GPDC 1 file 1 (2025) Definitions - History of Concepts widescreen.pdf

# Understanding governance Governance is the complex interplay of structures, processes, and traditions that dictate how power and responsibility are exercised, decisions are made, and stakeholders have a voice [7](#page=7). ### 1.1 Defining governance Governance can be understood in several ways: * **The activity of governing:** This involves making decisions that establish expectations, assign authority, and monitor performance. It can be a distinct process or a component of broader management or leadership functions [4](#page=4). * **The exercise of power and policy:** It is the kinetic exercise of management power and policy [4](#page=4). * **The process or method of societal governance:** This includes how a society is governed, encompassing regionalization, decentralization, and informal interactions between government and other actors [8](#page=8). * **Making collective decisions:** It is the activity of making collective decisions, where government institutions may not necessarily take the lead [9](#page=9). * **Interactions shaping decisions:** It refers to the interactions among structures, processes, and traditions that determine how power and responsibility are exercised, and how decisions are taken and stakeholders participate [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** While the term "government" often refers to the collective entity or institution, "governance" describes the actions and processes undertaken by that entity or system [4](#page=4). ### 1.2 Distinguishing governance from government A key distinction is that "governance" is what a "government" does [11](#page=11) [4](#page=4). * **Government:** Can be a geo-political entity (nation-state), a corporate entity, a socio-political group (tribe, family), or any other form of collective administration [4](#page=4). * **Governance:** Is the dynamic application of management power and policy, with the government serving as the instrument for this application. The term "government" can also be used abstractly as a synonym for governance, as in the Canadian motto, "Peace, Order and Good Government" [4](#page=4). ### 1.3 Historical evolution and genesis of concepts and structures The genesis of governance concepts and structures has been a subject of study within various fields, including Policy Development and Cooperation. This encompasses the evolution of decision-making frameworks and the bodies responsible for executing them [12](#page=12) [28](#page=28) [2](#page=2). ### 1.4 Societal aspects of governance Governance is fundamentally about power, relationships, and accountability. It defines who holds influence, who makes decisions, and how decision-makers are held accountable. It also involves the informal interactions between governmental and non-governmental actors in addressing shared problems [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). ### 1.5 External actors influencing governance Various external actors, even those without formal decision-making power, can significantly influence the governing process. These include [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6): * Lobbies [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * Think tanks [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * Political parties [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * Non-government organizations (NGOs) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * Community groups [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * Media [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). Science itself can also be considered an external actor influencing governance [6](#page=6). ### 1.6 Meanings of governance Today, "governance" does not have a single, settled meaning, but at least three distinct interpretations are prevalent [11](#page=11): * Cooperation through non-sovereign bodies [10](#page=10). * Public administration [10](#page=10). * Regulation of social behavior through networks [10](#page=10). > **Example:** In a business context, governance relates to consistent management, cohesive policies, guidance, processes, and decision-rights for a specific area of responsibility, such as evolving policies on data privacy or internal investment. In international relations, "governance without government" highlights how many global issues are resolved through negotiation rather than by a single sovereign authority [4](#page=4) [9](#page=9). --- # The concept of policy Policy is a guiding principle or rule that directs decision-making towards achieving specific, rational outcomes. It is a broader concept than a single decision, encompassing a set of decisions and reflecting an intention to guide future choices in alignment with overarching objectives [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14). ### 2.1 Defining policy A policy serves as a guiding principle or rule designed to steer decisions and achieve rational outcomes. It is important to distinguish policy from the practical execution of actions [13](#page=13). #### 2.1.1 Policy versus procedure and protocol * **Policy** outlines the 'what' and the 'why' [13](#page=13). * **Procedures or protocols** detail the 'what', the 'how', the 'where', and the 'when' of actions [13](#page=13). Policies are generally established by the Board of Directors or a senior governance body within an organization. In contrast, procedures and protocols are typically developed and adopted by senior executive officers [13](#page=13). #### 2.1.2 Policy as an intention More broadly, a policy signifies an intention to make future decisions in a manner consistent with a defined overall objective. It provides a framework for consistent and reasoned decision-making over time [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). > **Tip:** While policies define the direction and rationale, procedures and protocols translate these principles into actionable steps, ensuring consistent implementation [13](#page=13). > **Example:** A company policy might state, "We will prioritize customer satisfaction in all our interactions" (the 'what' and 'why'). A procedure could then detail how customer complaints are handled, including response times and escalation paths (the 'how', 'where', and 'when') [13](#page=13). --- # The multifaceted nature of development Development is a concept with diverse interpretations, ranging from economic indicators to individual self-fulfillment, historically shaped by notions of progress and power [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). ### 3.1 Diverse interpretations of development The meaning of development is not monolithic and has been understood in a wide array of ways by different individuals and societies [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). #### 3.1.1 Economic and Material Progress Many understandings of development focus on tangible economic improvements and increased material well-being. These include: * Higher living standards [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * A rising per capita income [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Increase in productive capacity [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Economic growth, though often with the caveat of not being mere growth, but growth with equity [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Elimination of poverty [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Basic needs satisfaction [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Catching up with developed countries in technology, wealth, power, and status [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Economic independence and self-reliance [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). #### 3.1.2 Broader Conceptions of Development Beyond economic metrics, development also encompasses broader aspects of human well-being and societal progress. These include: * Mastery over nature [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Freedom through control of one's environment [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Scope for self-fulfillment for all [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). * Liberation, seen as the means to human ascent [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). #### 3.1.3 Development as Utopia Some commentators note that the term "development" has been used to encompass almost all facets of a good society, often becoming a euphemism for "everyman's road to utopia". Utopia itself is defined as "the place that does not exist" [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). > **Tip:** Recognize that "development" is a highly contested and multifaceted term. Critically evaluate how it is being used in different contexts, as its meaning can be aspirational, economic, political, or even utopian. ### 3.2 Historical framing of development The concept of development, particularly in its modern usage, has a specific historical trajectory, linked to geopolitical power and evolving intellectual paradigms [29](#page=29) [30](#page=30) [31](#page=31). #### 3.2.1 The emergence of the "underdeveloped" concept The term "underdeveloped" was notably introduced by Harry S. Truman in his 1949 Inaugural Address. This framing shifted the meaning of development and created an emblem used to refer to less prosperous areas, often associated with the era of American hegemony. Truman argued for a program to make scientific and industrial advances available for the "improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas," highlighting the plight of over half the world's population living in conditions of poverty, disease, and economic stagnation. He emphasized the United States' pre-eminence in technical knowledge as an inexhaustible resource for assistance [29](#page=29) [31](#page=31). #### 3.2.2 The biological metaphor in development Development has also been framed using biological metaphors, suggesting a directed, oriented, perfection, or completion. This implies a natural progression or evolutionary path that societies are expected to follow, often mirroring Western models [30](#page=30). #### 3.2.3 Critiques of the term "development" Some critics argue that the uncritical use of the word "development" has led to confusion and has transformed genuine suffering into a chronic condition. The term, when used carelessly, can obscure the complex realities and aspirations of different peoples [31](#page=31). > **Example:** Harry Truman's 1949 speech, by introducing the category of "underdeveloped areas," inadvertently established a framework that positioned certain nations as lagging behind a presumed developed standard, thereby cementing a hierarchical global order [29](#page=29) [31](#page=31). ### 3.3 Development cooperation Development cooperation refers to deliberate activities aimed at supporting national or international development priorities, distinct from profit-driven motives, and favoring developing countries through cooperative relationships that emphasize their ownership [25](#page=25). #### 3.3.1 Objectives of Development Cooperation * **Poverty Eradication:** A primary objective, as stipulated by Article 208 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), is the reduction and, in the long term, eradication of poverty [21](#page=21). * **Sustainable Economic and Social Development:** This includes the achievement of goals like the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, along with its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22). * **Capacity