist in stereotypes and discrimination, causing enduring consequences for both colonizers and colonized [74](#page=74). * Post-colonial thinkers like Frantz Fanon emphasized the need for mental decolonization and addressing intergenerational trauma [74](#page=74). * The exhibition of Ota Benga, a Congolese man in a US zoo in 1906, sparked outrage but he later died by suicide [73](#page=73). * Post-colonialism is an intellectual and cultural movement analyzing the consequences of colonization on both former colonial powers and colonized peoples [74](#page=74). * Edward Said's "Orientalism" is a foundational text, describing the West's condescending discourse towards the East, creating an inferior "Other" [75](#page=75). * Post-colonial representation examines how former colonies are portrayed and perceived after decolonization, often through a Western lens [76](#page=76). * "Whitewashing" refers to assimilating non-white individuals or cultures into a "white" norm in media, film, and literature [76](#page=76). * This can involve casting white actors in non-white roles or altering historical figures to be white [76](#page=76). * Whitewashing also involves sanitizing history to downplay the negative impacts of colonialism, racism, or inequality [77](#page=77). * A culture of silence surrounds the Belgian colonial past due to the involvement of religious communities and the monarchy [77](#page=77). * Decolonization is more than political independence; it's a deep process of repair addressing the lasting impacts of colonialism [78](#page=78). * Colonialism created social and racial inequalities that continue to affect former colonies and colonizing nations today [78](#page=78). * The "Scramble for Africa" (1870-1900) was driven by the Industrial Revolution's need for resources and by European nationalism and racist ideologies [78](#page=78). * The Berlin Conference (1884-85) arbitrarily drew borders, splitting and merging ethnic groups, normalizing forced labor and violence, and marginalizing African knowledge systems [79](#page=79). * The Congo Free State was Leopold II's private domain, built on rubber extraction, forced labor, and immense violence, resulting in millions of deaths [79](#page=79). * Belgian Congo (1908 onwards) continued the logic of extraction, segregation, and missionary education, prioritizing Belgium's interests [79](#page=79). * Belgium's colonial rule in Rwanda and Burundi radicalized social categories through identity cards and education, impacting current identity and conflict [79](#page=79). * Between 1945-1975, Asian and African populations revolted against colonial rule, gaining independence but not eradicating all colonial structures [80](#page=80). * Decolonization principles include recovery of suppressed histories, critical analysis of colonial structures, and restoring humanity [80](#page=80). * A holistic approach to decolonization encompasses political, intellectual, and spiritual dimensions [80](#page=80). * "Revisit History" aims to reveal the invisible, restore suppressed voices, and reframe history humanely [81](#page=81). * Decolonial work involves unraveling mechanisms and patterns of colonialism that persist today [81](#page=81). * Six "stops" (e.g., Congo Pillar, Lambermontplaats) highlight different dimensions of coloniality: political, economic, cultural, and religious [81-83](#page=81-83). * The "Main Character Syndrome" (MCS) describes institutions centering themselves in narratives not belonging to them, a major obstacle in decolonization [83](#page=83). --- ## Gender and family dynamics in society * Gender is understood as a social construct, not solely determined by biological sex, influencing societal expectations and roles [98](#page=98). * Emancipation movements have strived for equal rights and recognition for marginalized groups, including women and LGBTQ+ individuals . * The concept of family has evolved from a traditional, economically focused institution to a more diverse and affection-based structure . * Gender norms are societal agreements and expectations tied to specific genders, often binarily defined [98](#page=98). * Gender stereotypes are behaviors and beliefs aligning with traditional male/female roles [99](#page=99). * Cross-sex or gender non-conformist behavior contradicts these stereotypical expectations [99](#page=99). * Simone de Beauvoir argued that one is "made" a woman, emphasizing cultural construction over biological determinism [99](#page=99). * Judith Butler proposed gender is fluid, historically/culturally constructed, and performative ("doing gender") [100](#page=100). * Intersectional theory highlights how gender interacts with other identities like ethnicity and nationality [100](#page=100). * Primary socialization of gender roles occurs within the family, secondary in education, and tertiary through media [100](#page=100). * Sex refers to biological differences, usually determined at birth, but can be medically altered . * Intersex individuals have characteristics of both sexes . * Gender identity is an individual's internal sense of gender, which can evolve . * Cisgender individuals' gender identity aligns with their birth-assigned sex . * Transgender is an umbrella term for those whose gender identity differs from their birth-assigned sex . * Non-binary identities include those who do not identify exclusively as male or female . * Genderexpression is how one outwardly presents their gender through behavior, dress, etc. . * Sexual orientation is romantic and/or sexual attraction to others . * Feminism is a movement analyzing gender inequality and striving for gender equality . * Four feminist waves have addressed distinct issues, from suffrage to online activism [104-106](#page=104,105,106). * Masculinity Studies examines the social and cultural construction of "manhood" . * LGBTQ+ emancipation strives for equal rights and societal recognition for homosexual, bisexual, and transgender individuals . * Coming-in is the internal acceptance of one's identity, while coming-out is the external disclosure . * Family sociology studies the functioning, changes, and diversity of families . * Marriage is a sanctioned, ritualistic union with rights, obligations, and childcare responsibilities . --- # Social behavior as role-playing ### Core idea * Social interactions are compared to a theatre play where individuals act out different roles based on the social context [5](#page=5). * Individuals consciously or unconsciously manage the impressions others form of them to achieve social goals [6](#page=6) [9](#page=9). * Self-presentation is key, as people attempt to create a desired public identity [6](#page=6). ### Key facts * The "societal field" is the society or social groups, with "rules of the game" being norms, laws, and taboos [5](#page=5). * Social action, relations, positions, roles, status, and communication are part of this "game" [5](#page=5). * Actors include individuals, organizations, and institutions [5](#page=5). * Interaction is the basic form of social contact, where one person's actions prompt another's reactions [6](#page=6). * Interactions vary in number of participants, verbal/non-verbal communication, and directness [6](#page=6). * Symbolic interactionism uses symbols for communication and interaction at a micro-level [6](#page=6). * Attributes are possessions that help shape a role and can serve as status symbols [6](#page=6). * Social roles are sets of behavioral expectations linked to a specific position and status, embedded in culture [7](#page=7). * Positions are places individuals occupy within a group relative to others [7](#page=7). * Positions can be assigned (e.g., by sex, nationality) or acquired through achievement (e.g., diploma, experience) [8](#page=8). * Some positions are formed by attributes (e.g., police officer, priest) [8](#page=8). * Social status influences the positions one holds, with higher positions generally conferring more prestige [8](#page=8). * Socialization teaches norms, values, and appropriate behavior for society [8](#page=8). * Positions can be temporary (e.g., customer), life-stage related (e.g., child, parent), or long-term [8](#page=8). ### Key concepts * Dramaturgical approach: Social interactions are like a theatrical performance where individuals are actors playing various roles depending on the context and audience [5](#page=5). * Self-presentation: The process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them [6](#page=6). * Roles: A set of norms or behavioral expectations linked to a particular position and status [7](#page=7). * Position: An individual's place within a group relative to other positions [7](#page=7). * Social status: The prestige or standing of an individual within society, often tied to their position [8](#page=8). * Impression management: Strategies used for self-presentation to influence how others perceive them, consciously or unconsciously [9](#page=9). ### Implications * Roles facilitate orderly interactions by creating predictable expectations about behavior [7](#page=7). * Fulfilling expectations helps avoid role-breaking and maintains social order [7](#page=7). ### Common pitfalls --- # Socialization and its impact on perception and behavior ### Core idea * Socialization is the learned process of acquiring social roles and behaviors through feedback [11](#page=11). * It shapes an individual's frame of reference, influencing how they perceive and interpret situations [12](#page=12). * Our perceptions are inherently selective due to our existing frames of reference and social positions [12](#page=12). ### Key facts * Primary socialization occurs in the family, teaching basic social behaviors implicitly [11](#page=11). * Secondary