HOOFDSTUK 6 (1).pdf

# Introduction to archaeological heritage and its components Our understanding of the past is intrinsically linked to the preservation state of archaeological remains, both below and above ground [1](#page=1). ### 1.1 The importance of preservation The preservation of archaeological relics is influenced by various factors, including temperature, humidity, and acidity. Optimal preservation conditions are typically found in extremely dry or wet environments, as well as extremely cold or warm contexts. Natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, can also lead to favorable preservation, as seen in Pompeii and Herculaneum [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Components of archaeological heritage Archaeological heritage is generally composed of several key aspects: artifacts, ecofacts, features, and structures [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.1 Artifacts Artifacts are defined as all objects that have been used, made, or modified by humans [1](#page=1). > **Example:** Stone or metal tools, pottery, and tools made from organic materials like bone, antler, or wood are examples of artifacts [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.2 Ecofacts Ecofacts encompass all organic and inorganic remains discovered at archaeological sites that provide information about the ecology (natural environment) and economy (diet) of the site and its surroundings [1](#page=1). > **Example:** Seeds, fruits, pollen, and charcoal are examples of organic ecofacts. Soils and sediments fall under the category of inorganic ecofacts [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.3 Features Features, also referred to as "sporen" in Dutch, are essentially all immobile archaeological elements. A distinction is commonly made between natural and anthropogenic features [1](#page=1). * **Natural features** are those formed by natural processes [1](#page=1). > **Example:** Tree-uprooting pits (caused by windthrow or fallen trees) and galleries dug by burrowing animals (such as badgers or rabbits) are natural features [1](#page=1). * **Anthropogenic features** are those created by human activity [1](#page=1). > **Example:** Postholes, rubbish pits, ditches, graves, and hearths are examples of anthropogenic features [1](#page=1). Artifacts and/or ecofacts are typically found within features [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.4 Structures Structures are defined as groupings of features that exhibit a relationship to one another [1](#page=1). > **Example:** A wooden building is an archaeological structure composed of multiple postholes (features) usually spaced at regular intervals. A burial ground or necropolis is a structure formed by a collection of graves [1](#page=1). ### 1.3 Archaeological site and context An archaeological site, or find spot, is any location where artifacts, ecofacts, features, and/or structures are discovered, indicating some form of human activity. Common classifications of sites based on activity include settlements, burial grounds, encampments, tells, and cities [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.1 Context The context refers to the specific location (feature or structure) within a site where an artifact or ecofact is found. A context comprises three elements [2](#page=2): * **Matrix:** The soil material in which the find is situated, such as sand, clay, or gravel [2](#page=2). * **Position:** The horizontal and vertical location within the matrix [2](#page=2). * **Association:** Other finds discovered within the same context [2](#page=2). A context can be a feature or structure (e.g., artifacts and ecofacts from a rubbish pit), or it can be a layer or soil horizon. Detailed recording of the context of archaeological finds is crucial for subsequent site interpretation [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.2 Primary versus secondary contexts A distinction is often made between primary and secondary contexts: * **Primary contexts** are situations where artifacts and/or ecofacts remain in their original location, meaning they are found where they were initially left. Artifacts/ecofacts discovered within anthropogenic features or layers (such as graves, hearths, or undisturbed living floors) are examples of primary contexts [2](#page=2). * **Secondary contexts** are disturbed contexts where artifacts/ecofacts are no longer in their original position. Examples include artifacts found in naturally formed features (e.g., windthrow) and layers (e.g., colluvial and alluvial deposits), or artifacts in a cave that have been moved into a higher or lower layer by burrowing animals, or artifacts within a midden layer [2](#page=2). Some anthropogenic features, such as rubbish pits, can also be interpreted as secondary contexts. This is because it is assumed that the artifacts/ecofacts within these pits originated elsewhere and were deposited there through refuse disposal (so-called "dumps"). Strictly speaking, they are