Inhoudscursus Tijd.pdf

# Prehistory and the emergence of humanity Prehistory encompasses the vast period of human existence before the development of writing, marked by fundamental evolutionary and societal changes. ## 1. Prehistory and the emergence of humanity Prehistory, also known as the "pre-history" or "voorgeschiedenis," refers to the period of human history for which there are no written records, meaning it predates the invention of writing. The start and end dates of prehistory vary geographically; for example, in the researchers' region, it spans from the arrival of humans to the Romans (around 55 BCE), while in the Near East, writing emerged around 3500 BCE, marking the end of its prehistory there. Although the term "prehistory" might imply insignificance before written history, it is crucial for understanding human development due to its long duration and foundational changes like human evolution and the advent of agriculture. Our knowledge of prehistory is derived solely from material sources such as bones, artifacts, and art, studied through archaeology [5](#page=5). ### 1.1 The origin of the universe, Earth, and life Many cultures have developed creation myths, which are narratives explaining the origin of the cosmos, the world, gods, and humanity, often attributing creation to divine forces. Scientifically, the most accepted theory for the universe's origin is the Big Bang theory, suggesting the universe began with a massive explosion approximately 13.7 billion years ago. The Earth is estimated to be around 4.5 billion years old. Evidence from fossils indicates that the first life on Earth originated in water. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution remains the foundational scientific explanation for the development of life on Earth [5](#page=5). ### 1.2 The emergence of humans: how, where, and when? Humans appeared relatively late in Earth's evolutionary history. Hominids, belonging to the class of mammals and the order of primates, are the closest living relatives to humans in the animal kingdom, sharing 98-99% of their genetic material with bonobos. Strong similarities in genetics and behavior suggest that humans and great apes share a common ancestor, rather than humans evolving directly from apes. Key differences between humans and apes include bipedalism (walking upright) and the development of larger brains coupled with tool-making abilities. Researchers refer to beings exhibiting at least one of these characteristics as "hominids" [6](#page=6). The earliest hominids likely originated in Africa. Approximately 10 million years ago, the ancestors of humans and apes inhabited the forested regions around the African equator. Tectonic plate movements created the Great Rift Valley in East Africa, separating the common ancestor into isolated populations. The eastern population, adapting to the drier savannas, is believed to have evolved into hominids and eventually humans. Bipedalism is considered the critical evolutionary step, preceding the increase in brain size. The oldest traces of hominids date back about 7 million years. Various hominid species evolved over time, with *Homo sapiens* emerging around 200,000 years ago and subsequently spreading globally [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** Understanding the evolutionary timeline is crucial. Imagine Earth's history as a 24-hour day; humans appear very late in this day [6](#page=6). ### 1.3 The human "family tree" Our knowledge of human ancestry and early human lifestyles is limited and hypothetical, based on scarce and sometimes ambiguous fossil and archaeological evidence, with only durable materials preserved. The scientific debate on human evolution is ongoing, with the understanding shifting from a linear progression to *Homo sapiens* to a more complex, branching family tree with side branches and unanswered questions [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). Key hominid species and their characteristics include: * **Australopithecus:** A collective term for early hominids, resembling apes and found exclusively in East and Southern Africa [7](#page=7). * **Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis):** A nearly complete skeleton (40%) of an upright-walking female found in Ethiopia, dating back approximately 3.2 million years, providing significant evidence for bipedalism [7](#page=7). * ***Homo habilis***: Possessed a significantly larger brain and is believed to be the first to create and use simple tools. Lived in Africa from approximately 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago [7](#page=7). * ***Homo erectus***: The first "world traveler," found in Africa, Europe, Asia, and Oceania. Mastered fire, refined stone tool technology, and likely hunted actively. Lived from approximately 1.7 million to 250,000 years ago [7](#page=7). * ***Homo neanderthalensis*** (Neanderthal): Found in Europe and Western Asia, possessing intelligence comparable to modern humans. Existed between 350,000 and 38,000 years ago. While not direct ancestors of modern humans, they coexisted and interbred with *Homo sapiens*, contributing approximately 2% Neanderthal DNA to the average European. The "Man of Spy" in Belgium is a notable Neanderthal find [7](#page=7). * ***Homo sapiens***: Appeared in Africa around 200,000 years ago and spread globally from 100,000 years ago onwards. It is generally agreed that all modern humans originated