socialization takes place in broader contexts like school and workplaces, focusing on functional social roles [11](#page=11). * Tertiary socialization involves learning about roles through media, even those not yet experienced [11](#page=11). * A frame of reference is a framework built from experiences that guides selective perception [12](#page=12). * Stereotypes are typically part of an individual's frame of reference [12](#page=12). * Selective perception has both physical (limited reach) and social (social position) components [13](#page=13). * Cognitive dissonance arises from a conflict between perceived facts and deep-seated beliefs [13](#page=13). * Cognitive dissonance is resolved when perceptions outweigh deeply held beliefs or when group consensus supports the belief [13](#page=13). ### Key concepts * **Socialization:** The process of learning how to be social, acquiring role expectations and behaviors through feedback [11](#page=11). * **Frame of reference:** A mental framework, built from experiences, that influences how situations are perceived and interpreted, guiding selective observation [12](#page=12). * **Selective perception:** The tendency to focus on certain aspects of a situation while ignoring others, influenced by one's frame of reference [12](#page=12). * **Cognitive dissonance:** The psychological discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting cognitions (beliefs, ideas, values) or when new information contradicts existing beliefs [13](#page=13). * **Pygmalion effect/Self-fulfilling prophecy:** (Mentioned, but not detailed within the provided text for this topic) [14](#page=14). ### Implications * Situations cannot be assessed without bias; a frame of reference is always engaged [12](#page=12). * Our frame of reference can change subtly over time or more significantly with impactful experiences [12](#page=12). * Information about others and situations is shaped by our existing knowledge and social position [13](#page=13). * Education plays a significant role in shaping our understanding of others [13](#page=13). * When faced with cognitive dissonance, individuals may defend their existing frame of reference to avoid challenging deeply held beliefs or social ties [13](#page=13). ### Common pitfalls * Failing to critically examine one's own frame of reference and stereotypes can prevent personal growth [13](#page=13). * Emotional arguments can sometimes hold more sway than rational ones when resolving cognitive dissonance [13](#page=13). --- # Dimensies van sociale ongelijkheid en kansenongelijkheid ### Core idea * Social inequality refers to the unfair distribution of social goods and unequal valuation/treatment based on societal position and lifestyle [26](#page=26). * It creates societal divisions and can be influenced by factors present at birth or acquired later [27](#page=27). * Inequality of opportunity means people do not receive the same chances or rewards, shaped by societal structures [30](#page=30). ### Key facts * Social stratification is the hierarchical division of society into unequal groups, a human construct that varies across time and place [18](#page=18). * Historical stratification systems include the estate system (feudalism) and the caste system (India, Nepal) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * The caste system, though officially abolished in India, still leads to discrimination against Dalits [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20). * The Nuremberg Race Laws against Jews in 1935 exemplify discriminatory exclusion based on ancestry [20](#page=20). * A class society emerged after the Industrial Revolution, with stratification based on economic measures and individual achievements [21](#page=21). * Karl Marx is credited as a founder of sociology who discussed class society, aiming for a classless society with equal outcomes [22](#page=22). * Modern social classes are typically divided into higher, middle, and lower classes based on economic criteria [22](#page=22) [23](#page=23). * Social mobility is the ability to change one's social position, influenced by education, social networks, and economic capital [24](#page=24). ### Key concepts * **Social stratification:** Hierarchical division of society into unequal layers or strata [18](#page=18). * **Social inequality:** Unfair distribution of social goods and unequal valuation/treatment based on societal position [26](#page=26). * **Inequality of opportunity:** Unequal chances and rewards for individuals in society [30](#page=30). * **Economic inequality:** Unequal benefit from national wealth and riches [30](#page=30). * **Income inequality:** Uneven rewarding of individuals for their contributions [30](#page=30). * **Wealth inequality:** Differences in assets and possessions individuals hold [31](#page=31). * **Cultural capital:** Accumulated cultural knowledge and credentials that can reproduce social inequality [25](#page=25). * **Social capital:** One's social network, connections, and relationships [24](#page=24) [26](#page=26). * **Economic capital:** Personal or familial wealth and income [24](#page=24) [25](#page=25). * **Matthews effect:** Phenomenon where those who are already successful continue to benefit, while others fall further behind [31](#page=31). * **Social exclusion:** A network of disadvantages that separates the poor from accepted societal patterns [31](#page=31). * **Social network:** A set of relationships connecting people, used to transfer resources like economic, social, and cultural capital [33](#page=33). * **Homophily:** The principle that people tend to associate with others of similar backgrounds or status [35](#page=35). ### Implications * Social inequality leads to societal divisions and unequal distribution of scarce, valued resources [26](#page=26) [27](#page=27). ### Common pitfalls --- # Cultuur als een complex en veelzijdig begrip ### Core idea * Culture is a concept with multiple meanings, often used simplistically and misused in discourse [36](#page=36). * Culture encompasses everything humans add to nature and is a "way of life" [36](#page=36). * It provides a framework for interpreting situations and assigning meaning [37](#page=37). ### Key facts * Culture refers to agreements among people regarding their actions and perspectives [36](#page=36). * It includes knowledge, language, religion, laws, social relations, and symbols [36](#page=36). * Cultural transmission occurs through upbringing and socialisation [37](#page=37). * Culture is distinct from nature, but the nature-nurture debate is relevant to many traits [38](#page=38). * Sociology focuses on understanding culture through culturology [38](#page=38). ### Key concepts * **Values:** General principles, ideals, or beliefs considered valuable. They are aspirations and motivations for behaviour [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39). * **Norms:** Concrete rules for behaviour, such as laws, customs, and habits. They are behavioural prescriptions based on values [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39). * Norms can be enforced through positive or negative social sanctions [38](#page=38). * Norms are time- and place-dependent, evolving over time [39](#page=39). * Cultural diversity arises from different lifestyles, often linked to social class [41](#page=41). * Determinism suggests behaviour is fully determined by culture and societal rules [41](#page=41). ### Implications * Understanding culture is crucial for social workers to challenge simplistic views [36](#page=36). * Societal functioning depends on order maintained by norms and values [38](#page=38). * Norms provide predictability and direction in human behaviour [40](#page=40). * Social control and power can be exercised through sanctions [40](#page=40). * Active citizenship can help reduce norm-transgressing behaviour [40](#page=40). * Social workers must consider the moral dimension of their professional conduct [40](#page=40). * Differences in norms can lead to conflict when groups interact [42](#page=42). * Cultural perspectives influence how illness is understood and treated [42](#page=42). ### Common pitfalls * Culture is often oversimplified and politically misused [36](#page=36). * Confusing "our society" or "our culture" can be problematic as definitions vary [41](#page=41). * What is normal in one group may seem strange or wrong in another [42](#page=42). --- # The role of language in culture and social norms ### Core idea * Culture arises from people living together, creating shared ideas, habits, and beliefs that shape behavior [41](#page=41). * Language is a fundamental form of social behavior, essential for communication and subject to norms [48](#page=48). * Cultural diversity reflects differences in how people interpret the world and assign meaning [43](#page=43). * Language functions as a tool for social interaction, providing structure and meaning within a community [48](#page=48). ### Key facts * Social norms guide behavior, providing structure and making interactions recognizable and interpretable [46](#page=46). * Norms have cognitive (practical importance), affective (sense of belonging), and conative (behavioral guidance) components [47](#page=47). * Norms are relative, situational, and time-bound, changing historically and contextually [47](#page=47). * Language behavior is governed by norms, providing structure for a language community [48](#page=48). * In Western cultures, illness is often viewed as originating from within the individual [42](#page=42). * In non-Western cultures, illness causes are frequently attributed to external factors like spirits or nature [42](#page=42). ### Key concepts * Cultural determinism