therefore no longer in the location where they were made or used [2](#page=2). --- # Formation processes of archaeological sites and finds The formation processes of archaeological sites and finds explain how archaeological remains come into existence and are preserved over time. ## 2 Formation processes of archaeological sites and finds Formation processes encompass all the phenomena that affect archaeological sites and finds from the moment of their creation or deposition until their discovery. These processes are divided into depositional processes, which explain how sites and finds come into being, and post-depositional processes, which concern their preservation in or above the ground, also known as the taphonomy of the site/find. Both cultural and natural factors influence these processes [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ### 2.1 Cultural formation processes Cultural formation processes result from conscious or unconscious human actions. This includes the manufacturing, use, and disposal of tools, the construction of structures, and land cultivation. The destruction of archaeological heritage by human activities, such as industrial development, is also considered a cultural formation process [3](#page=3). #### 2.1.1 Cultural depositional processes Depositional processes are how artifacts and ecofacts enter the archaeological record. ##### 2.1.1.1 Loss or dump Most finds on archaeological sites, especially settlements, are left behind due to loss or the dumping of waste. Artifacts can enter the ground at various stages of their "lifecycle" [3](#page=3): 1. During the extraction of raw materials (stone, clay, bone, etc.) [3](#page=3). 2. During the manufacturing of the artifact (stone tools, pottery, bone harpoons, etc.) [3](#page=3). 3. During the use of the artifact (hunting, cooking, fishing, etc.) [3](#page=3). 4. During the disposal of the artifact (due to breakage or wear) [3](#page=3). Understanding which of these phases an artifact entered the ground is crucial for interpretation. Ecofacts can also end up on sites in various ways. Animal remains might be discarded as butchery waste, or sites can contain remains of "natural" fauna (e.g., rodents) attracted by human presence. Caves, for instance, were inhabited by both humans and animals, with animals potentially dying there or bringing in prey [3](#page=3). ##### 2.1.1.2 Depot Artifacts can also enter the ground through intentional deposition, where objects are deliberately set aside. The clearest example is the burial of the dead, but objects were also intentionally buried for various reasons. Two main types of object depots are distinguished [3](#page=3): * **Profane depots (or cache depots):** These consist of one or more objects intended to be retrieved later. Examples include caches of goods by traders or craftsmen, personal property hidden for safety during turbulent times (e.g., coin hoards), or buried flint supplies to keep them fresh [4](#page=4). * **Ritual depots:** These are depots of objects deliberately buried and never intended to be retrieved. They can be offerings to supernatural powers, "grave gifts" for the deceased, or offerings with social implications, such as displaying wealth or destroying capital to prevent social tensions [4](#page=4). Distinguishing between these two types is challenging, often relying on location and composition. Profane depots are typically more heterogeneous and found in accessible locations (shallow), often containing used or out-of-circulation objects. Ritual depots tend to have a more specific, curated content (e.g., a few axes, pottery pieces with a clear arrangement) and are found in less accessible areas like bogs, caves, or rivers, often containing unused or specially made objects [4](#page=4). > **Example:** Bronze objects found in Flemish rivers could be the result of loss, battles, shipwrecks, erosion of settlements, or ritual depots. Bog bodies can represent offerings, executions, lost individuals, or burials [4](#page=4). #### 2.1.2 Cultural post-depositional processes Humans are significant agents of destruction for archaeological heritage through activities like intensive agriculture (ploughing), looting, and industrial development. For example, centuries of agriculture have led to the near disappearance of Bronze Age burial mounds in Flanders, with their presence only known through aerial photography. Looting, a historical phenomenon, affects graves, burial grounds, settlements (often with metal detectors), and shipwrecks [5](#page=5). ### 2.2 Natural formation processes Natural processes can also create and alter archaeological sites and finds. #### 2.2.1 Natural depositional processes Artifacts and ecofacts can be displaced and relocated by natural forces such as erosion from water (alluvial contexts), gravity (colluvial contexts), or wind (aeolian contexts), leading to the formation of "secondary" archaeological contexts [5](#page=5). Under specific conditions, natural processes can produce