semester 1 engels 2.docx

This study guide synthesizes key information on academic English, focusing on common errors, quantifiers, verb tenses, sentence construction, and legal English principles to aid in exam preparation. ## Academic English: Grammar, Spelling, and Writing This section addresses common pitfalls and nuances in academic and legal English to enhance clarity and accuracy. ### Quantifiers: Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns The distinction between countable and uncountable nouns is crucial in English, influencing the choice of determiners. * **Countable nouns:** * Have plural forms. * Can be used with "a" or "an." * Examples: a chair, chairs; a house, houses; an idea, ideas. * **Uncountable nouns:** * Do not have plural forms. * Cannot be used with "a" or "an." * Examples: air, water, sand. #### Some and Any * **Some is used:** * In affirmative sentences: "She’s got some interesting suggestions." * In requests and offers (when a positive answer is expected): "Could I make some suggestions first?" "Would you like some coffee?" * To indicate an approximate number: "Some 30 part-time workers were laid off." * **Any is used:** * In negative sentences and after words like "never," "without," "hardly": "She hasn’t got any interesting suggestions." "She never has any interesting suggestions." * In questions: "Do you have any suggestions?" * In affirmative sentences (and often in if-clauses) when the meaning is "it doesn’t matter which": "Any suggestion would be welcome." (= All suggestions.) "If you have any question, I’ll be glad to answer it." #### Much and Many * **Common Error:** Using "much" before a plural noun instead of "many." * *Incorrect:* "He has so much ideas." * *Correct:* "He has so many ideas." * **Much is used:** * With singular uncountable nouns: "He has too much money." "I haven’t got much time." * With the comparative form of adjectives: "It’s much easier that way." * With certain verbs, especially those indicating change: "He hasn’t changed much." * **Many is used:** * With plural countable nouns: "No country in the world has ever cut so many jobs before." #### A Lot Of / Lots Of These alternatives are less formal than "much" and "many" and can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. * "Can you hurry up? I don’t have a lot of time." * "We’ve got lots of things to do." #### Little, Less, Least vs. Few, Fewer, Fewest * **Little, less, least:** Used with singular uncountable nouns (e.g., less money, least effort) and with adjectives or verbs. * "I have little hope it will improve." * "But some analysts were less confident." * "She had the least amount of work of us all." * **Few, fewer, fewest:** Used with plural countable nouns (e.g., fewer consumers, fewest problems). * "Few solutions are as effective." * "The result will be higher prices and fewer choices for consumers." * "My first applicant made the fewest mistakes." * **Note:** "A few" and "a little" often suggest a positive quantity, while "few" and "little" suggest a negative or insufficient quantity. ### Homophones and Similar-Sounding Words Understanding the correct usage of words that sound alike is crucial for precision. #### There, Their, and They're * **There:** Used as an introductory subject ("there is," "there are") or as an adverb of place. * "Do you think there is a problem?" * "Japan will introduce different software into its new phones there." * **Their:** A possessive pronoun. * "Investors had to sell their shares before October 21." * "Everybody likes their own ideas." * **They're:** A contraction of "they are." * "They're living there, but it isn't their house." #### Than and Then * **Than:** Used for comparisons (after a comparative adjective/adverb). Pronounced /ðən/. * "Admiral has more than 900,000 customers." * "Debt levels were better than expected." * **Then:** Refers to time or occasion. Pronounced /ðen/. * "The proposals were first scrutinized by financial experts and then approved by the head." * "If the firm can’t pay them, then the investors can turn to the Compensation Committee." #### Of and Off * **Of:** Usually corresponds to Dutch "van." * "the Chief Executive of Coca Cola" * "20% of all managers" * "most parts of the world" * Also in expressions like "of course." * **Off:** Used in various expressions and phrasal verbs. * "have a day off" * "be better/worse off" * "10% off" * "sell off," "pay off," "be cut off," "switch off," "drop off." * "Off we go!" * "I must be off now." (= I must leave.) * "The product is really taking off." #### Remember, Remind, and Recall * **Remember:** To actively bring something back to mind or retain it in memory. * "I remember meeting her at the party last year." * **Remind:** To cause someone else to remember something; to prompt another person. * "Can you remind me to call the doctor tomorrow?" * **Recall:** To retrieve information from memory; often used in more formal or deliberate contexts. * "I can't recall his name right now." #### Assure, Ensure, and Insure * **Assure:** To remove doubt or give confidence to someone; to reassure. * "I assure you that everything will be fine." * **Ensure:** To make certain that something will happen or be the case; to guarantee an outcome. * "Please ensure that the door is locked before you leave." * **Insure:** To protect against risk, typically through financial means like an insurance policy. * "I need to insure my car against theft and accidents." #### As and Like * **As:** Used to indicate role