in Africa. *Homo sapiens* appeared in Europe around 40,000 years ago and is the only surviving human species today [7](#page=7). * ***Homo floresiensis*** (Flores Man): Discovered in Indonesia in 2003, this small hominid species lived around 100,000 to 50,000 years ago, coexisting with *Homo sapiens* and Neanderthals. It is believed to be a dwarfed species that adapted to the island's limited resources. Their extinction around 50,000 years ago is attributed to various theories, including volcanic eruptions, climate change, disease, or the arrival of modern humans [8](#page=8). > **Example:** The discovery of *Homo floresiensis* highlights how the understanding of human evolution is constantly evolving with new findings [8](#page=8). ### 1.4 A nomadic society Early humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers who lived in small groups of about 30 individuals. They moved seasonally to find food and water, or to follow migratory prey like reindeer, mammoths, and bison. Initially, they were likely scavengers, but *Homo erectus* and Neanderthals engaged in active hunting. Almost every part of a hunted animal was utilized for food, clothing, tools, and shelter. Climate change, including ice ages and interglacial periods, significantly impacted landscapes, flora, and fauna, directly affecting human survival. *Homo erectus* is thought to be the first to use fire, with evidence of intentionally making fire appearing around 40,000 years ago, which improved living conditions and life expectancy [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). #### 1.4.1 Tools Stone tools are the most common archaeological evidence of early human activity. Tool development shows a gradual evolution towards finer, more complex, and varied designs, allowing archaeologists to estimate age and function through microscopic and experimental analysis. *Homo habilis* is credited with the first deliberate tool use and creation, using simple chipped stones. The bifacial hand axe was a primary tool for *Homo erectus*. Neanderthals and early *Homo sapiens* developed more specialized tools and weapons, including scrapers, knives, awls, needles, harpoons, spears, and bows and arrows. Flint (silex) was a favored material, with evidence of flint mines found in Spiennes, Belgium. Other materials like bone, ivory, wood, and horn were also used [9](#page=9). #### 1.4.2 Dwellings, clothing, and adornments Due to their nomadic lifestyle, early humans sought shelter in natural locations like caves, rock overhangs, or open-air camps used by *Homo habilis* and *Homo erectus*. From the Neanderthal period onwards, more structured dwellings, such as tents made from animal hides and natural materials, or modifications of caves, emerged. Indirect evidence for clothing, such as awls and needles, dates back to the Neanderthal period, while *Homo sapiens* remains have yielded actual clothing fragments. Adornments like bracelets and necklaces made from shells, ivory, and bone have also been found from the Neanderthal era [10](#page=10) [9](#page=9). #### 1.4.3 Art and belief systems Initially, artistic expression was attributed solely to *Homo sapiens*, but recent research indicates Neanderthals also possessed artistic skills. This includes "mobile art" such as engravings on bone and stone, and sculptures. Cave art, featuring paintings and engravings on cave walls, is most famously found in France (Lascaux, Chauvet) and Spain (Altamira). These depictions primarily feature animals with remarkable naturalism, while humans are often rendered crudely. The purpose of cave art remains mysterious, possibly serving instructional, ritualistic, or magical functions. The preservation of these artworks is a significant challenge. Evidence of rituals surrounding death, such as the burial of the dead with grave goods by Neanderthals, suggests early beliefs about the spiritual world and the afterlife [10](#page=10). #### 1.4.4 Prehistory in the researchers' region The oldest traces of human presence in the researchers' region are bifaces found in Kesselt (Limburg), dating back approximately 400,000 to 500,000 years ago. Neanderthals left more substantial evidence, including temporary camps and flint extraction sites in Veldwezelt (Limburg), dated between 133,000 and 58,000 years ago, with thousands of tools and animal remains found. Neanderthal sites are concentrated in the Maas Valley region of Limburg and the Walloon Maas basin, including the renowned Grotten of Spy where the "Man of Spy" was discovered [10](#page=10). ### 1.5 Transition from nomadic to agricultural society The advent of agriculture initiated a profound societal transformation, often termed the "agricultural revolution". This shift occurred around 12,000 years ago, coinciding with a global warming trend following the last ice age, which created more fertile conditions for cereal crops like wheat. The ability to cultivate crops allowed humans to settle in one place, reducing the need for constant migration. Domestication of grains and other crops began in various regions, notably the Fertile Crescent, encompassing areas around the Taurus and Zagros mountains, the eastern Mediterranean coast, and Mesopotamia. The plants domesticated during this period, such as wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, millet, and barley, still form the basis of over 90% of humanity's caloric intake today. Alongside crop cultivation, humans began domesticating