Building:** Supporting the development of higher education in partner countries and the internationalization of higher education in regions like Flanders is a key aspect [27](#page=27). * **Transforming Students into Change Agents:** Fostering innovative responses to global and local challenges through partnerships between universities [26](#page=26). #### 3.3.2 Actors and Frameworks in Development Cooperation * **European Union (EU):** The EU has a significant role in development cooperation, committed to adapting its policies to evolving needs and delivering on commitments to poverty eradication and sustainable development. The European Commission, through departments like DG INTPA, plays a crucial role [22](#page=22) [23](#page=23). * **United Nations (UN):** The UN leads processes for setting development goals, such as the MDGs and SDGs [22](#page=22). * **Civil Society Organizations (CSOs):** CSOs and their networks are increasingly developing a voice and coherence on issues of development cooperation and aid architecture at all levels [24](#page=24). #### 3.3.3 Key Concepts in Development Discourse * Sustainability [33](#page=33). * Commons [33](#page=33). * Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22) [33](#page=33). * Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [22](#page=22) [33](#page=33). * Science and technology (capacity building) [33](#page=33). * Development cooperation [33](#page=33). > **Tip:** Understand that development cooperation is increasingly focused on sustainable development, aiming for long-term positive impacts that are environmentally, socially, and economically viable. It also emphasizes local ownership and collaboration over top-down imposition [25](#page=25) [33](#page=33). --- # Sustainability and commons This topic explores the foundational concept of sustainable development and its connection to the idea of shared resources, known as 'the commons'. ### 4.1 Sustainable development Sustainable development is a crucial concept that emerged prominently in the 1980s [34](#page=34). #### 4.1.1 Origins and definition The term "sustainable development" gained widespread recognition and its foundational definition from the 1987 report by the Brundtland Commission. This report, often referred to as "Brundtland," defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" [35](#page=35) [36](#page=36). #### 4.1.2 Key concepts within sustainable development The Brundtland definition encompasses two central ideas [36](#page=36): * **The concept of 'needs'**: This emphasizes the overriding priority that should be given to the essential needs of the world's poor. * **The idea of limitations**: This acknowledges the constraints imposed by current technology and social structures on the environment's capacity to fulfill both present and future requirements. ### 4.2 The commons The concept of 'the commons' is deeply intertwined with sustainability and resource management. #### 4.2.1 The tragedy of the commons A seminal work that brought the concept of 'the commons' into mainstream discussion is Garrett Hardin's 1968 essay, "The tragedy of the commons". This essay explored the dilemma posed by managing common resources. Hardin later revisited this concept in "The tragedy of the unmanaged commons" in 1994. The core idea is that when resources are shared and accessible to all, individuals acting in their own self-interest may deplete or degrade these resources, leading to negative consequences for everyone in the long term [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39) [47](#page=47). #### 4.2.2 The origin and metaphor of 'common' The term 'common' has historical roots and has evolved into a significant concept and metaphor in discussions about resource management. The idea of 'commons' exists in numerous local contexts, reflected in diverse languages. Visual examples of areas that could be considered 'commons' are shown in Livadi Elassonas in Greece Braine-le-Château in Belgium Audresselles in France and cc de meent in Alsemberg, Belgium [40](#page=40) [41](#page=41) [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43) [44](#page=44) [45](#page=45). #### 4.2.3 Scientific and environmental perspectives Major scientific publications have highlighted the importance of managing common resources. For instance, *Science* magazine featured issues on the "State of the Planet" and subsequently on the "Tragedy of the Commons," directly referencing Hardin's work and the challenge of managing shared resources [46](#page=46) [47](#page=47). > **Tip:** Understanding the "tragedy of the commons" is crucial for grasping the challenges of managing shared environmental resources like fisheries, forests, and the atmosphere. It underscores the need for effective governance and regulation to prevent overuse and degradation. > **Example:** A shared pasture (a common) where individual herders add more and more of their own cattle. Each herder benefits individually from adding an extra animal, but the cumulative effect of all herders doing so leads to overgrazing and the degradation of the pasture, ultimately harming all herders. --- # Aid effectiveness and scientific roles This topic explores international agreements aimed at improving aid effectiveness and examines the multifaceted roles scientists can assume in policy and societal decision-making. ### 5.1 International agreements on aid effectiveness The pursuit of effective development cooperation has led to several key international agreements, focusing on how aid is delivered and its ultimate impact. #### 5.1.1 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were a set of eight international development goals established by the United Nations in 2000, to be achieved by 2015. These goals served as a primary framework guiding development cooperation efforts for signatory nations [52](#page=52). #### 5.1.