or function, or to compare actions (often followed by a clause). * Role/Function: "He works as a teacher." * Comparison of Actions: "She sings as her mother did." * **Like:** Used to show similarity or resemblance between two things (usually followed by a noun or pronoun). * Similarity: "She sings like her mother." * Comparison: "This tastes like chicken." #### Especially and Specially * **Especially:** Used to single out something as more important or significant; to emphasize degree. * "I love all fruits, especially mangoes." * **Specially:** Refers to something done for a particular purpose or in a special manner; unique or customized. * "The cake was specially made for her birthday." #### Nouns and Verbs Ending in -ice/-ise * **Noun form:** Ends in "-ice" in both American and British English (e.g., practice, advice). * **Verb form:** * American English: Uses "-ice" (e.g., to practice, to advise). * British English: Uses "-ise" (e.g., to practise, to advise). #### Compare to / Compare with * **Compare to:** Used when highlighting similarities between two different things. * "Her voice was compared to a nightingale's." * **Compare with:** Used when examining similarities and differences between two closely related items. * "Let's compare the new model with the old one." ## Tenses in Legal Contexts Correct tense usage is vital for clarity and precision in legal writing. ### Overview of Tense Forms This section details the formation and core meaning of various English tenses. | Form | How to form (short) | Core meaning | Typical legal use / example | | :------------------------ | :--------------------------- | :----------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------- | | **Present Simple** | V / V-s | Timeless facts, rules, schedules | "‘Insurer’ means …" / "Hearing starts Monday." | | **Present Continuous** | am/is/are + V-ing | In progress; temporary plan | "I am writing to request disclosure." | | **Present Perfect** | have/has + V-ed | Past with present relevance | "The claimant has filed an appeal." (now pending) | | **Present Perfect Cont.** | have/has been + V-ing | Activity up to now | "The parties have been negotiating since June." | | **Past Simple** | V-ed / irregular | Finished past; sequence | "The court dismissed the claim." | | **Past Continuous** | was/were + V-ing | Background in progress | "The officer was patrolling when …" | | **Past Perfect** | had + V-ed | Earlier past | "Service had been effected before the hearing." | | **Past Perfect Cont.** | had been + V-ing | Ongoing earlier past | "She had been working as counsel for five years." | | Form | How to form (short) | Core meaning | Typical legal use / example | | :----------------------- | :------------------------------ | :---------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------- | | **Future Simple (will)** | will + V | Neutral future, prediction | "The court will hear the matter on 12 Oct." | | **Be going to** | am/is/are going to + V | Planned intention; evidence | "We are going to seek security for costs." | | **Present Simple (future)**| V / V-s + future time | Fixed schedule, instrument effect | "This Act enters into force on 1 Jan 2026." | | **Present Cont. (future)**| am/is/are + V-ing + time | Arranged appointment/meeting | "We are meeting opposing counsel on Friday." | | **Be to + V** | am/is/are + to + V | Official plan/instruction | "Witnesses are to attend at 9:30." | | **Be due to + V** | am/is/are due to + V | Scheduled deadline | "Disclosure is due to be exchanged by 30 Sept." | | **Be about to / on the point of + V** | am/is/are about to + V | Imminent | "The decree is about to take effect." | | **Future Continuous** | will be + V-ing | Ongoing future process | "The tribunal will be considering submissions all week." | | **Future Perfect** | will have + V-ed | Completed by a future point | "The parties will have filed skeleton arguments by 1 Oct." | | **Future Perfect Cont.** | will have been + V-ing | Duration up to a future point | "By June, they will have been overseeing this for a year." | ### Timeline Control: Anchors and Sequencing * **Anchors (Choice of Tense):** * Facts $\rightarrow$ Past * Analysis/Principle $\rightarrow$ Present * Procedural Status $\rightarrow$ Present Perfect/Present * Earlier-than-past Events $\rightarrow$ Past Perfect * **Tip:** Avoid unnecessary tense switches within a single paragraph. English is less flexible than Dutch in this regard. Choose a time anchor that aligns with the paragraph's purpose. * **Sequencing (Time Adverbials):** * Finished time (e.g., in 2022, yesterday) $\rightarrow$ Past Simple. * "Since/for" with duration up to now $\rightarrow$ Present Perfect. * Future time clauses after "when," "after," "until," "as soon as" take the present tense, not "will." * Example: "When disclosure is complete, the hearing will begin." ### Common Tense Errors * **Progressive/Continuous Aspect with Stative Verbs:** * **Why:** Dutch lacks a strict progressive, and the "-ing" form can appear "more polite," leading to overuse. * *Wrong:* "The witness is knowing the defendant." * *Right:* "The witness knows the defendant." * **Fix:** Avoid progressives with stative verbs (know, believe, own, consist, understand). Progressives are fine with activities: "We are reviewing the file." * **"Currently" + Tense Choice (State vs. Activity):** * **Why:** Dutch uses "momenteel" flexibly. * *Wrong (activity as state):* "The company is currently employing 500 staff." (Suggests a temporary