animals for food, labor, and companionship, leading to the development of livestock farming [11](#page=11). #### 1.5.1 A new way of life: consequences of agriculture The transition to agriculture brought about significant positive and negative changes: ##### 1.5.1.1 Sedentarization and the rise of villages and cities Humans became sedentary, establishing permanent settlements in areas with productive land. Several families formed villages, and some of these communities grew into cities. The earliest cities, such as Jericho, and developed settlements like Catalhöyük (in present-day Turkey) with up to 10,000 inhabitants, emerged in the Near East. Some cities were fortified to protect against invaders, introducing large-scale conflict and warfare into human history [11](#page=11). ##### 1.5.1.2 Population growth Agriculture increased human survival rates by providing a more reliable and abundant food supply, allowing for larger populations. Sedentary life was also generally safer and more comfortable than a nomadic existence [12](#page=12). ##### 1.5.1.3 Emergence of crafts, private property, and greater social inequality With increased food production and population growth, not everyone was needed for farming, leading to specialization in crafts such as metalworking, pottery, spinning, and weaving. This spurred trade and the development of new professions. In contrast to hunter-gatherer societies where possessions were minimal due to the need for mobility, agriculture brought the concept of private property (e.g., land, homes, stored goods). This also led to growing social inequality, with some families and men gaining power at the expense of others, and land becoming a significant form of wealth [12](#page=12). ##### 1.5.1.4 New materials (metal) and tools Around 4500 BCE, the Fertile Crescent saw the development of metallurgy, with the smelting of copper, bronze, and iron used to create improved tools and weapons. Agriculture also drove the innovation of many new tools and implements, such as sickles, scythes, millstones, mortars, wheels, and ovens, many of which retain their fundamental form and function today [12](#page=12). #### 1.5.2 Agriculture in the researchers' region From the Fertile Crescent, agriculture and its associated societal changes spread to Western Europe around 5500 BCE. The earliest farmers in the researchers' region settled near rivers, with an ancient agricultural settlement discovered in Rosmeer (Limburg) consisting of rectangular wooden houses. The long rectangular house design persisted in Western Europe for centuries [12](#page=12). Between 3500 and 2500 BCE, the megalithic culture reached its peak, characterized by the construction of large stone monuments across Western Europe using massive stone blocks. These structures include menhirs (standing stones) and dolmens (resembling giant stone tables). Megalithic sites are found in Belgium, primarily in Wallonia, with Wéris (Luxembourg) being a well-preserved example, and Hollain near Tournai housing the largest menhir. Stonehenge in Southern England is a famous example of megalithic construction. The exact purpose of these megalithic structures remains unclear, with theories suggesting they served as burial sites or had astronomical significance [13](#page=13). --- # Ancient civilizations: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome This topic delves into the foundational ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, exploring their distinct economies, governance, social structures, religions, art, and scientific achievements that profoundly shaped Western history. ### 2.1 Mesopotamia: Cradle of Civilization Mesopotamia, located in modern-day Iraq between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, witnessed the rise and fall of several dominant civilizations, including the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians [14](#page=14). #### 2.1.1 Economy: The backbone of irrigation agriculture and a barter economy The unpredictable flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia necessitated sophisticated irrigation systems, involving the construction of canals and dikes to manage water for agriculture. This intensive irrigation agriculture yielded substantial harvests, allowing for a specialization of labor beyond farming, and fostered a system of barter trade [14](#page=14). #### 2.1.2 Governance: From city-states to empires led by priest-kings Villages evolved into independent city-states, such as Ur and Uruk, comprising a central city with surrounding agricultural lands. Leaders, known as priest-kings, wielded both political and religious authority, acting as intermediaries with the gods to ensure prosperity and stability. They governed the city, dictated laws, commanded the army, and controlled food supplies, assisted by scribes and administrators who managed records and ensured compliance with regulations [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). * **Codex Hammurabi:** Around 1750 BCE, Hammurabi, the priest-king of the Babylonian Empire, had his laws inscribed on a large stone pillar, the Codex Hammurabi, one of the earliest known written legal codes. This code reflects social inequalities, with harsher punishments for offenses against higher-status individuals and the acceptance of slavery [15](#page=15). #### 2.1.3 Society: A stratified society Mesopotamian society was structured into distinct social classes or