objects that mimic human-made artifacts and ecofacts. These require detailed specialist analysis for differentiation [5](#page=5). > **Example 1: Pseudo-artifacts** > Stone objects found on Paleolithic sites, particularly in old river terraces, can appear to be human-made but are often heavily weathered, patinated, and rounded due to transport and frost action (cryoturbation), giving them an artifact-like appearance [5](#page=5). > **Example 2: Faunal remains on archaeological sites** > The interpretation of faunal remains can be problematic if no direct evidence of human activity is present. Accumulations of animal bones can result from human activity (butchery waste), animal activity (predator remains, with potential gnaw marks), or fluvial activity (washed-in remains) [6](#page=6). > **Example 3: Charcoal** > Charcoal is common on archaeological sites, but its origin (natural fires from lightning or volcanic eruptions vs. human activity) is not always clear. There is no scientific method to distinguish between anthropogenic and natural charcoal; interpretation relies on associations with other archaeological evidence [6](#page=6). #### 2.2.2 Natural post-depositional processes The preservation of archaeological material is contingent on favorable conditions, which are rarely met in practice. Generally, non-organic materials preserve better and longer than organic materials and ecofacts, with exceptions for fossilized or burned/cremated organic remains [6](#page=6). ##### 2.2.2.1 Non-organic remains * **Stone (flint, sandstone, quartz, etc.):** Stone artifacts are highly durable, with the oldest examples exceeding two million years. Weathering from chemical and physical factors (patina formation, wind gloss, rounding, frost damage) can occur but is usually superficial. Microscopic analysis of unweathered stone tools can reveal use-wear [6](#page=6). * **Fired clay (pottery):** Pottery preserves well if fired adequately at high temperatures. Wet or acidic soils can damage walls and cause flaking, especially on decorated pottery. Even the oldest European pottery (c. 6000/5500 BC) survives in good condition, sometimes retaining traces of food or dyes [6](#page=6). * **Metal:** While metals oxidize, their preservation varies with raw material quality. Gold, silver, and lead preserve best with only minor patination. Bronze and copper are more prone to corrosion, especially in acidic soils or with lower-quality alloys. Iron has the poorest preservation due to rapid oxidation, often leaving only a "rust lump" [7](#page=7). * **Glass and enamel:** These generally preserve relatively well but can develop an iridescent patina that obscures visibility [7](#page=7). ##### 2.2.2.2 Organic remains The preservation of organic materials depends heavily on the matrix and moisture/temperature levels [7](#page=7). * **Matrix:** * **Sand:** Typically acidic (pH 6.5-5.5) and unfavorable for organic preservation. Bone or wood is rarely found in Flemish sandy regions, and when present, it is usually in poor condition, heavily weathered, burned, or only preserved as an imprint [7](#page=7). * **Loam:** Variable preservation. In the Benelux, preservation is poor due to decalcification, often leaving only teeth. Central European loams, which are not decalcified, offer near-optimal preservation. Loam areas with shallow chalk substrates, like in Northern France, also preserve organic material relatively well [7](#page=7). * **Clay and chalk/calcareous soils/contexts (e.g., caves):** Offer much better organic preservation [7](#page=7). * **Volcanic ash:** Sites buried in volcanic ash, such as Pompeii and Herculaneum, preserve material exceptionally well. Early examples exist in Western Germany, where prehistoric landscapes, including Paleolithic hunter-camps, are preserved under thick deposits from the Laacher See eruption (c. 11,000 BC) [7](#page=7). > **Example:** Niederbieber in the Neuwied Basin [7](#page=7). * **Extreme climatic conditions:** * **Extreme dryness:** Prevents decomposition by hindering microbial activity through rapid dehydration. Predynastic Egyptian bodies buried in sand (before 3000 BC) are preserved with skin, hair, and nails. Later dynastic graves contain intact mummies and grave goods like papyrus, wooden shrines, and textiles [8](#page=8). * **Extreme cold:** In cold, dry climates, permanent freezing (permafrost) halts decomposition. Siberian mammoths with preserved skin, hair, and even stomach contents are notable examples. Scythian (Pazyryk) tombs in the Altai Mountains (c. 400 BC) in permafrost have yielded intact bodies, clothing, tattoos, and textiles. The "Iceman Ötzi" (c. 3300 BC), found in a glacier on the Austrian-Italian border, was preserved with his belongings and clothing [8](#page=8). * **Extreme humidity (waterlogged sites):** Sites permanently submerged in groundwater, oceans, or rivers, thus lacking oxygen, offer exceptional preservation. These "wetland sites" reveal that up to 75-90% of settlement material was