suggests behavior is determined by culture and societal rules [41](#page=41). * Social norms are implicit, rule-like directives with binding force in specific situations and times [47](#page=47). * Culture acts as a cognitive toolkit, helping categorize, simplify, and create associations [44](#page=44). * Categorization involves drawing boundaries and simplifying reality, leading to associations [44](#page=44). * Associations arise from learning and the assumption that categories are related, influencing behavior [45](#page=45). * Stereotypes are simplified, dominant stories that can lead to prejudice and devaluing individuals [45](#page=45). * Microaggressions are subtle, often unconscious forms of discrimination that can undermine self-esteem [45](#page=45). * Language norms include product norms (correct form of sounds, words) and production norms (semantic and pragmatic correctness) [48](#page=48). * Communicative competence involves understanding context and adapting language accordingly [48](#page=48). * Agency refers to the ability to make decisions and actively use cultural tools in one's actions [46](#page=46). ### Implications * Differences in norms and values stem from differing worldviews and meaning-making processes [43](#page=43). * Interpreting and assigning meaning is a learning process (socialization) [43](#page=43). * Thinking communities influence how individuals perceive and assign meaning to their environment [46](#page=46). * Language serves both denotative (understandability) and connotative (social identity, solidarity) functions [48](#page=48). * Challenging one's own framework can help prevent prejudice [45](#page=45). --- # Understanding diversity as a social construct and intersectionality ### Core idea * Diversity refers to the variety within society, encompassing more than just ethnicity [49](#page=49). * It is a social construct, meaning categories and meanings are created and assigned by society, not inherent [51](#page=51). * Intersectionality recognizes that multiple diversity dimensions combine, influencing an individual's social positioning and treatment [55](#page=55). ### Key facts * Diversity is often narrowly focused on ethnic-cultural aspects, ignoring other dimensions [49](#page=49). * Superdiversity acknowledges a multitude of people with varied cultures, traditions, religions, languages, and social classes [49](#page=49). * Dimensions of diversity include age, gender, sexuality, nationality, abilities, religion, and class [50](#page=50). * Categories can help make sense of complexity but also create and amplify differences and stereotypes [51](#page=51). * Social constructs are changeable, context-dependent, and influenced by agency (who defines them) [52](#page=52). * Exclusion denies access to societal participation, segregation isolates groups, integration requires adaptation, and inclusion ensures full participation [52](#page=52) [53](#page=53). * Equality aims for the same resources for all, while equity acknowledges different needs for equal outcomes [54](#page=54). * Intersectionality is about how combinations of diversity dimensions position individuals with specific societal appreciation and treatment [58](#page=58). ### Key concepts * **Social construct:** Categories and meanings are created by society and are not fixed or universal [51](#page=51). * **Pluriforme samenleving:** A diverse society where different groups coexist [49](#page=49). * **Diversity circle:** Visual representation of social ordering principles [50](#page=50). * **Levels of diversity organization:** Micro (individual), Meso (organization), and Macro (public/political) [52](#page=52). * **Multiple identities:** An individual possesses several characteristics that form their identity [54](#page=54). * **Intersectionality:** The study of how various social and political identities combine to create different modes of discrimination and privilege [55](#page=55) [56](#page=56). * **Kruispuntdenken (Intersectional thinking):** Developed by Gloria Wekker, analyzing diversity through multiple axes [57](#page=57). * **Colorblindness:** Denying racial differences, which ignores power structures and the experiences of people of color [57](#page=57). * **Color consciousness:** Acknowledging color to understand how power, inequality, and whiteness as a norm function [57](#page=57). * **Kaleidoscopic vision:** Viewing oneself and others through multiple, intersecting dimensions, recognizing varying positions and societal treatment [57](#page=57) [58](#page=58). ### Implications * Focusing on only one dimension of diversity is static and potentially dangerous [54](#page=54). * Recognizing multiple identities, both visible and invisible, is crucial [54](#page=54). * Understanding that diversity is dynamic, complex, and context-dependent is essential [54](#page=54). * Awareness of intersecting categories is necessary for addressing structural inequalities and exclusion [51](#page=51) [54](#page=54). ### Common pitfalls --- # The history and nature of colonization, with a focus on the Congo ### Core idea * Colonization is defined as the occupation and exploitation of overseas territories through the settlement of a dominant power [65](#page=65). * It inherently involves violent conquest, political, social, and economic control, systemic exploitation, and the imposition of the colonizer's culture and ways of thinking [65](#page=65). * Historians agree that colonization had no positive effects [65](#page=65). * The history of the Congo under Belgian rule exemplifies the brutal nature of colonization, characterized by extreme exploitation and violence [64-68](#page=64-68). ### Key facts * From the 16th century onwards, European countries colonized vast areas of the Americas, Asia, and Africa [64](#page=64). * Major colonial powers included Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands [64](#page=64). * Belgian colonies included the Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi [64](#page=64). * The Congo Free State was established in 1885 as the personal property of Belgian King Leopold II, not as a Belgian colony [66](#page=66). * The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) officially claimed the land, with Leopold II citing a mission to bring Christian civilization, but the primary goal was economic exploitation [66](#page=66). * The brutal exploitation under Leopold II, forcing production of rubber and ivory, resulted in the deaths of an estimated 5 to 10 million Congolese [66-67](#page=66-67). * International criticism led to the condemnation of Leopold II's policies, and the Congo Free State was transferred to the Belgian state in 1908, becoming Belgian Congo [67](#page=67). * Belgian colonial rule (1908-1960) maintained a paternalistic administration focused on Belgian interests and continued exploitation of natural resources like copper and rubber [67](#page=67). * Racism, segregation, and discrimination were prevalent, with Europeans considered superior and Africans denied political rights [68](#page=68). * The call for independence grew after World War II, with leaders like Patrice Lumumba emerging [68](#page=68). * Congo declared independence on June 30, 1960, but faced immediate political instability and conflict due to the abrupt Belgian withdrawal [68-69](#page=68-69). * Patrice Lumumba was assassinated shortly after independence [68](#page=68). * The dictator Mobutu Sese Seko seized power in 1965, leading a regime (later called Zaire) known for corruption and repression until 1997 [69](#page=69). * The Congo has suffered numerous conflicts, including the devastating African World War (1998-2003) and ongoing wars in the east driven by competition for resources like gold and cobalt [69](#page=69). ### Key concepts - **Colonization vs. Population Colonization:** Unlike settler colonialism where people establish a copy of their homeland (e.g., USA), Congo's colonization involved a small European group ruling a large native population for * **Motivations for Colonization:** Primarily economic (profit from raw materials, cheap labor), political (competition between European powers, nationalism), religious/social (civilizing mission, personal advancement), and for research and exploitation [65-66](#page=65-66). * **Paternalistic Rule:** The Belgian colonial administration in Congo was characterized by a paternalistic approach, ostensibly to "civilize" the local population, but ultimately serving Belgian economic and political interests [67](#page=67). * **Cultural Oppression:** Colonized populations were forced to abandon their own cultures and adopt Western norms, leading to a destruction of cultural identity [70](#page=70). * **Limited Education:** Education in colonial Congo focused on primary schooling and training for a subservient elite; universities were not established until 1954, leaving few educated individuals at independence [70](#page=70). * **Colonial Propaganda:** Both implicit (through culture and media) and explicit (state-sponsored events) propaganda was used to portray Africans as inferior and colonizers as benevolent civilizers [71-72](#page=71-72). * **Mental Legacy of Colonization:** Colonization left a lasting mental legacy of "white superiority" and "black inferiority," perpetuating stereotypes and discrimination that impact both former colonizers and colonized nations [73-74](#page=73-74). ### Implications --- # The lasting impact and consequences of colonialism ### Core idea - Colonialism left a lasting mental legacy of "white superiority" and "black inferiority" [74](#page=74). - Colonialist ideologies persist in stereotypes and discrimination, causing ongoing harm to both former colonizers and colonized [74](#page=74). - Postcolonial thinkers like Frantz Fanon analyzed this mental legacy, intergenerational trauma, and the necessity of decolonizing the mind [74](#page=74). ### Key facts - The Ota Benga incident in 1906, where a Congolese man was exhibited in the Bronx Zoo, highlighted the dehumanizing aspects of colonialism [73](#page=73). - Belgium's wealth and the USA's wealth were built on the systematic disadvantage, discrimination, and exploitation of millions of Black people [74](#page=74). - The Scramble for Africa (1870-1900) was driven by the Industrial Revolution's need for raw materials and by nationalism, fueled by racist ideas of bringing "civilization" [78](#page=78). - The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) arbitrarily drew borders, splitting and merging peoples, and normalizing forced labor and violence [79](#page=79). - Belgian Congo's administration maintained an exploitative logic focused on extraction, segregation, and mission education, shaping the economy and infrastructure for Belgium's benefit [79](#page=79). - Belgian colonial interventions in Rwanda and Burundi radicalized social categories and hierarchies through identity cards and education, influencing contemporary identity and conflict [79](#page=79). - Mass uprisings in Asia and Africa between 1945 and 1975 led to political independence but did not erase colonial structures or power dynamics [80](#page=80). ### Key concepts - Postcolonialism is an intellectual and cultural movement examining the consequences of colonization on both former colonial powers and colonized peoples [74](#page=74). - Edward Said's "Orientalism" described the West's condescending discourse towards the East, portraying it as inferior ("Othering") in contrast to a superior, masculine West [75](#page=75). - Postcolonial representation refers to how the world, especially former colonies, is perceived and represented after decolonization, often through Western perspectives [75](#page=75). - "Whitewashing" involves assimilating non-white individuals or cultures into a "white" norm in media and literature, either by casting white actors or by altering history to downplay negative colonial impacts [76](#page=76). - A "culture of silence" surrounds Belgium's colonial past, motivated by religious institutions' material gains and the monarchy's financial interests [77](#page=77). - Decolonization is a profound process of repair that addresses the lasting consequences of colonialism, including deep-seated mental and physical structures [77](#page=77). - Decolonial work involves unraveling mechanisms and patterns from colonial times that still persist today, enabling their deconstruction [81](#page=81). - "Main Character Syndrome" (MCS) is a lens to understand how institutions center themselves in narratives not belonging to them, characterized by narrative dominance, epistemic power, and self-centering [83](#page=83). ### Implications - Colonial borders continue to be the basis for fragility and regional conflicts today [79](#page=79). - The colonial system created social and racial inequalities that persist in former colonies and colonizing nations [78](#page=78). - Decolonization requires reflection, restructuring of processes, and recognition of multiple epistemologies [81](#page=81). - The "Congo Column" in Antwerp represents selective memory, celebrating power while erasing victims, and acknowledging without changing foundational structures [82](#page=82). - The Lambermontplaats signifies how diplomatic language legitimized economic and geopolitical interests, highlighting how public spaces determine whose memory is preserved [82](#page=82). - The "Entrepot du Congo" reveals colonialism as an economic project, not a moral one, with Antwerp playing a central role in the colonial economy [83](#page=83). - The involvement of banks like the "Caisse Hypothecaire Anversoise" demonstrates their role in the colonial project and increasing living standards in Belgium [83](#page=83). --- # The concept of identity and its various forms ### Core idea - Identity is formed by how we learn to see the world and ourselves, distinguishing us from others [90](#page=90). - It shapes our behavior and choices [90](#page=90). - Self-image is closely related to identity, referring to our ideas about ourselves [90](#page=90). ### Key facts - Identity is how we are distinguished from others [90](#page=90). - Personal identity refers to what makes us unique based on perceived characteristic traits [91](#page=91). - These traits influence our behavior, consciously or unconsciously [91](#page=91). - Collective identity stems from group membership and a sense of "we-ness" [91](#page=91). - It involves belonging to groups, shared characteristics, a feeling of connection, and social meaning [91](#page=91). - Examples of collective identity include student, sports club member, or cultural background [91](#page=91). - Outgroup is a social group one does not identify with, contrasted with their ingroup [92](#page=92). - National identity is a sense of belonging to a nation based on shared history, culture, language, values, and symbols [92](#page=92). - Nationalism arises when national identity overshadows other collective identities [93](#page=93). - Benedict Anderson described national identity as an "imagined community" [93](#page=93). - Individualization means personal identity is more fragmented today, with fewer pre-determined choices [93](#page=93). - Verzuiling (pillarization) involved distinct religious or political communities with strong collective identities [93](#page=93). - Tertiarisering led to increased education accessibility and upward social mobility [94](#page=94). - Onderwijsdemocratisering provided opportunities for individuals from modest backgrounds to achieve higher positions [94](#page=94). - A keuzebiografie (choice biography) means individuals increasingly choose which groups to belong to and their importance [94](#page=94). - Intersectionality is the combination of identity characteristics that shape experience and perception [94](#page=94). - The kaleidoscopic approach suggests different aspects of identity are prominent depending on the situation [95](#page=95). ### Key concepts - Personal identity: What makes us unique through self-perceived characteristic traits [91](#page=91). - Collective identity: Sense of "we-ness" derived from group membership and shared characteristics [91](#page=91). - In-group vs. Out-group: Categorization of self as part of a group and others as external [92](#page=92). - National identity: Belonging to a nation based on shared national characteristics [92](#page=92). - Imagined community: A group whose members are not personally known but exist in the mind based on shared criteria [93](#page=93). ### Implications --- # Understanding gender and gender roles ### Core idea * Gender refers to societal expectations, roles, and meanings associated with "man," "woman," or other genders, distinct from biological sex [96](#page=96). * These are social, psychological, and cultural aspects, not biological characteristics [96](#page=96). * Gender is a social construct, fluid and historically/culturally shaped [100](#page=100) [99](#page=99). * Gender identity is an individual's inner personal feeling, which can evolve . ### Key facts * Sex refers to biological differences like chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs [95](#page=95). * Gender roles are expectations and power positions attributed to men and women based on sex within a society [97](#page=97). * Masculine societies traditionally distinguish strongly between men and women; feminine societies share caring tasks more [97](#page=97). * Gender norms are societal agreements and expectations connected to specific genders, often binary [98](#page=98) [99](#page=99). * Gender stereotypes are behaviors or beliefs aligning with classic male/female roles and expectations [99](#page=99). * Cross-sex or gender non-conforming behavior contradicts stereotypical gender expectations [99](#page=99). * Parents often unconsciously project gender role ideas onto children, influencing upbringing [100](#page=100). * Media, like advertising and toy catalogs, reinforces gender roles . * Intersex individuals have characteristics of both sexes, representing about 2% of the world population . * Gender expression is how one behaves, dresses, speaks, and moves . * Sexual orientation encompasses romantic and sexual attraction . ### Key concepts * **Caleidoscopic approach:** Which identity is prominent depends on the situation; not always the same aspect of oneself is emphasized [95](#page=95). * **Biological determinism:** Suggests biological differences between sexes explain behavioral differences [97](#page=97). * **Nature-nurture:** Debates whether differences stem from hormones or societal expectations [97](#page=97). * **Gender as a social construct:** Emphasizes that gender is not fixed but created by society [99](#page=99). * **Simone de Beauvoir's "You are not born a woman, you are made one":** Sex is not biologically determined but culturally constructed; criticizes the housewife/mother ideal [99](#page=99). * **Judith Butler's performativity of gender:** "We act out our gender," meaning it's something we are actively doing [100](#page=100). * **Intersectionaliteit:** Gender cannot be viewed in isolation from other social identities like ethnicity or nationality [100](#page=100). * **Cisgender:** Gender identity aligns with the sex assigned at birth . * **Transgender:** Gender identity does not align with the sex assigned at birth; this is an umbrella term . * **Non-binary:** Identities that are not exclusively man, woman, or neither, potentially