campaign). * *Right (state):* "The company currently employs 500 staff." * *Wrong (state as activity):* "The licence currently is being valid." * *Right:* "The licence is currently valid." * **Fix:** Use present simple for states/ongoing validity; progressive for temporary activities. * **Present Perfect vs. Past Simple with Finished Time:** * **Why:** Dutch often uses the perfect tense with finished time (e.g., "In 2018 heeft het hof..."). * *Wrong:* "In 2022 the court has held …" * *Right:* "In 2022 the court held …" * **Fix:** Finished time (in 2022, yesterday, on 2 March 2024) $\rightarrow$ Past Simple. * **Present Perfect with Finished Time Adverbials (e.g., in 2020):** * **Why:** Calque from "heeft gedaan in 2020." * *Wrong:* "The tribunal has found in 2018 that…" * *Right:* "The tribunal found in 2018 that…" * **Fix:** Finished time $\rightarrow$ Past Simple. Use Present Perfect with up-to-now adverbs (since, recently, so far, already, yet, ever/never). * **Since / For / Ago / Over / During:** * **Why:** Translations from Dutch can be inconsistent. * *Wrong:* "She has worked here since five years." * *Right:* "She has worked here for five years / since 2020." * **Fix:** "Since" + starting point; "For" + duration; "Ago" pairs with Past Simple (e.g., "left two years ago"). * **Irregular Participles & Double Participles:** * **Why:** Dutch regularizes many past forms, but English legal verbs have traps. * *Wrong:* "The court has wrote / has plead / is fell." * *Right:* "has written; has pleaded/pled; has fallen; was filed." * **Fix:** Memorize high-frequency legal verb sets: write–wrote–written, bind–bound–bound, plead–pleaded/pled–pleaded/pled, seek–sought–sought, arise–arose–arisen, choose–chose–chosen. * **Missing Past Perfect for "Earlier than Past":** * **Why:** Dutch often relies on "toen/nadat/voor" without tense change. * *Wrong:* "The company terminated the contract before notice was served." (Ambiguous order). * *Right:* "The company terminated the contract after notice had been served." * **Fix:** If an event is earlier than another past event, use "had" + past participle (V-ed). * **Future Time Clauses (when/after/until/as soon as/once):** * **Why:** Dutch allows future morphology after these conjunctions. * *Wrong:* "After the claimant will file the appeal, the court will list a date." * *Right:* "After the claimant files the appeal, the court will list a date." * **Fix:** In the time clause, use Present Tense; use "will" in the main clause. * **Overusing "Will" Where Present is Idiomatic (Schedules & Instruments):** * **Why:** Calendars are always present tense; English legal drafting prefers present for scheduled events. * *Wrong:* "The hearing will start on Monday." * *Right:* "The hearing starts on Monday." * *Wrong:* "This Act will enter into force on 1 Jan." * *Right:* "This Act enters into force on 1 Jan." * **Fix:** If a timetable or instrument sets the future $\rightarrow$ Present Simple. * **"By + Future Point":** * **Why:** Dutch often uses simple future or present. * *Wrong:* "By 1 Oct the respondent files the skeleton." * *Right:* "By 1 Oct the respondent will have filed the skeleton." * **Fix:** Completion before a future time $\rightarrow$ "will have" + past participle (V-ed). * **Passive Tense Confusion (Worden vs. Zijn):** * **Why:** Dutch distinguishes "process" (worden + past participle) and "result" (zijn + past participle). * *Wrong (past vs. present muddle):* "Service is effected yesterday." * *Right:* "Service was effected yesterday." * *Wrong (result vs. event):* "The summons was served and still was served today." * *Better:* "The summons was served yesterday and has been served on all parties." * **Fix:** Choose tense first (past/present/perfect), then passive: * Event in past: was/were + V-ed * Present status: is/are + V-ed (rare; often "is in force") * Up-to-now result: has/have been + V-ed * **Active vs. Passive Perfect Mix-ups:** * **Why:** Dutch subjects often remain actors, but English legal prose may flip to the thing acted upon. * *Wrong:* "The claim has filed on 14 May." * *Right (active):* "The claimant filed the claim on 14 May." * *Right (passive):* "The claim has been filed on 14 May." * **Fix:** If the actor matters $\rightarrow$ Active. If the actor is generic/irrelevant $\rightarrow$ Passive with the correct tense. ### Tense by Legal Genre * **Statutes and Regulations:** * Present Simple for rules and definitions: "A person commits an offence if…" * Present Simple for future effect set by the instrument: "Section 10 comes into force on 1 July 2026." * **Contracts (without modal obligations):** * Present Simple for status and mechanics: "This agreement is governed by Belgian law." * Dates/effect: Present Simple preferred to "will" when the instrument itself effects change: "The licence terminates on 31 December." * **Judgments, Case Notes & Academic Analysis:** * Past Simple/Past Perfect for facts & procedure; keep sequencing clear. * Present Simple for holdings/principles that still apply: "The Court holds…; the case establishes…" * **Pleadings:** * Present Simple for allegations/denials: "The Defendant denies paragraph 8." * Present Perfect to link past conduct to a current claim: "The Defendant has breached clause 7." * **Witness Statements / Official Reports:** * Past Simple main narrative; Past Continuous for background; Past Perfect for earlier events. * Avoid progressive statives (know, believe, own). * **Emails & Internal Memos:** * Present Continuous for polite framing ("I am writing…"). * Present Perfect for up-to-now updates. * Future constructions for next steps. ### Exercises **1. Complete the sentences using the verb in brackets. Choose the most appropriate tense in formal, standard, present-day English.