organic. Numerous wetland sites in Northwest Europe have yielded dwellings, roads, bog bodies, depots (e.g., cartwheels), canoes, and fish traps. Lakeside villages in Switzerland and Eastern France are well-documented, as are Mesolithic encampments found along submerged ancient coastlines in the North Sea and Baltic Sea regions. Shipwrecks also benefit from this anaerobic preservation. Deep archaeological structures reaching the permanent groundwater table, like wells, can also be considered wetland contexts [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). ##### 2.2.2.2 Traces and structures Traces and structures can also be affected by post-depositional processes due to climatic, chemical, and soil factors [9](#page=9). * **Soil formation processes:** In sandy soils, prehistoric traces can become almost unrecognizable due to soil formation processes like podzolization, which erodes the contours of shallow soil features [9](#page=9). * **Bioturbation:** Disturbance caused by burrowing animals, insects, and plant roots can blur the outlines of features, displace artifacts and ecofacts (especially vertically), or completely disrupt contexts (e.g., tree falls) [9](#page=9). * **Frost and thaw cycles:** Repeated freezing and thawing can cause significant disturbance, leading to artifacts being "frozen out" and gradually pushed towards the surface [9](#page=9). --- # Cultural formation processes and their impact Cultural formation processes encompass human activities that directly lead to the creation, use, deposition, or destruction of archaeological materials. ### 3.1 Cultural depositional processes Cultural depositional processes refer to how archaeological materials enter the ground as a result of human actions. #### 3.1.1 Loss or dumping The majority of artifacts found on archaeological sites, particularly settlements, are a consequence of items being lost or waste being discarded. Artifacts can enter the soil at various stages of their lifecycle, broadly categorized into four phases [3](#page=3): 1. During the extraction of raw materials (e.g., stone, clay, bone) [3](#page=3). 2. During the manufacturing of the artifact (e.g., stone tools, pottery, bone harpoons) [3](#page=3). 3. During the use of the artifact (e.g., for hunting, cooking, fishing) [3](#page=3). 4. During the disposal of the artifact due to breakage or wear [3](#page=3). Understanding which of these four phases an artifact entered is crucial for archaeological interpretation, as it can significantly affect its context [3](#page=3). Ecofacts can also reach archaeological sites through various means. Animal remains might be discarded as butchery waste, but sites can also contain remnants of naturally occurring fauna, such as rodents attracted by human presence. Certain locations, like caves, may have housed both humans and animals historically, with animals dying in situ or predators bringing prey inside [3](#page=3). #### 3.1.2 Depot Another way artifacts enter the ground is through intentional discarding or deposition. The most evident form of deposition is the burial of the dead. Historically, objects were also intentionally buried for various reasons [3](#page=3). Two main types of object depots are distinguished: profane (or storage) depots and ritual depots [4](#page=4). ##### 3.1.2.1 Profane depots Profane depots consist of one or more objects deliberately placed with the intention of retrieving them later. Examples include [4](#page=4): 1. Stockpiles of goods by traders or artisans, such as an iron smith's inventory [4](#page=4). 2. Personal property or group possessions hidden during turbulent times to prevent theft, like a hoard of coins [4](#page=4). 3. Supplies of flint buried to preserve their freshness [4](#page=4). ##### 3.1.2.2 Ritual depots Ritual depots involve one or more objects deliberately placed with no intention of retrieval. Examples include [4](#page=4): 1. Offerings made to communicate with, praise, thank, or appease supernatural powers [4](#page=4). 2. "Grave goods" intended for the veneration of a deceased or future deceased individual [4](#page=4). 3. Offerings with social implications, such as a means for an elite to display wealth or for wealth destruction to mitigate social tensions [4](#page=4). Distinguishing between profane and ritual depots can be challenging, often relying on the location and composition of the depot. Profane depots tend to be more heterogeneous in their contents and are usually found in easily accessible locations, often shallowly buried. They typically comprise used or discarded objects. Ritual depots, conversely, often have a more specific inventory (e.g., a few axes, pieces of pottery, sometimes arranged in a particular way) and are found in less accessible areas like bogs, caves, or rivers. The objects in ritual depots are frequently unused and sometimes specifically made for deposition [4](#page=4). > **Example:** Two illustrative examples of depots are bronze objects found in Flemish rivers, which could