fluid . ### Implications --- # Feminist movements and their waves ### Core idea - Feminist movements are social and political currents analyzing unequal gender relations and striving for gender equality . - These movements aim to break down inequality, exclusion, and power structures for marginalized groups like women . - Each wave has distinct focuses, with progress in reducing gender inequality over approximately 150 years . ### Key facts - The first feminist wave (1850-1900) focused on legal and economic equality for white, affluent middle-class women . - Key goals of the first wave included women's suffrage, access to university education, and equal rights in the legal system . - The second feminist wave (1965-1985) emphasized women's autonomy and self-determination . - The second wave fought for equal pay, abolition of legal discrimination, childcare rights, reproductive rights (contraception, abortion), and against domestic violence . - The third feminist wave (from the 1990s) introduced diversity, individual choice, and globalization as themes . - Third wave themes include the father's role in parenting, intersectionality (e.g., Black feminism), empowerment, and queer activism . - The fourth feminist wave (from around 2012) is characterized by online activism and combating sexism and sexual violence . - The fourth wave is known for movements like #MeToo, body-positivity, and discussions on issues like the headscarf as emancipation . ### Key concepts - **Feminism:** A collection of social and political currents that critically analyze unequal gender relations and strive for gender equality . - **Emancipation:** A struggle against a disadvantaged position in society and for the attainment of equal rights . - **Intersectionality:** A perspective that examines the intersection of various forms of discrimination, such as race and gender . - **Masculinity Studies:** An interdisciplinary field studying the social and cultural construction of 'manhood', inspired by feminism . - **Toxic Masculinity:** Harmful societal norms associated with traditional masculinity, contrasted with "Positive Masculinity" which embraces vulnerability and compassion . - **Homo-emancipation:** The process where LGBTQ+ individuals strive for equal standing and the chance to develop as equal citizens . - **Coming-in:** The internal realization and acceptance of being different from the norm . - **Coming-out:** The external decision to share one's identity with others . ### Implications - Feminist movements have significantly reduced inequality between men and women over time . - Emancipation has led to a slower redistribution of power resources and more attention to gender neutrality . - The recognition of same-sex marriage and increased LGBTQ+ acceptance are significant outcomes . - Masculinity studies offer critical perspectives on traditional male ideals and combat harmful stereotypes . - The evolving concept of the family reflects societal changes, with greater diversity in family structures . - Intergenerational transfer of circumstances and traits can influence individual development and well-being . --- # Gender norms, inequality, and migration ### Core idea * Gender norms are socially learned roles and expectations influencing societal inequality . * Migration experiences are shaped by intersecting identity characteristics like gender, class, and status . * Social work should consider structural barriers and broader contexts for migrants . ### Key facts * Intergenerational transmission can pass on problems like legal issues or addiction risks . * Positive intergenerational transmission includes literacy and safety . * Families face financial, relationship, upbringing, and health challenges requiring tailored support . * Gender norms can limit language development or career aspirations for individuals . * The "glass ceiling" represents invisible barriers for women in top organizational positions . * Migrating women are increasingly common, leading to the "feminization of migration" . * Stereotypes categorize female migrants as "productive" or "reproductive" . * Integration is a mutual process involving both migrants and society, not just migrant adaptation . * Migrant experiences differ based on gender, class, ethnicity, and residency status . ### Key concepts * Gender refers to socially learned roles and expectations, viewed as a continuum and subject to change . * Intersectionality (Kruispuntdenken) posits that identity characteristics interact and jointly determine life chances and experiences . * Migration is the movement of people, which can be internal, international, forced, or labor-related . * First-generation guest workers had limited social networks and agency compared to contemporary newcomers . * Newcomers today face a globalized world, often with larger networks and mandatory integration programs . * "Gender politics of migration" highlights how gender influences migration policies and experiences . * Affective citizenship recognizes migrants' active societal roles beyond legal or economic contributions, valuing care and relational work . ### Implications * Breaking gender stereotypes is crucial to dismantling the glass ceiling . * Structural barriers, such as language or childcare, hinder migrants' access to work . * Policies and institutions significantly shape migration and integration processes . * Valuing care and solidarity among migrants can foster integration and community belonging . * Recognizing emotional dimensions of citizenship promotes a sense of belonging and active participation . * Solidarity and integrating cultural traditions can aid migrant integration . --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Emancipatiebewegingen (Emancipation Movements) | Social movements that strive for equal rights, recognition, and societal improvement for marginalized groups, such as women, people with disabilities, ethnic minorities, and workers. They aim to break down inequality, exclusion, and power structures. | | Feminisme (Feminism) | A collection of social and political movements that critically analyze unequal gender relations and strive for gender equality. It has a rich and dynamic history that continues to evolve. | | Genderverhoudingen (Gender Relations) | The power dynamics, social roles, and expectations associated with different genders within a society. Feminism critically examines these relations to identify and challenge inequalities. | | Gendergelijkheid (Gender Equality) | The state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making, and the state of equal value for different behaviors, aspirations, and needs. | | Eerste Feministische Golf (First Feminist Wave) | Primarily a movement of white, affluent middle-class women from approximately 1850 to 1900, focusing on achieving legal and economic equality, including women's suffrage, the right to higher education, and equal rights in the legal system. | | Handelingsonbekwaamheid (Legal Incapacity) | A legal status that restricts an individual's ability to enter into contracts or conduct legal affairs independently, which historically applied to married women. | | Tweede Feministische Golf (Second Feminist Wave) | A movement from approximately 1965 to 1985 that strongly emphasized women's autonomy and self-determination, advocating for economic rights, the abolition of legal discrimination, reproductive rights, and safety from domestic and sexual violence. | | Lichamelijke Autonomie (Bodily Autonomy) | The right of individuals to make their own decisions about their bodies and health, including reproductive choices and sexual freedom. | | Derde Feministische Golf (Third Feminist Wave) | Beginning in the 1990s, this wave built upon the second wave with a greater focus on diversity, individual choice, and globalization, addressing issues like intersectionality, the role of fathers, and queer activism. | | Intersectionaliteit (Intersectionality) | A theoretical framework that examines how various social and political identities, such as race, gender, class, and sexual orientation, combine to create unique modes of discrimination and privilege. | | Vierde Feministische Golf (Fourth Feminist Wave) | Emerging around 2012, this wave is characterized by online activism and a strong focus on combating sexism, sexual violence, and racism, often utilizing social media platforms and movements like #MeToo. | | Seksistisch (Sexist) | Prejudiced against or discriminating against people on the basis of sex, particularly women. | | Dramaturgical Approach | A sociological perspective, notably developed by Erving Goffman, that views social interactions as analogous to a theatrical performance, where individuals act as performers playing various roles depending on the social context and audience. | | Self-Presentation | The process by which individuals attempt to create a desired public identity to achieve social goals, ranging from making a good first impression to maintaining a specific image in long-term relationships. | | Interaction | The fundamental form of social contact where individuals react to each other, with the actions of one person serving as a direct stimulus for the actions of another, thereby shaping perceptions of each other. | | Symbolic Interactionism | A theoretical perspective that emphasizes communication and interaction through symbols, where individuals' actions at a micro-level are interpreted and understood through shared meanings of gestures, sounds, and other symbolic representations. | | Role | A set of norms and behavioral expectations associated with a particular social position and status, embedded within a specific cultural context defined by time and place. | | Position | The place an