** * In 2019 the Court of Appeal \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (find) that clause 9 was void. * *Answer:* found * The disclosure list \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (exchange – deadline) on 30 Sept. * *Answer:* is to be exchanged / is due to be exchanged * After the claimant \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (file) the appeal, the court will list a date. * *Answer:* files * The Privacy Act \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (enter) into force on 1 Jan 2026. * *Answer:* enters * The parties \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (meet – arrangement) the mediator on Tuesday. * *Answer:* are meeting * By next Friday the expert \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (submit) the report. * *Answer:* will have submitted * The witness \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (know) the defendant from school. * *Answer:* knows * Proceedings \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (issue) on 14 May; service \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (effect) the next day. * *Answer:* were issued; was effected * The contract \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (terminate – instrument) on 31 December. * *Answer:* terminates * The company currently \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (employ) 500 staff. * *Answer:* employs **2. Translate the following phrases into English. Be careful when choosing the most appropriate tense.** * **In 2018 heeft de rechtbank beslist dat…** * *Translation:* In 2018 the court decided that… * **Sinds 2021 werkt zij als juridisch adviseur.** * *Translation:* She has worked as a legal advisor since 2021. * **Nadat de eiser het beroep zal indienen, zal de rechtbank…** * *Translation:* After the claimant files the appeal, the court will… * **De zitting zal starten op maandag.** * *Translation:* The hearing starts on Monday. * **De dagvaarding is gisteren betekend.** * *Translation:* The summons was served yesterday. * **De partijen hebben tot vrijdag om te betalen.** * *Translation:* The parties have until Friday to pay. * **Tegen 1 oktober heeft de verweerder zijn nota ingediend.** * *Translation:* By 1 October the respondent will have filed his brief. * **De rechtbank vernietigde de beslissing en verwees de zaak terug naar het hof van beroep.** * *Translation:* The court quashed the decision and remanded the case to the Court of Appeal. **3. Rewrite for the target genre. Use forms referring to the future.** * **Statute (effective future date):** "The amended fee schedule takes effect on 1 July." * *Rewrite:* "The amended fee schedule shall take effect on 1 July." (Or "will take effect") * **Contract mechanics (end date set by instrument):** "The Lease will end on 31 December." * *Rewrite:* "The Lease terminates on 31 December." * **Procedural diary (arranged meeting):** "The parties will meet for a CMC on Tuesday." * *Rewrite:* "The parties are meeting for a CMC on Tuesday." * **Instructional notice (formal programme):** "Witnesses must arrive by 9:30." * *Rewrite:* "Witnesses are to arrive by 9:30." **4. Micro case-notes: Write:** * **One past sentence narrating arrest & release with sequencing.** * *Example:* On 4 May, police arrested A, and A was released on bail on 6 May. * **One present perfect sentence updating the evidence with present relevance.** * *Example:* The prosecution has filed additional evidence, which is now relevant to the case. * **One future sentence stating what will have happened by the listing date (choose a date).** * *Example:* By the listing date of 1 July, the expert report will have been submitted. ### Reported Speech Reported speech (indirect speech) conveys what someone else said without quoting directly, often involving changes in pronouns, verb tenses, and expressions of time and place. #### Changes to the Tense Tenses typically shift back (backshifting), though exceptions exist for modal verbs, already past tenses, or statements that remain true. | Tense | Direct Speech | Reported Speech | | :---------------- | :------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------ | | Present Simple | "I like ice cream." | She said (that) she liked ice cream. | | Present Cont. | "I am living in London." | She said (that) she was living in London. | | Past Simple | "I bought a car." | She said (that) she had bought a car OR She said (that) she bought a car. | | Past Continuous | "I was walking along the street." | She said (that) she had been walking along the street. | | Present Perfect | "I haven't seen Julie." | She said (that) she hadn't seen Julie. | | Past Perfect* | "I had taken English lessons before." | She said (that) she had taken English lessons before. | | Will | "I'll see you later." | She said (that) she would see me later. | | Would* | "I would help, but.." | She said (that) she would help but... | | Can | "I can speak perfect English." | She said (that) she could speak perfect English. | | Could* | "I could swim when I was four." | She said (that) she could swim when she was four. | | Shall | "I shall come later." | She said (that) she would come later. | | Should* | "I should call my mother." | She said (that) she