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Building upon the MDGs, the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted in 2015 as part of a new global agenda to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. Each of the SDGs has specific targets to be met over the subsequent 15 years [53](#page=53). #### 5.1.3 The Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness Endorsed on March 2, 2005, the Paris Declaration is an international agreement that brought together over one hundred Ministers, Heads of Agencies, and Senior Officials. It committed their countries and organizations to enhance harmonization, alignment, and managing aid for results through a set of monitorable actions and indicators. Key principles of the Paris Declaration include [55](#page=55): * **Ownership:** Developing countries are to set their own poverty reduction strategies, improve their institutions, and combat corruption [55](#page=55). * **Alignment:** Donor countries are expected to align their support with these national objectives and utilize local systems [55](#page=55). * **Harmonisation:** Donor countries should coordinate their efforts, simplify procedures, and share information to prevent duplication of activities [55](#page=55). * **Results:** A shift in focus for both developing countries and donors towards achieving development results, with mechanisms to measure progress [55](#page=55). * **Mutual Accountability:** Donors and partner countries are to be accountable to each other for development outcomes [55](#page=55). Belgium, by signing the Paris Declaration in 2005, committed to making aid more efficient, prioritizing long-term impact and outcomes over short- and medium-term results. The Declaration itself is considered a practical roadmap for improving the quality and impact of aid, establishing specific implementation measures and a monitoring system for accountability [56](#page=56). #### 5.1.4 The Accra Agenda for Action (AAA) Drawn up in 2008, the Accra Agenda for Action (AAA) elaborates on the commitments made in the Paris Declaration, aiming to accelerate progress in aid effectiveness. Key elements of the AAA include [57](#page=57): * **Predictability:** Donors commit to providing 3-5 year forward information on their planned aid to partner countries [57](#page=57). * **Country Systems:** The AAA promotes the use of partner country systems as the primary channel for aid delivery, rather than relying on donor-specific systems [57](#page=57). * **Conditionality:** A move away from prescriptive conditions on aid spending towards conditions based on the developing country's own development objectives [57](#page=57). * **Untying:** Donors are encouraged to relax restrictions that limit developing countries' ability to procure goods and services from the most competitive global sources [57](#page=57). The Fourth High-Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in Busan aimed to assess the adequacy of the progress made in the aid effectiveness agenda in addressing greater global challenges [57](#page=57). ### 5.2 Scientific roles in policy and societal decisions The role of science in informing policy and societal decisions is complex, and scientists can adopt various stances and engage in different forms of interaction with the policy process. This engagement can be viewed through different typologies, notably that proposed by Pielke . #### 5.2.1 Critiques of Modern Science Some perspectives highlight critical views on modern science and its relationship with development and the state. * **Arrogance and Suppression:** One critique suggests that the epistemology of modern science has led to an "arrogance" where it actively replaces alternative knowledge systems and imposes artificial processes on nature. This perspective argues that modern science attempts to suppress non-competitive but different ways of interacting with humanity, nature, and the cosmos, leading to a potential "revolt against development" and modern science itself, as symbolized by violence. This view aligns with the idea of protecting the natural rights of humans and nature [62](#page=62). * **State-Sponsored Research:** The concept of the state as the epitome of scientific rationality and a secularizing agent has also faced challenges. The close relationship between the modern state, science, and technology positions the state as a major source of critique against non-modern knowledge systems. In contemporary "politics of knowledge," the state and modern science are often inseparable, with a significant portion (approximately 95 percent) of global scientific research being applied research, and a substantial part of that (roughly 65 percent) being state-sponsored military research [63](#page=63). #### 5.2.2 Typologies of Scientists' Roles in Policy Roger Pielke Jr. identifies four essential types of scientists based on their engagement with the decision-making process [65](#page=65) [69](#page=69): 1. **Pure Scientist:** This role is characterized by a scientist having "no interest in decision making process". Their primary focus is on scientific inquiry and discovery, without actively engaging in how their findings are applied to policy [65](#page=65) [69](#page=69). 2. **Science Arbiter:** A science arbiter's role is to answer factual questions that arise in policy debates. They provide objective, science-based information to policymakers, but do not steer towards specific policy outcomes. The decision content is characterized by low uncertainty but may involve consensus or disensus on values [65](#page=65) [69](#page=69) [70](#page=70). 