individual occupies within a group relative to other positions, which can increase in complexity within more intricate societies. | | Assigned Position | A social position determined by factors such as sex, nationality, or ethnic origin, which are not chosen by the individual. | | Acquired Position | A social position that individuals attain through their achievements, such as obtaining a diploma or gaining experience in a specific field. | | Attributes (in relation to positions) | Certain positions are defined by specific attributes or characteristics, such as those held by police officers or priests. | | Social Status | The standing of an individual within society, which can influence the positions they hold; generally, a higher position corresponds to greater prestige. | | Socialization | The process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and behaviors appropriate for their society. | | Role Conflict | A situation where contradictory expectations arise from different roles or within a single role. | | Primary Socialization | The initial and fundamental stage of socialization, primarily occurring within the family unit. During this phase, children acquire basic social skills and behaviors, which have profound and lasting implications for their future lives. | | Secondary Socialization | Socialization that takes place in broader social contexts beyond the family, such as schools, peer groups, and workplaces. It is more explicit in its behavioral expectations and focuses on functioning effectively within specific social roles and groups. | | Tertiary Socialization | Socialization that occurs through media influences, shaping perceptions of social behavior associated with various roles. This form can be both implicit and explicit, allowing individuals to learn about roles they may not yet occupy. | | Referent Framework | A framework that is gradually built from an individual's experiences, which guides and selectively influences their future perceptions and judgments. Stereotypes are often an integral part of a referent framework. | | Selective Perception | The tendency to perceive only a portion of a situation, focusing on aspects that are deemed important in life. This phenomenon is influenced by an individual's referent framework and can be shaped by both physical and social components. | | Cognitive Dissonance | An uncomfortable internal state experienced by an individual or group when there is a discrepancy between perceived facts and deeply held beliefs. This discomfort can lead to a resistance to changing existing beliefs, even when presented with contradictory information. | | Power | The ability of individuals or groups to impose their will on others, even against their wishes or interests. Power can manifest in various degrees, from dictatorial force to democratic negotiation, and is distinct from authority, which is legitimized. | | Power Holder (Machtsmeerdere) | An individual or group that influences the behavior of others and imposes their will. This entity is the active agent in a power dynamic, shaping the actions of those with less power. | | Power Less (Machtsmindere) | An individual or group whose behavior is influenced by a power holder. This entity is the recipient of the imposed will and their actions are shaped by the power dynamic. | | Legitimized Power | Power that is accepted and recognized as valid, often derived from established laws or societal norms. Examples include the authority of law enforcement or the power granted by legal frameworks. | | Reward Power | Power derived from the ability to offer rewards or incentives to influence behavior. Acceptance of this power is often based on the anticipated benefits or positive reinforcement. | | Culture | Culture encompasses everything that humans have added to nature, including knowledge, science, language, religion, ethics, laws, social relationships, symbols, and the shared agreements and perspectives among people within a specific group or society. It is a "way of life" that provides a framework for interpreting situations and assigning meaning. | | Social Construct | Culture is understood as a social construct, meaning it is created and maintained through human interaction, socialization, and shared understanding. Practices like giving a handshake or a kiss upon introduction, and learning the appropriate intensity of such gestures, are examples of cultural learning through social interaction. | | Values | Values are general principles, ideals, underlying ideas, or beliefs that are considered worthwhile and that people attach importance to. They represent what is considered desirable and serve as motivations for behavior, guiding the broader societal framework of how people interact. | | Norms | Norms are concrete rules or guidelines for behavior, such as laws, customs, and habits, that are derived from values. They dictate how individuals should act in specific situations and can be enforced through social control, with consequences for non-conformity ranging from positive reinforcement to negative sanctions. | | Cultural Diversity | Cultural diversity refers to the existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society. It acknowledges that different groups have distinct lifestyles, beliefs, customs, and ways of interpreting the world, leading to variations in practices like diet, clothing, and religious observance. | | Nature-Nurture Debate | The nature-nurture debate explores the extent to which human traits and behaviors are determined by innate, biological factors (nature) versus environmental influences and learning (nurture). It highlights the complexity in distinguishing between inherited predispositions and learned behaviors shaped by culture. | | Determinism | Determinism, in the context of culture, is the assumption that human behavior is entirely determined by cultural influences and the rules imposed by society, such as norms and values. This perspective suggests that social connections and cultural frameworks dictate individual actions and choices. | | Glass Ceiling | A metaphor used to describe the invisible barriers that prevent women from reaching top positions in organizations. These artificial obstacles and invisible barriers are formed by behavioral and organizational biases, hindering equal career opportunities for women and men within an organization. | | Gender | Refers to socially learned roles and expectations surrounding men and women. It is viewed as a continuum, influences various life domains, and is a changeable concept that contributes to societal inequality, necessitating intersectional thinking. | | Intersectional Thinking (Intersectionality) | The concept that identity characteristics, such as gender, social class, migration background, and religion, do not operate in isolation but in conjunction with each other. These intersections determine an individual's opportunities, experiences, and position in society, leading to different experiences of inequality and societal processes. The effects of different axes can reinforce each other. | | Feminization of Migration | The trend of an increasing number of women migrating. This phenomenon raises critical questions about whether it always signifies greater freedom or positive outcomes for women. | | Productive Migrant vs. Reproductive Migrant | A distinction made regarding migrants, where "productive migrant" may refer to someone migrating for work, while "reproductive migrant" might be associated with migration for family or caregiving purposes, often applied to women. | | Affective Citizenship | The idea that migrant mothers are active members of society who contribute beyond formal laws, language, and economics. Citizenship is seen as encompassing the preservation and combination of one's own culture with a new one, where caregiving and relational work are valued as societal contributions. | | Vertical Segregation | Another term for the glass ceiling, referring to the phenomenon where women can ascend the hierarchy of an organization but only to a certain level, indicating a lack of upward mobility beyond a specific point. | | Societal Inequality | The unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and power within a society, often influenced by various social categories such as gender, class, ethnicity, and migration status. | | Emancipatory Labor | Refers to unpaid reproductive labor, such as childcare and household management, which, while essential for societal functioning, can be seen as a form of "oppression of another woman" if it limits the emancipation of some women. | | Colonial Propaganda | Propaganda disseminated during the colonial era, aiming to influence public opinion and legitimize colonial rule. This could be explicit, through state-sponsored events and imagery, or implicit, embedded in cultural products like theater, cartoons, literature, and education. | | Racial Hierarchy | A system of social stratification based on race, where one race is considered inherently superior to others. In the colonial context, this ideology was used to justify the subjugation and exploitation of colonized populations by the colonizing powers. | | Segregation | The enforced separation of different racial groups in a country, community, or institution. Colonial regimes often implemented strict segregation in housing, education, and public facilities, mirroring systems like apartheid. | | Cultural Suppression | The act of deliberately discouraging or destroying the cultural practices, traditions, and identity of a group of people. Colonial powers often compelled colonized populations to abandon their own cultures and adopt Western norms. | | Assimilation Policy | A policy aimed at integrating