should call her mother. | | Might* | "I might be late." | She said (that) she might be late. | | Must | "I must study at the weekend." | She said (that) she must study at the weekend OR She said she had to study at the weekend. | *Tenses marked with * may not change. #### Changes to Pronouns Personal and possessive pronouns are adjusted to match the reporter's perspective. * **First-Person Pronouns:** "I," "me," "my," "mine," "we," "us," "our," "ours." * Direct: "I am tired." * Reported: She said that she was tired. ("I" changes to "she" or "he"). * **Second-Person Pronouns:** "you," "your," "yours." * Direct: "You should try this." * Reported: He told me that I should try that. ("You" changes based on context). * **Third-Person Pronouns:** "he," "him," "his," "she," "her," "they," "them," "their," "theirs." * Direct: "He is waiting for us." * Reported: She said that he was waiting for them. (Often no change, but context may require adjustments). #### Changes to Expressions of Time and Place Time and place expressions are adjusted to reflect the shift in context. * **Time:** * Today $\rightarrow$ That day * Tomorrow $\rightarrow$ The next day / The following day * Yesterday $\rightarrow$ The day before / The previous day * Now $\rightarrow$ Then / At that moment * Tonight $\rightarrow$ That night * This (morning, week, etc.) $\rightarrow$ That (morning, week, etc.) * Last night $\rightarrow$ The night before / The previous night * Last (week, month, year) $\rightarrow$ The previous (week, month, year) / The (week, month, year) before * Next (week, month, year) $\rightarrow$ The following (week, month, year) / The (week, month, year) after * Ago $\rightarrow$ Before * **Place:** * Here $\rightarrow$ There * This place $\rightarrow$ That place * These (items, places, etc.) $\rightarrow$ Those (items, places, etc.) * Come $\rightarrow$ Go #### Questions, Requests, and Orders in Reported Speech * **Questions:** The word order changes from question form to statement form, and a question word (who, what, where, etc.) or "if/whether" is used. * Direct: "What are you doing?" * Reported: She asked what I was doing. * Direct: "Do you love me?" * Reported: He asked me if I loved him. * **Requests and Orders:** Use infinitive structures ("to do," "not to do"). * Direct: "Please help me." * Reported: She asked me to help her. * Direct: "Go to bed!" * Reported: He told the child to go to bed. ### Exercises **1. Look at the direct quotes below and turn them into reported speech.** * **A. A tabloid editor: “You should have listened more closely to Twitter and Facebook.”** * *Reported Speech:* A tabloid editor said that they should have listened more closely to Twitter and Facebook. * **B. Martin Clarke: “The migrants were in the back of a van illegally and did come from somewhere via somewhere.”** * *Reported Speech:* Martin Clarke stated that the migrants had been in the back of a van illegally and had come from somewhere via somewhere. * **C. Martin Clarke: “We’ve reported people’s very legitimate fears over immigration.”** * *Reported Speech:* Martin Clarke said that they had reported people’s very legitimate fears over immigration. * **D. David Deacon: “The media has more influence in telling people what to think about than telling them what to think.”** * *Reported Speech:* David Deacon stated that the media had more influence in telling people what to think about than telling them what to think. ## Building Effective Sentences Clear, concise, and cohesive sentences are fundamental to effective academic and legal writing. ### Why Sentence Clarity Matters Unclear writing weakens arguments, frustrates readers, and can have serious legal consequences (e.g., unenforceable contracts, ambiguous laws interpreted against a client's interest). * **Consider your reader:** Professors skimming essays, judges interpreting contracts, clients needing advice. If meaning is not immediately clear, communication fails. ### Sentence Length, Structure, and Cohesion * **Balance:** English sentences can be short or complex. Variety is key, but extremes should be avoided. * *Too short:* "The trial was delayed. Evidence was missing. The witness was sick." * *Too long:* "The trial, which had already been postponed several times due to procedural delays and the unavailability of a key witness, was once again delayed when new evidence was found to be missing, meaning that the court could not proceed as scheduled." * *Balanced:* "The trial was delayed once again, this time because a key witness was unavailable and new evidence was missing." * **Tip:** Use short sentences for emphasis and longer ones to show relationships, but avoid extremes. * **Combining and Breaking Up Sentences:** * *Original (fragmented):* "The company breached the contract. The company was taken to court. The court awarded damages." * *Combined:* "The company breached the contract and was taken to court, where damages were awarded." * **Cohesion:** Sentences must connect logically. * Use connectors sparingly and appropriately to clarify relationships (e.g., "therefore," "nevertheless"). Overuse makes writing heavy. ### Conciseness: Avoiding Wordiness Concise writing communicates the same meaning in fewer words, saving the reader's time. * **Sources of Wordiness:** * **Redundant expressions:** "each and every," "null and void." * **Long phrases instead of short words:** "at this point in time" $\rightarrow$ "now"; "due to the fact that" $\rightarrow$ "because." * **Nominalisations:** Turning