be lost, from a battlefield, a sunken ship, an eroded riverside settlement, or were ritual deposits. Bog bodies are another example, potentially representing sacrifices, executions, lost individuals, or burials [4](#page=4). ### 3.2 Cultural post-depositional processes Human activities significantly contribute to the destruction of the archaeological record, including intensive agriculture (plowing), looting, and industrial activities [5](#page=5). > **Example:** The impact of centuries of agriculture is illustrated by the hundreds of Bronze Age burial mounds that no longer exist in the Flemish landscape but are known only through aerial photography. Agriculture has led to the general leveling of the landscape, causing the disappearance of almost all above-ground traces of burial mounds. Such above-ground structures are preserved only in less agricultural areas, like parts of the Kempen and the Ardennes, with some dating back to approximately 4,500 BC [5](#page=5). Looting has occurred throughout history. Classic examples include the large-scale plundering of Egyptian tombs. In Europe, many Bronze Age and Roman period burial mounds and tumuli have been looted. Looting is not confined to graves and burial grounds; settlements are also affected. Many Roman settlements have been plundered using metal detectors. Shipwrecks are also frequent targets for looters [5](#page=5). --- # Natural formation processes and material preservation This topic explores how archaeological materials are formed and preserved, both through natural processes and human impact, considering various environmental conditions. ### 4.1 Post-depositional processes: Cultural impacts #### 4.1.2 Cultural post-depositional processes Human activities are a significant cause of the destruction of archaeological heritage through practices like intensive agriculture, looting, and industrial activities [5](#page=5). * **Agriculture:** Centuries of farming have led to the leveling of landscapes, causing the disappearance of above-ground features like Bronze Age burial mounds. Only in less agricultural areas are such structures still preserved [5](#page=5). * **Looting:** This has been a constant issue throughout history. Examples include the extensive looting of Egyptian tombs and the plundering of Bronze Age and Roman burial mounds and settlements, often aided by metal detectors. Shipwrecks are also frequent targets [5](#page=5). ### 4.2 Natural formation processes #### 4.2.1 Natural depositional processes Artefacts and ecofacts can be relocated by natural processes such as: * **Fluvial erosion (verspeuling):** Transport by flowing water, leading to alluvial contexts [5](#page=5). * **Mass movement (afglijding):** Landslides and downhill movement, creating colluvial contexts [5](#page=5). * **Aeolian erosion (deflation):** Transport by wind, resulting in aeolian contexts [5](#page=5). These processes create "secondary" archaeological contexts [5](#page=5). Under specific conditions, natural processes can also generate pseudo-artefacts and pseudo-ecofacts that are difficult to distinguish from human-made items. Specialist analysis is often required to make this distinction [5](#page=5). > **Example:** Pseudo-artefacts can be found on Paleolithic sites, particularly in old river terraces. These are stone objects that appear human-made but are characterized by significant weathering, patina, rounding from transport, and irregular shapes, often due to frost action (cryoturbation) [5](#page=5). > **Example:** The interpretation of faunal remains on archaeological sites can be problematic if no direct signs of human intervention (like cut or butchery marks) are present. Accumulations of animal bones can result from human activity (slaughter waste), animal activity (predator remains, rodent gnaw marks), or fluvial activity (washed-up remains) [6](#page=6). > **Example:** Charcoal is commonly found on archaeological sites, but its origin (natural forest fires from lightning or volcanic eruptions vs. human use) can be unclear. There is currently no scientific method to differentiate between anthropogenic and natural charcoal; inference from associated archaeological finds is necessary [6](#page=6). #### 4.2.2 Natural post-depositional processes The preservation of archaeological material depends on favorable environmental conditions, which are rare in practice. Non-organic materials generally preserve better and for longer than organic materials and ecofacts, with exceptions for fossilized or burnt organic remains [6](#page=6). ##### 4.2.2.1 Non-organic remains * **Stone:** Materials like flint, sandstone, and quartz are highly durable and can survive for over two million years. The primary form of alteration is superficial weathering (patina, wind polish, rounding, frost damage) caused by chemical and physical factors. Microscopic analysis can reveal use-wear marks on unweathered tools [6](#page=6). * **Fired Clay:** Fired clay objects, such as pottery, generally preserve well if fired