minority groups into the dominant culture, often by encouraging or forcing them to adopt the language, customs, and values of the dominant group. In colonial contexts, this was a tool for control and subjugation. | | Paternalistic Ideology | A belief system that views a dominant group as having a parental responsibility to care for and guide a subordinate group, often under the guise of benevolence. Colonial powers used this to justify their interventions and control. | | "Civilizing Mission" | The purported duty of Western powers to bring civilization, Christianity, and economic development to non-Western societies, often used as a justification for colonialism and its inherent exploitation. | | Stereotyping | The oversimplified and often negative generalization about a particular group of people. Colonial propaganda frequently depicted Africans as subservient, helpless, and ignorant to reinforce the narrative of Western superiority. | | Dehumanization | The process of stripping individuals or groups of their human qualities, making them appear less than human. This was a common tactic in colonial propaganda to facilitate exploitation and violence. | | Mental Legacy of Colonization | The enduring psychological and ideological impact of colonial rule on both the colonizers and the colonized. This includes the perpetuation of notions of white superiority and black inferiority, leading to ongoing discrimination and trauma. | | Postcolonialism | An intellectual and cultural movement that analyzes the consequences of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on the cultural, political, and economic legacies left behind in formerly colonized regions and their impact on global power dynamics. | | Systemic Racism | Racism that is embedded within the laws, policies, and practices of a society or institution, leading to discriminatory outcomes. In the context of colonialism, it was a deliberate capitalist choice to create and maintain social inequality. | | Identity | The aspect of self that distinguishes an individual from others, encompassing the ideas one holds about oneself. It is shaped by how we learn to perceive the world and influences our behavior and choices. | | Self-image | An alternative term for identity, referring to the collection of ideas and perceptions an individual has about themselves. | | Personal Identity | That which makes an individual unique, determined by the characteristics they perceive as defining them. These characteristics can influence behavior, sometimes consciously and sometimes unconsciously, and are often seen as positive attributes. | | Collective Identity | The part of an individual's identity that stems from their membership in a group and the associated sense of belonging. It involves shared characteristics, values, beliefs, and a feeling of being connected to others within that group. | | In-group | A social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging, often characterized by shared norms, values, and a "we" mentality. | | Out-group | A social group with which an individual does not identify, and which is distinguished from their own group (in-group), often based on perceived differences in characteristics, values, or norms. | | National Identity | The feeling of belonging to a nation, based on shared elements such as history, culture, language, values, and symbols. It is a specific form of collective identity related to one's country. | | Nationalism | A phenomenon that occurs when national identity begins to overshadow other collective identities, or when individuals perceive their other group affiliations as subordinate to their national identity. | | Imagined Community | A concept describing a group, such as a nation, where members do not know each other personally but share a sense of unity and belonging based on shared ideas and criteria, existing primarily in their collective imagination. | | Individualization | A societal trend where personal identity is increasingly fragmented and less determined by a limited number of collective identities. Individuals have more freedom to choose which groups they belong to and how important these affiliations are to their self-concept. | | Pillarization (Verzuiling) | A historical social structure where individuals with similar religious or political beliefs formed distinct, cohesive communities with limited social interaction and often suspicion towards other groups. The collective identity of one's pillar was a significant part of personal identity. | | Tertiarization | The shift in an economy towards a dominant service sector, often requiring higher qualifications and leading to increased accessibility of education for broader segments of the population. | | Intergenerational Transmission | The process by which problems or advantages are passed down from one generation to the next, influencing factors like contact with the justice system, addiction, mental well-being, and poverty. | | Gender Norms | Socially learned roles and expectations associated with men and women, which can influence various life domains and contribute to societal inequality. | | Intersectionality | A theoretical framework that recognizes how various identity characteristics, such as gender, social class, and migration background, interact and influence an individual's opportunities, experiences, and societal position. | | Migration | The movement of people from one place to another, which can occur within or across national borders for a variety of complex and multiple reasons. | | Reproductive Migrant | A stereotype applied to female migrants, often associating them primarily with family and caregiving roles rather than productive labor. | | Transnationalism | The practice of maintaining active participation in multiple societies, often seen in migrant communities where activities in their home countries can also aid integration in the host country. | | Sex (Biological Sex) | Refers to the physical and biological differences between males and females, typically determined by chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs present at birth. | | Gender (Social/Cultural Sex) | Encompasses the roles, expectations, symbols, and meanings that society attaches to "man," "woman," or other genders, reflecting accepted masculine and feminine behaviors and characteristics. | | Gender Roles | Expectations and power positions within a society that are attributed to men and women based on their sex, influencing behaviors and societal participation. | | Biological Determinism | A perspective that explains differences in behavior between men and women solely based on biological differences, often citing hormonal or genetic factors. | | Nature-Nurture | A debate exploring whether differences in behavior are primarily due to innate biological factors (nature) or societal expectations and upbringing (nurture). | | Masculine Societies | Traditional societies characterized by a strong distinction between men and women and clearly defined gender expectations for each. | | Feminine Societies | Societies where masculinity is less dominant as a norm, and caring tasks are more equally shared between genders. | | Gender as a Social Construct | The understanding that gender is not solely determined by biology but is shaped by social, psychological, and cultural aspects, influenced by societal norms and expectations. | | Gender Norm | The agreements and expectations that a society connects with specific genders, often influencing gender expression and the social roles individuals adopt. These norms are typically binary, assuming a contrast between how men and women should behave. | | Gender Stereotype | Roles, behaviors, and beliefs that align with the "typical" and classic male/female roles and expectations within a specific context or time period. | | Cross-Sex Behavior / Gender Non-Conformity | Behavior that contradicts the stereotypical expectations associated with one's assigned sex within a particular context or time. | | Simone De Beauvoir | A French philosopher and feminist author whose work, particularly "The Second Sex," argued that "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman," emphasizing the cultural construction of gender over biological determinism. | | Interpretation | The process by which individuals make sense of the world around them by assigning meaning to their perceptions, influenced by their personal experiences and cultural background. | | Meaning-Making | The continuous process individuals engage in to understand and assign significance to what they perceive, which is fundamental to cultural understanding and can vary greatly between different groups. | | Categorization | The cognitive process of classifying observed phenomena into distinct groups or categories, which helps in understanding their purpose and potential meaning, and involves drawing boundaries between things perceived as different. | | Simplification | The process of making complex realities more manageable by reducing them to their essential components, which can lead to the formation of associations and stereotypes. | | Association | The mental connection made between different concepts or categories, often learned through prior experiences and socialization, influencing how individuals automatically link ideas or behaviors. | | Stereotypes | Simplified narratives or generalized beliefs about particular groups of people that have become widely accepted, often leading to value judgments and the potential for prejudice if negative connotations are attached. | | Prejudice | Preconceived opinions or judgments about individuals or groups, often formed on the basis of stereotypes, particularly towards those who are perceived as