verbs into nouns (e.g., "to make a decision" $\rightarrow$ "decision-making"). * **Examples:** * *Wordy:* "It has been decided that all employees will be notified about the conference." * *Concise:* "All employees will be notified about the conference." * *Wordy:* "There are five people who will want to attend the conference." * *Concise:* "Five people want to attend the conference." ### Word Choice and Tone * **Formality:** Academic and legal English should be formal but modern and professional, favouring clear communication over archaic or overly complex wording. * **Legalese vs. Academic English:** * Hereinafter $\rightarrow$ From now on * Aforesaid $\rightarrow$ Mentioned above * Commence $\rightarrow$ Begin * Terminate $\rightarrow$ End * Visible to the eye $\rightarrow$ Visible * **Balanced Tone:** Formal but not old-fashioned or pompous. * *Too formal:* "Please be advised that the aforementioned documents have been dispatched under separate cover." * *Too informal:* "Here’s the stuff I sent you." * *Balanced:* "I have sent the documents you requested in a separate package." ### Correctness: Grammar and Prepositions Accurate grammar, especially correct preposition usage, is vital. Fixed combinations of verbs and prepositions (collocations) must be memorized. * **Legal Collocations:** * to accuse a person \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ arson. (of) * to be liable \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ debts. (for) * to sentence the defendant \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ punishment. (to) * to claim damages \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ mental distress. (for) * to be entitled \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ financial compensation. (to) * to bring a case \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ court. (to / before) * to be guilty \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ an offence. (of) * to fine a driver \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ speeding. (for) * to charge a suspect \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ an offence. (with) * to appeal \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ the findings of a court. (against) ### Exercises **1. Legal English Characteristics:** Identify characteristics in the definition of torture. (Requires manual identification within the text). **2. Rewrite sentences avoiding nominalizations and wordy phrases.** * **Original:** "Late delivery of the product results in cancellation of the contract." * *Rewrite:* "Late delivery of the product cancels the contract." * **Original:** "The document was sent late as a result of the sender’s illness." * *Rewrite:* "The sender’s illness caused the document to be sent late." * **Original:** "Police are concerned about the rapid increase in crime." * *Rewrite:* "Police are concerned that crime is increasing rapidly." * **Original:** "The trial was delayed for the purpose of gathering additional evidence." * *Rewrite:* "The trial was delayed to gather additional evidence." **3. Rewrite passages into clear, academic English.** * **Original:** "Hereinafter, the aforementioned defendant, having commenced actions in violation of the aforesaid contract, shall be liable for damages arising due to the fact that said actions were in contravention of the terms and conditions therein contained." * *Rewrite:* "From now on, the defendant, having acted in violation of the contract mentioned above, will be liable for damages caused by actions that contravened its terms and conditions." ## Cohesion and Coherence Linking words and relative pronouns are essential for natural and clear writing, providing cohesion and illustrating relationships between text parts. ### Sentences vs. Clauses * **Clause:** Contains a subject and a predicate (Subject + Verb + Object). * **Independent Clause:** A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence. * **Dependent (Subordinate) Clause:** Cannot stand alone meaningfully and needs additional information. ### Conjunctions * **Coordinating Conjunctions:** Connect elements of equal rank (words, phrases, clauses): *and, but, or, yet, for, nor, so*. * **Subordinating Conjunctions:** Connect clauses of unequal rank, beginning dependent clauses: *if, because, after, since, when, while, until, unless, although*. * **Correlative Conjunctions:** Pattern in pairs: *both...and, not only...but also, either...or, neither...nor, whether...or, as...as*. ### Relative Pronouns Connect relative clauses to antecedents (nouns or pronouns). * **Defining Relative Clauses:** Restrict or define the noun (e.g., "The student **who** achieves the highest score..."). * **Non-Defining Relative Clauses:** Supply additional information about a noun already identified (e.g., "Albert Einstein, **who** put forward the theory of relativity,..."). * **Usage:** * "Who" refers to people; "which" to objects/ideas. * "That" is generally used in defining clauses; avoid in non-defining clauses. * "Whom" is more formal than "who" as an object. * "Whose" is possessive. * "Which" can refer to a whole previous clause. ### Linking Words: Differences and Usage * **Position:** Some link clauses *within* a sentence (e.g., *and, but, so*); others link *between* sentences (e.g., *Furthermore, Moreover, Nevertheless*). * **Function:** Add information, contrast ideas, show cause/effect, narrate, express purpose/opinion, list examples, conclude, emphasize. * **Grammatical Difference:** Some