at sufficiently high temperatures for long enough. However, wet or acidic soils can damage the walls, leading to flaking, which is detrimental to decorated ceramics. Even the oldest European pottery, dating from around 6000/5500 BC, is found in a reasonable state, sometimes with preserved charred food or dye residues. Earlier examples of fired clay objects include Venus figurines from the Late Paleolithic in Eastern Europe [6](#page=6). * **Metal:** Metals can oxidize, but their preservation varies with material quality. Gold, silver, and lead preserve best, developing only a patina. Bronze and copper are more susceptible to corrosion (green patina), especially in acidic soils or with poorer alloys. Iron has the worst preservation due to rapid oxidation, often leaving only a rust mass [7](#page=7). * **Glass and Enamel:** These materials generally preserve relatively well but can develop an iridescent patina that makes them opaque [7](#page=7). ##### 4.2.2.2 Organic remains The preservation of organic materials is highly dependent on the surrounding matrix and humidity/temperature conditions [7](#page=7). * **Matrix:** * **Sand:** Acidic sand (pH 6.5-5.5) is unfavorable for organic preservation. Organic remains like bone or wood are difficult to find in Flemish sandy regions, even from medieval or younger sites, and are usually in poor condition (severely weathered, burnt, or preserved only as impressions) [7](#page=7). * **Loam (Leem):** Preservation in loam is variable. In the Benelux region, it is poor due to deep decalcification, with only the hardest skeletal parts (teeth) often surviving. In Central Europe, where loam is not decalcified, preservation is near optimal. Loam areas with shallow chalk substrates, like in Northern France, also offer good organic preservation [7](#page=7). * **Clay and Chalk/Calcareous Soils:** These matrices, including contexts like caves, offer much better organic preservation [7](#page=7). * **Volcanic Ash:** Sites buried in volcanic ash, like Pompeii and Herculaneum, show exceptional preservation. Human bodies are often preserved as voids in the lava mass. Thicker ash deposits, such as those from the Laacher See eruption (approx. 11,000 BC) in western Germany, have perfectly preserved prehistoric landscapes and hunter-gatherer encampments [7](#page=7). > **Example:** Niederbieber (Federmesser) in the Neuwied Basin is an example of a site preserved under thick Laacher See deposits [7](#page=7). * **Extreme Climatic Conditions:** * **Extreme Dryness:** Lack of water inhibits decomposition by preventing the full development of destructive microorganisms. Ancient Egyptian bodies buried in sand, predating artificial mummification, have been found remarkably preserved with skin, hair, and nails due to rapid dehydration. Dynastic tombs show preservation of mummies and entire grave goods (papyrus, wooden shrines, textiles) [8](#page=8). * **Extreme Cold:** In extremely cold and dry climates, natural freezing (permafrost) halts decomposition. Siberian mammoths are found with skin, hair, and even flesh preserved. Scythian (Pazyryk) burials in the Altai Mountains (Iron Age, approx. 400 BC) in permafrost have yielded intact bodies, clothing, tattoos, and textiles. The "Iceman Ötzi" (approx. 3,300 BC), found in an Austrian/Italian glacier, is another remarkable example of preservation with his baggage and clothing [8](#page=8). * **Extreme Humidity (Waterlogged Sites):** Sites permanently submerged in groundwater, oceans, or rivers, thus deprived of oxygen, offer exceptional preservation. These "wetland sites" reveal that approximately 75% to 90% of settlement material was originally organic. Extensive wetland sites in Northwest Europe have yielded settlements, roads, bog bodies, depots (e.g., cartwheels), canoes with paddles, and fish traps. Lake dwellings around Switzerland and Eastern France, dating to the Neolithic and Bronze Age, are well-documented. Old coastlines submerged due to rising sea levels since the last ice age have revealed intact Mesolithic encampments along the North and Baltic Seas. Shipwrecks also benefit from this oxygen deprivation. Deep archaeological structures reaching the permanent water table, such as water wells, can also be considered wetland contexts [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). ##### 4.2.2.3 Traces and structures Traces and structures can also be affected post-depositionally by climatic, chemical, and soil factors [9](#page=9). * **Soil Formation:** In sandy soils, prehistoric traces can become almost unrecognizable due to soil formation processes, particularly podzolization, which can "erase" the contours of shallow soil features by leaching upper soil layers [9](#page=9). * **Bioturbation:** Disturbance caused by burrowing animals (moles, rabbits, badgers), insects (ants, worms), and plants (tree roots) can lead to the fading of trace contours, vertical displacement of artefacts and ecofacts, or complete disturbance of contexts (e.g., tree falls) [9](#page=9). * **Frost and Thaw Cycles:** Cyclic freezing and thawing can cause significant site disturbances, including "frost heave," where artefacts are gradually pushed towards the surface [9](#page=9). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Archaeological Heritage | The collective remains from past human activity, encompassing artifacts, ecofacts, features, and structures, which are preserved and studied to understand history. | | Artifact | Any object that has been created, used, or modified by humans, providing tangible evidence of past human behavior and technology. Examples include stone tools, pottery, and metal implements. | | Ecofact | Organic and inorganic remains found at archaeological sites that offer insights into the past environment (ecology) and subsistence strategies (diet) of the people who inhabited the site. Examples include seeds, pollen, charcoal, and soil samples. | | Feature | All immobile elements within an archaeological site. Features can be naturally formed, such as tree root disturbances, or anthropogenic, meaning they were created by human actions, like postholes, hearths, or graves. | | Structure | A grouping of interconnected features that form a discernible architectural or planned unit. For instance, a wooden building is a structure composed of multiple postholes arranged in a specific pattern. | | Site (or Excavation Site) | A location where artifacts, ecofacts, features, and/or structures are found, indicating past human presence and activity. Sites can be identified as settlements, burial grounds, or temporary camps. | | Context | The specific location (feature or structure) within an archaeological site where an artifact or ecofact is discovered. Context includes the matrix (surrounding material), position (spatial coordinates), and association (other finds nearby). | | Matrix | The soil or other material in which an archaeological find is embedded, providing crucial information about its deposition and preservation. Common matrices include sand, clay, and gravel. | | Primary Context | The original location where artifacts and/or ecofacts were deposited and have remained undisturbed since their initial abandonment. Finds in undisturbed features like graves or living floors are considered primary. | | Secondary Context | Disturbed contexts where artifacts and/or ecofacts are no longer in their original depositional location due to natural processes or human activities such as redeposition or scavenging. | | Formation Processes | The natural and cultural processes that influence how archaeological sites and their contents are created (deposition) and preserved over time (post-deposition, also known as site taphonomy). | | Archaeological Site | A location where artifacts, ecofacts, features, and/or structures are found, indicating past human activity. These can range from settlements and burial grounds to camps and tells. | | Cultural Formation Processes | Processes resulting from intentional or unintentional human actions, such as the manufacture, use, or disposal of artifacts, the construction of structures, or land management. Human-induced destruction of archaeological heritage is also considered a cultural formation process. | | Cultural Depositional Processes | Human actions that lead to artifacts and ecofacts entering the archaeological record. This includes accidental loss, deliberate dumping of waste, and intentional deposition for storage or ritual purposes. | | Loss or Dump | The primary way artifacts and ecofacts are found on sites, occurring through loss during their "lifecycle" (from raw material extraction to disposal) or through intentional dumping as waste. | | Deposit | The act of intentionally discarding or burying objects, either for later retrieval (profane deposits like caches or hoards) or with no intention of retrieval (ritual deposits like offerings or grave goods). | | Profane Deposits | Deposits of objects intended to be retrieved later, such as cached raw materials, hidden valuables during unsettled times, or stored food supplies. | | Ritual Deposits | Deposits of objects intended to be permanent, often made as offerings to supernatural powers, as grave goods, or for social purposes like displaying wealth or destroying capital. | | Cultural Post-Depositional Processes | Human activities that damage or alter archaeological sites and finds after their initial deposition. This includes intensive agriculture, looting, and industrial development. | | Natural Formation Processes | Processes occurring in the natural environment that affect the creation and preservation of archaeological sites and finds, independent of direct human action. These can be depositional or post-depositional. | | Natural Depositional Processes | Natural environmental actions that can move artifacts and ecofacts to new locations or even create materials that resemble human-made items. Processes include erosion (alluvial, colluvial, eolian) and the formation of pseudo-artifacts through