estates, determined by birth and family status. At the apex was the priest-king, followed by scribes, merchants, and artisans. At the bottom were farmers and enslaved people, who held little social standing and were often impoverished [15](#page=15). #### 2.1.4 Religion: Reverence for nature and the gods Despite advancements in agriculture, Mesopotamians remained deeply reliant on nature and its forces, leading to the worship of various gods to ensure favorable conditions. The ziggurat, a temple tower with a square base and stepped levels, served as the religious center of Mesopotamian cities, dedicated to honoring their deities [15](#page=15). #### 2.1.5 The invention of writing: Cuneiform script Writing emerged in the early Mesopotamian cities, initially as simple figures scratched into clay. This evolved into cuneiform script, where wedge-shaped marks were impressed into wet clay using a reed stylus. Clay tablets were the primary writing material, used for administrative, religious, and literary purposes, including the epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest known literary works [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16). #### 2.1.6 Science: Astronomical and mathematical advancements Mesopotamia was a hub of scientific progress, particularly in astronomy and mathematics. They developed a sexagesimal (base-60) number system, influencing our modern divisions of time into hours, minutes, and seconds, and the measurement of a circle into 360 degrees. They also accurately predicted astronomical events and created a twelve-month calendar based on lunar cycles [16](#page=16). ### 2.2 Ancient Egypt: A gift of the Nile The civilization of Ancient Egypt, flourishing under the pharaohs, was intrinsically linked to the Nile River, which provided the fertile land necessary for its development [16](#page=16). #### 2.2.1 Economy: Irrigational agriculture as the foundation Agriculture formed the bedrock of the Egyptian economy, with wealth primarily measured by land ownership. The annual flooding of the Nile deposited nutrient-rich silt, creating fertile "black land" for cultivation, while the surrounding desert was known as "red land". Beyond agriculture, skilled artisans produced goods such as pottery, papyrus (used for various items including paper), textiles, and metalwork. Trade was conducted through barter, with the pharaoh monopolizing foreign trade [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17). #### 2.2.2 Society: A hierarchy of the privileged, free, and enslaved Egyptian society was hierarchical, with a distinct social structure [17](#page=17): * **Pharaoh:** The divine ruler, considered a god on Earth and mediator between gods and humans [18](#page=18). * **Priests:** Maintained temples and conducted religious services. * **Nobles:** Landowners who governed regions or led the army. * **Free People:** Officials managing administration, artisans, and merchants. * **Farmers:** Cultivated land owned by large landowners. * **Slaves/Enslaved People:** Primarily prisoners of war, possessing no rights. #### 2.2.3 Governance: The pharaoh, king between gods and humans The political history of Ancient Egypt is often marked by the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3000 BCE, followed by distinct periods: the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, and Late Period, often interspersed with intermediate periods of weakened central authority. The pharaoh, whose title meant "great house," was revered as divine and the earthly representative of the god Horus. Their primary duty was to maintain Ma'at, the cosmic order of justice and truth. Pharaohs were distinguished by regalia such as scepters, flails, crowns, and ceremonial beards [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). #### 2.2.4 Religion: Polytheism and belief in the afterlife Egyptians worshipped a multitude of gods, many associated with natural phenomena due to their agricultural dependence. Key deities included the sun god Ra (or Re), Osiris, Isis, Thoth, Horus, and Anubis. Animals were also revered for their perceived abilities. A central tenet of their faith was the belief in an afterlife, which necessitated the preservation of the body through mummification. The elaborate nature of burial and tombs varied by social status, from simple pit graves to mastabas, pyramids, and hidden rock-cut tombs like those in the Valley of the Kings (#page=18, 19). A final judgment in the underworld determined passage to eternal life [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19). #### 2.2.5 Art: Glorifying the pharaoh and religious beliefs Egyptian art, primarily in stone, served the pharaoh and religious beliefs, emphasizing the afterlife [19](#page=19). * **Architecture:** Pyramids, serving as pharaohs' tombs, were monumental feats of engineering and logistics, not built by slaves but by organized labor. Temples, dedicated to gods, were considered their dwellings and later evolved into economic centers (#page=19, 20). Obelisks, tall stone needles, were erected to commemorate significant events and often bore solar symbolism [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20). * **Sculpture:** Characterized by idealized representations, with figures often depicted in profile with frontal torsos. Social status dictated the size of figures, with more important individuals rendered larger [20](#page=20). * **Painting:** Wall paintings in