are followed by a clause (Subject + Verb); others by a noun or "-ing" form. * *Clause:* "We went out although it was raining." * *Noun/-ing form:* "We went out in spite of the rain." * "Despite" can be used like "in spite of" in formal English. * **Common Errors:** * **Already/Also:** Do not start sentences with these in formal English (a "Dutchism"). Rephrase: "The language, too, is a big barrier." * **Hence/Thus:** Formal, indicating a deduction. * **Beside/Besides:** "Beside" means "next to"; "Besides" means "in addition to." * **To/In order to:** "In order to" is preferred for indicating purpose at the start of a sentence. * **Causal Connectives:** "So" is informal. Formal alternatives include *accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore*. * **Especially/Specially:** "Especially" = above all; "Specially" = for a particular purpose. * **Though/Although/Even though:** Followed by a clause. "Though" is more informal; "even though" is stronger. * **Contrast:** "Whereas/While" balance contrasting but not contradictory facts. "But" contrasts clauses within a sentence. "However" contrasts sentences and is more formal. * **As/Like:** "As" followed by a clause; "like" followed by a noun. * **Because/As/Since:** "Because" emphasizes explicit reason. "As/Since" are less formal and more casual. * **For/Since:** "For" focuses on duration; "since" is used with perfect tenses and a point in time. ### Exercises **1. Combine sentences using an appropriate linking word.** * **1. Men must wear a tie at this Law firm. Women must wear a dress.** * *Combined:* Men must wear a tie, while women must wear a dress. * **2. John succeeded wonderfully. The test was difficult.** * *Combined:* John succeeded wonderfully, even though the test was difficult. * **3. It’s a word I’ve often heard. I can’t find it in the dictionary.** * *Combined:* It’s a word I’ve often heard, yet I can’t find it in the dictionary. * **4. Malnutrition is a serious problem. Government should recognise its responsibility.** * *Combined:* Malnutrition is a serious problem; consequently, the government should recognise its responsibility. **2. Fill in an appropriate linking word or expression.** 1. Everybody **except** Jack is trying out for the team. 2. That is neither what I said **nor** what I meant. 3. I didn’t get the job **although** I had the right qualifications. (Or: despite having) 4. The report is expected to be critical of the industry. **Therefore**, it is likely to recommend extensive changes to production. 5. There is no doubt that lowering interest rates early prevents recession. **However**, lowering them to cure a recession that already exists doesn’t work. 6. The man was arrested **despite** claiming to have been nowhere near the scene of the crime. (Or: although he claimed) 7. As a rough rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, **whereas** civil law systems trace their history to Roman law and the Napoleonic code. 8. Margaret Thatcher has been accused of widening the gap between rich and poor. **Furthermore** (or **Moreover**), she has been blamed for ignoring environmental problems. 9. Profits were very low last year, **which led to** the subsequent cutbacks. (Or: resulting in) 10. You may face some problems **due to** the complexity of the system. (Or: because of) **3. Combine each set of sentences into one effective sentence containing only one independent clause.** * **1. This is Mr Rogers. You met him last year.** * *Combined:* This is Mr Rogers, whom you met last year. * **2. Is the offer still open? You made the offer last week.** * *Combined:* Is the offer that you made last week still open? * **3. It was a boring meeting. I didn't understand its purpose.** * *Combined:* It was a boring meeting, the purpose of which I didn't understand. (Or: ...whose purpose I didn't understand.) * **4. I would like to see the students. The students want to follow an additional course.** * *Combined:* I would like to see the students who want to follow an additional course. **4. Common Law Legal Systems vs. Civil Law Legal Systems:** Fill in the gaps with appropriate linking words or relative pronouns. Common law legal systems, **on the other hand**, place great weight on court decisions, **which** are considered "law" with the same force of law as statutes. **In contrast**, in civil law jurisdictions, judicial precedent is given less weight (**which means that** a judge **who** decides a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently, and less predictably), and scholarly literature is given more. ### Legal English Terminology This section highlights specific vocabulary and structures common in legal English. #### Legal Professions and Branches of the Law * **Legal Professions:** Roles like solicitor, barrister, advocate, attorney, prosecutor, judge. Understanding their distinct functions and jurisdictions is key. * **Branches of Law:** * **Public Law:** Constitutional, administrative, criminal, human rights, taxation. * **Private Law:** Contract, tort/delict, property, family, succession, company, employment. * **Mixed / Trans-systemic:** Evidence, procedure, EU law, Intellectual Property (IP), international law. #### Court Systems * **United Kingdom:** * **England & Wales:** Unified system based on common law. Key courts include Magistrates' Court, Crown Court, High Court, Court of Appeal, Supreme Court. * **Scotland:** Hybrid system (civil and common law). Key courts include Sheriff Courts, Sheriff Appeal Court, Court