weathering and cryoturbation. | | Pseudo-artifacts | Stone objects found on paleolithic sites that appear to be human-made but are actually shaped by natural processes like transport in riverbeds and intense frost action (cryoturbation), resulting in a weathered and irregular appearance. | | Natural Post-Depositional Processes | Natural processes that alter or preserve archaeological materials after deposition. This encompasses physical and chemical weathering, changes in soil composition, and extreme climatic conditions that can either accelerate decay or promote exceptional preservation. | | Taphonomy | The study of the processes that affect organic and inorganic remains after death, including decomposition, fossilization, and mineralization. In an archaeological context, it refers to the preservation and alteration of sites and finds after deposition. | | Organic Remains | Materials derived from living organisms, such as wood, bone, textiles, and human or animal bodies. Their preservation is highly dependent on environmental conditions like matrix composition, moisture, and temperature. | | Non-organic Remains | Materials derived from inorganic sources, such as stone, ceramics, and metals. These generally preserve better than organic remains due to their inherent durability. | | Wetland Sites | Archaeological sites permanently submerged in water (groundwater, ocean, or river) that are cut off from oxygen. These environments, found in peat bogs, marshes, lakes, and ancient coastlines, offer exceptional preservation of organic materials. | | Bioturbation | Disturbances to the soil and archaeological record caused by the activities of living organisms, including burrowing animals, insects, and plant roots. This can lead to the mixing of layers and displacement of artifacts. | | Deposition | The act of intentionally placing or leaving objects in the ground, which can include burial of the dead or intentional burial of objects for various reasons. | | Loss or dumping | The primary way most finds are left on archaeological sites, especially habitation sites, resulting from items being lost or waste being discarded. | | Artifact lifecycle phases | The four major stages an artifact goes through: 1) raw material extraction, 2) artifact manufacturing, 3) artifact use, and 4) artifact disposal. Understanding which phase an artifact ended its use in is crucial for archaeological interpretation. | | Profane depots (storage depots) | Deposits of one or more objects intentionally placed with the intention of retrieval later, such as storing trade goods, hiding possessions during turbulent times, or burying food supplies to keep them fresh. | | Ritual depots | Deposits of one or more objects intentionally placed with no intention of retrieval, often for purposes like offerings to supernatural powers, as grave goods, or for social display and capital destruction. | | Post-depositional cultural processes | Human activities that affect archaeological heritage after deposition, including intensive agriculture (plowing), looting, and industrial activities, which can significantly alter or destroy sites. | | Agricultural leveling | The process by which agricultural activities, particularly plowing, can flatten the landscape, leading to the destruction of above-ground archaeological features like burial mounds. | | Looting | The act of illegally excavating and removing artifacts from archaeological sites, which can occur at graves, burial grounds, settlements, and even shipwrecks. | | Secondary archaeological contexts | Contexts created when artifacts and ecofacts are displaced and end up in a different location due to natural processes like erosion, landslides, or deflation. | | Matrix (in preservation context) | The surrounding soil or sediment in which archaeological materials are found, significantly influencing their preservation potential; for example, sandy soils are generally unfavorable for organic material preservation. | | Extreme Dryness | Environmental conditions characterized by very low humidity, which halts the decomposition of organic remains by rapidly dehydrating them, leading to excellent preservation, as seen in ancient Egyptian mummies and grave goods. | | Extreme Cold | Climatic conditions involving extreme cold, particularly permanent freezing (permafrost), which effectively stops decomposition processes and results in remarkable preservation of organic materials, such as frozen mammoths and human remains. | | Extreme Humidity (Waterlogged Sites) | Environments that are permanently submerged in water (groundwater, ocean, river), creating an oxygen-depleted setting that prevents the decomposition of organic materials, leading to excellent preservation of artifacts and structures. | | Cryoturbation | A process of soil disturbance caused by repeated cycles of freezing and thawing, which can lead to the upward movement or "frost heaving" of artifacts towards the surface, significantly impacting their original depositional context. |