3. **Issue Advocate:** Issue advocates aim to "steer to certain decisions being made". They use scientific knowledge to support a particular policy position or outcome. This role is connected to policy and seeks to reduce the scope of choice for policymakers by emphasizing a particular scientific perspective, often when there is high consensus on values but also significant uncertainty about the facts [65](#page=65) [69](#page=69) [70](#page=70). 4. **Honest Broker:** An honest broker scientist "offer[s policy alternatives to expand the scope". This role involves identifying and presenting a range of scientifically plausible policy options to decision-makers, thereby broadening the choices available. This approach is particularly valuable when there is a lack of consensus on values and high uncertainty regarding scientific facts, as it helps illuminate the trade-offs associated with different policy pathways [69](#page=69) [70](#page=70) [71](#page=71). #### 5.2.3 Criteria for Defining Scientific Roles The roles of science in policy and politics can be defined by considering two key criteria: the degree of consensus on values and the level of scientific uncertainty [70](#page=70) [71](#page=71). * **Values Consensus:** Refers to the extent to which there is agreement among stakeholders on the ethical, social, or political values relevant to a decision. * **Low Uncertainty:** Indicates a high degree of confidence in the scientific understanding of a particular issue. Based on these criteria, the roles are delineated as follows [70](#page=70) [71](#page=71): * **Pure Scientist:** No direct connection to policy and does not reduce the scope of choice. * **Science Arbiter:** Connected to policy, answers factual questions, and is relevant when there is low uncertainty but potential disagreement on values. It does not necessarily reduce the scope of choice, but provides information within that scope. * **Issue Advocate:** Connected to policy and seeks to reduce the scope of choice by advocating for a specific outcome, often relevant when there is high consensus on values but significant scientific uncertainty. * **Honest Broker:** Connected to policy and aims to expand the scope of choice by offering various alternatives, particularly useful when there is both disensus on values and high uncertainty in scientific knowledge. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Governance | The activity of governing, relating to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It encompasses processes, structures, and traditions that determine how power and responsibility are exercised, decisions are made, and stakeholders have their say. | | Government | The instrument or collective body that performs the act of governing. It can refer to a geo-political entity, a corporate entity, or other forms of societal administration. | | Policy | A principle or rule designed to guide decisions and achieve desired outcomes. It outlines the 'what' and 'why' of an action, generally adopted by a senior governance body. | | Procedure | A detailed set of steps or actions to be followed in a particular order. Procedures specify the 'what', 'how', 'where', and 'when', and are typically developed by senior executive officers. | | Protocol | A system of rules governing conduct or procedure, especially in diplomatic or official contexts. In a management context, it can refer to the 'how', 'where', and 'when' of an action. | | Development | A complex and multifaceted objective that can encompass improvements in living standards, economic growth with equity, poverty elimination, basic needs satisfaction, and the self-fulfillment of individuals. | | Sustainable Development | Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, incorporating the concept of essential needs and environmental limitations imposed by technology and social organization. | | Commons | Resources or spaces that are shared and managed collectively, often giving rise to concepts of common ownership and management. The term has historical and metaphorical significance in resource governance. | | Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) | A set of eight development goals established in 2000 by the United Nations, aimed at improving conditions in developing countries by 2015, including poverty reduction and access to education and healthcare. | | Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) | A set of 17 global goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as part of a new sustainable development agenda to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all by 2030. | | Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness | An international agreement endorsed in 2005 by over one hundred countries and organizations, committing to improve the quality and impact of aid through principles of ownership, alignment, harmonization, results, and mutual accountability. | | Accra Agenda for Action (AAA) | An agreement drawn up in 2008 that builds on the Paris Declaration, focusing on accelerating progress in aid effectiveness through principles of predictability, use of country systems, conditions based on development objectives, and untying of aid. | | Science arbiter | A role of a scientist who provides answers to factual questions related to policy, operating with low uncertainty and high consensus on values. | | Pure scientist | A role of a scientist who has no direct interest in the decision-making process, focusing solely on scientific inquiry without engaging with policy implications. | | Issue advocate | A role of a scientist who steers policy towards specific decisions, actively promoting a particular outcome or solution. | | Honest broker | A role of a scientist who offers policy alternatives, expanding the scope of choices and providing information to decision-makers without advocating for a specific outcome. |