different or not belonging to one's own in-group. | | Social Inequality | The unfair distribution of various social goods and the unequal appreciation and treatment of people based on their societal position and lifestyle, leading to societal divisions. | | Social Stratification | A hierarchical division of society into unequal groups, where society is not a homogeneous entity but is subdivided based on factors like sex, age, education level, capital/income, and status. | | Estate System | A historical system of stratification, prevalent in medieval Europe, divided into clergy, nobility, and peasants/laborers, characterized by unequal power and wealth distribution where the lowest estate had more obligations than rights. | | Caste System | A system of stratification where social position is fixed based on occupation and origin, with strict separation between groups and prohibitions on inter-caste marriage, primarily found in India and Nepal. | | Class Society | A hierarchical societal division based on economic measures and individual achievements, emerging after the Industrial Revolution, where the ownership of the means of production became paramount. | | Social Mobility | The ability to change one's social position (higher/lower class) from the one into which one was born, often facilitated by better education and increased social and economic capital. | | Economic Inequality | Inequality that arises when not everyone benefits equally from the wealth and prosperity within a country, considered undesirable as everyone contributes to wealth in their own way. | | Income Inequality | Inequality that occurs when people are not rewarded equally for their work, for example, doctors earning more than nurses. | | Wealth Inequality | Differences in the assets that people possess, including savings, stocks, real estate, and other possessions, minus debts, which constitute an individual's net worth. | | Inequality of Opportunity | Disparities in the chances individuals have to succeed, particularly evident in education, where factors like parental income and educational background, as well as school quality, play a significant role. | | Social Exclusion | A network of social exclusions that extends across multiple areas of individual and collective existence, separating the poor from the generally accepted life patterns of society, a gap they cannot bridge on their own. | | Matthew Effect | A phenomenon where individuals who are already doing well continue to improve their situation, while those who are not successful have progressively less. | | Diversity | Refers to the variety within society, encompassing differences in ethnicity, culture, age, gender, sexuality, nationality, abilities, religion, and other social characteristics. | | Ethnic Diversity | Refers to the social-cultural identity of groups, characterized by shared elements such as language, nationality, culture, history, and religion. | | Superdiversity | Describes a multitude of people with diverse cultures, traditions, religions, languages, and social classes, where differences within these groups also exist across generations. | | Pluralistic Society | A society composed of diverse groups of people living together, such as various religious communities coexisting. | | Exclusion | Occurs when a person is denied access to participation in society, limiting their ability to engage fully. | | Integration | Involves individuals being allowed to participate only if they can adapt, with existing structures making minimal or no adjustments to meet their needs, often hindering full and sustainable participation. | | Inclusion | Encompasses the right to full participation in society on equal footing with other citizens, enabling independent living with equal choices and respect for individual decisions. | | Equality | The principle that each individual or group receives the same resources or opportunities, aiming for an identical starting position for everyone regardless of their identity, though it doesn't always guarantee equal outcomes. | | Equity | Recognizes that individuals do not have equal starting positions and require different forms of support to achieve equal opportunities, acknowledging the need for varied assistance. | | Colonialism | The practice of occupying and exploiting overseas territories through the settlement of a dominant power. Key characteristics include violent conquest, political and economic control by a foreign state, systematic disadvantage and exploitation of indigenous populations, and the imposition of the colonizer's culture and ways of thinking. | | Congo Free State | The personal private property of Belgian King Leopold II from 1885 to 1908, established through the Berlin Conference. It was characterized by brutal exploitation of rubber and ivory, leading to the deaths of millions of Congolese people through forced labor, torture, and mass murder. | | Belgian Colonial Period | The era from 1908 to 1960 when Belgium officially governed Congo as Belgian Congo. This period was marked by paternalistic rule aimed at serving Belgian interests, continued exploitation of natural resources, and a system of racism and segregation that denied political rights to Congolese people. | | Decolonization | The process by which colonies gain independence from their colonizing powers. In the context of Congo, this period began after World War II, with African leaders advocating for independence, culminating in Congo's declaration of independence on June 30, 1960. | | Postcolonial Period | The era following a colony's independence, characterized by the ongoing impact of colonial legacies. In Congo, this period has been marked by political instability, conflict, dictatorship, and continued struggles stemming from the abrupt Belgian withdrawal and the exploitation of natural resources. | | White Supremacy | The belief that white people are superior to people of other races and should therefore dominate society. This ideology underpinned colonial systems, leading to the subjugation and dehumanization of non-white populations and creating a lasting mental legacy of perceived white superiority and black inferiority. | | Exploitation | The act of using someone or something unfairly for profit or advantage. In the context of colonialism, this involved the systematic appropriation of land and resources, forced labor, and the establishment of structures to systematically disadvantage and exploit indigenous populations for the economic benefit of the colonizing power. | | Cultural Oppression | The suppression or destruction of a people's culture and identity by a dominant power. Colonial powers often forced colonized populations to abandon their own customs and adopt Western norms, leading to the erosion of cultural identity and the imposition of foreign values. | | Propaganda | Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view. Colonial powers used both implicit (through culture and media) and explicit (through state-sponsored events) propaganda to justify colonization, portray Africans as inferior, and promote the idea of a civilizing mission. | | Human Zoo | An exhibition of human beings, typically from colonized or indigenous populations, presented in a zoo-like setting for public display. The case of Ota Benga, a Congolese man exhibited in the Bronx Zoo in 1906, exemplifies the dehumanization and racist stereotyping inherent in such practices. | | Stereotyping and Dehumanization | The practice of assigning generalized and often negative characteristics to entire groups of people, and the process of stripping individuals or groups of their human qualities, often used as a tool to justify oppression and exploitation. | | Postcolonial Whitewashing | The act of presenting a sanitized or biased version of history and culture, particularly concerning non-Western societies, by marginalizing or eliminating the voices, stories, and perspectives of colonized peoples and their contributions. | | Enduring Structures of Power | The persistent systems and hierarchies established during the colonial era that continue to exert influence on political, economic, and social relations in contemporary societies. | | Othering | A process by which a dominant group defines itself by contrasting it with a perceived inferior group, often stereotyping the "other" as exotic, primitive, or irrational, thereby reinforcing the dominant group's sense of superiority. | | Postcolonial Representation | The ways in which the world, particularly former colonies, are depicted and understood after decolonization, often influenced by lingering colonial perspectives and power dynamics in media, literature, and politics. | | Whitewashing (in media and history) | The practice of assimilating non-white individuals or cultures into a "white" norm, either by casting white actors in non-white roles or by altering historical narratives to downplay the negative impacts of colonialism and racism, thereby reinforcing dominant cultural norms. | | Collective Amnesia | A societal phenomenon where a group or nation collectively forgets or suppresses significant aspects of its past, particularly concerning historical injustices like colonial atrocities, often due to vested interests or a desire to maintain a positive national image. | | Decolonization as Restoration | A comprehensive process that extends beyond political independence, aiming to address and rectify the deep-seated mental, physical, social, and racial inequalities left behind by the colonial past. | | Colonial Structures | The institutional frameworks, power dynamics, and ideologies established by colonial powers that continue to influence economic, social, and political systems in post-colonial societies. |