of Session, High Court of Justiciary. * **Northern Ireland:** Resembles England & Wales system. * **United States:** * **Dual Court System:** Federal courts (limited jurisdiction) and state courts (general jurisdiction). * **Federal Courts:** U.S. District Courts, U.S. Courts of Appeals, U.S. Supreme Court. * **State Courts:** Trial courts (limited/general jurisdiction), intermediate appellate courts, state supreme courts. * **Key Concepts:** Common law relies on precedent; civil law emphasizes codified legislation. #### Court Procedures and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) * **Civil Proceedings:** Involve resolving private disputes (claim form, particulars of claim, service, defence, disclosure/discovery). * **Criminal Proceedings:** Initiate with police/prosecution charges, leading to first appearances, potential bail, and trials. * **ADR:** Methods like negotiation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration offer alternatives to litigation. #### Specific Legal Terms and Concepts * **Statutes & Regulations:** Use Present Simple for rules and future effect. * **Contracts:** Present Simple for status and mechanics. * **Judgments & Analysis:** Past tenses for facts, Present Simple for current holdings. * **Pleadings:** Present Simple for allegations, Present Perfect for linking past conduct to claims. * **Witness Statements:** Past Simple/Continuous/Perfect. Avoid progressive statives. * **Emails/Memos:** Present Continuous for framing, Present Perfect for updates, Future for next steps. #### Vocabulary Lists and Exercises The document provides extensive vocabulary lists and exercises related to legal professions, court systems, procedures, and core legal concepts. Mastery of these terms and their application is crucial for legal writing and understanding. ## Common Mistakes to Avoid * **Misusing Quantifiers:** Incorrectly using "much" with countable nouns or "many" with uncountable nouns. * **Incorrect Tense Usage:** Especially the overuse of progressive tenses with stative verbs or confusion between Present Perfect and Past Simple with finished time. * **Homophone Errors:** Confusing words like "there/their/they're," "than/then," "of/off." * **Wordiness:** Employing long phrases or redundant expressions instead of concise wording. * **Lack of Cohesion:** Sentences not logically linked, leading to a fragmented text. * **Incorrect Reported Speech:** Failing to adjust tenses, pronouns, or time/place expressions correctly. * **Confusing Legal Terminology:** Misapplying terms like "assure/ensure/insure," "as/like," or using incorrect prepositions in legal collocations. * **Ignoring Genre Conventions:** Using inappropriate tenses or tones for specific legal genres (e.g., statutes, contracts, judgments). * **Overuse of Passive Voice:** While sometimes necessary in legal writing, excessive passive voice can obscure meaning. * **Ungrammatical Sentence Structure:** Errors in subject-verb agreement, clause connection, or preposition usage.

# Glossary | Term | Definition | | :------------------------ | :---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Countable nouns | Nouns that have plural forms and can be used with the indefinite article "a" or "an," indicating that they represent individual, distinct items or units. | | Uncountable nouns | Nouns that do not have plural forms and cannot be used with "a" or "an," typically referring to substances, abstract concepts, or collections that are treated as a single entity. | | Backshifting | The process of shifting verb tenses backward in time when converting direct speech into reported speech, for example, changing the present simple to the past simple. | | Cohesion | The logical connection between different parts of a text, achieved through the use of linking words, pronouns, and other grammatical devices to ensure a smooth flow of ideas. | | Conciseness | The quality of expressing a great deal of meaning in few words; avoiding wordiness and unnecessary phrasing to communicate effectively and respect the reader's time. | | Direct speech | The exact words spoken by a person, usually enclosed in quotation marks. | | Indirect speech | Also known as reported speech, this is a way of conveying what someone else has said without quoting them directly, often involving changes in pronouns, verb tenses, and expressions of time and place. | | Nominalisation | The process of converting verbs or adjectives into nouns, which can sometimes lead to wordiness or a less direct style in writing. | | Parliamentary sovereignty | The principle that the legislative body (Parliament) has supreme authority and can create or end any law, and that its laws cannot be overridden by any other government body. | | Precedent | A legal principle or rule established in a previous court case that is binding or persuasive for a court when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. | | Reported speech | See Indirect speech. | | Sentence clarity | The quality of a sentence that makes its meaning easily and immediately understandable to the reader, achieved through clear structure, precise word choice, and logical organization. | | Stative verbs | Verbs that describe a state of being, a condition, or a feeling, rather than an action, and are typically not used in continuous (progressive) tenses. Examples include "know," "believe," and "own." | | Wordiness | The use of more words than are necessary to convey meaning, often leading to unclear or tedious writing. |