temples and tombs depicted daily life, religious scenes, and funerary rituals. Perspective was understood but often manipulated to present information clearly and completely [20](#page=20). #### 2.2.6 Writing: Hieroglyphs The Egyptian writing system, known as hieroglyphs, evolved over time and was primarily mastered by priests and high officials. Written on papyrus and carved into stone, these texts covered a wide range of subjects. The decipherment of hieroglyphs, achieved by Jean-François Champollion using the Rosetta Stone in 1822, significantly advanced understanding of Egyptian civilization [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). #### 2.2.7 Science: Practical applications and advancements Ancient Egyptians were noted inventors, contributing concepts like paper (from papyrus), ink, and locks and keys. Their scientific pursuits were driven by religious practices and agricultural needs [21](#page=21): * **Geometry:** Essential for land surveying after floods, trade, taxation, and construction [21](#page=21). * **Medicine:** While incorporating magical elements, Egyptian physicians prescribed remedies and performed surgery [21](#page=21). * **Chemistry:** Utilized in processes like mummification [21](#page=21). * **Astronomy:** Developed a 365-day calendar with an additional five days and tracked time using sundials and water clocks [21](#page=21). ### 2.3 The Greek World (circa 800 BCE – circa 150 BCE) The Greek civilization, or Hellas, profoundly influenced Western history through its contributions to democracy, philosophy, art, and science [21](#page=21). #### 2.3.1 Time and Space: City-states shaped by geography Greek history is often dated from around 800 BCE, marked by the establishment of the Greek calendar, the founding of colonies, the rise of poleis (city-states), and Homer's epics. The Greek world extended beyond the peninsula to include the Aegean coast and colonies around the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The mountainous terrain, scarce arable land, and extensive coastline fostered the development of independent city-states. The Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild winters also shaped their way of life [21](#page=21) [22](#page=22). #### 2.3.2 Economy: Trade and colonization driven by resource limitations The economy of the Greek poleis was heavily influenced by their location. Limited agricultural land and a growing population necessitated the import of food and encouraged intensive maritime trade and colonization around the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Key Greek exports included wine, olive oil, and pottery, while imports consisted of grain and timber. By the 7th century BCE, the Greeks transitioned from barter to a money-based economy, with each city-state minting its own coins. Notable industries included shipbuilding, metallurgy, and marble processing [22](#page=22) [23](#page=23). #### 2.3.3 Society: Inequality and distinct daily life Greek society was characterized by inequality and a strong patriarchal structure [23](#page=23). * **Slaves:** The largest population group, with no rights, acquired through birth, debt, or capture [23](#page=23). * **Citizens:** Free men who possessed political and property rights, with a diverse social composition [23](#page=23). * **Foreigners:** Free but without citizen rights, often involved in trade and industry [23](#page=23). * **Women:** Not full citizens, lacking political and some legal rights. Their lives were primarily centered on domestic duties [23](#page=23). Due to the favorable climate, much of daily life occurred outdoors, with modest homes and simple, draped clothing [23](#page=23). #### 2.3.4 Governance: The rise of the polis and early democracy Ancient Greece was not a unified empire but a collection of hundreds of independent city-states, or poleis, often engaged in conflict. A polis consisted of a city center, surrounded by rural areas and villages, with an acropolis (fortified citadel) and agora (marketplace) at its heart. Athens, in the 5th century BCE, pioneered democracy, influenced by Solon's reforms that shifted societal divisions from birth to property and expanded participation in the assembly and courts to include poorer citizens. However, the Athenian democracy had limitations, with only a small fraction of the population (around 30,000 out of 300,000 inhabitants) having a voice [24](#page=24). #### 2.3.5 Religion: Olympian gods, myths, and the Olympic Games Religion, language, and art served as unifying forces in the Greek world. Greeks worshipped the same pantheon of Olympian gods, headed by Zeus, who were anthropomorphic but immortal. Myths explained natural phenomena and the human condition, giving rise to many modern words and expressions. The Olympic Games, held every four years in honor of Zeus, were a significant Panhellenic event promoting peace and athletic competition among free Greek male citizens. These games were eventually suppressed by Roman emperors who viewed them as pagan [24](#page=24) [25](#page=25). #### 2.3.6 Art: Temples, theaters, and idealized sculpture Greek art is characterized by its lasting influence on Western architecture and sculpture [25](#page=25). * **Architecture:** Temples, such as the Parthenon in Athens, were designed with an emphasis on symmetry and harmony, serving as dwellings for the gods (#page=25, 26). Open-air theaters, built to accommodate thousands, hosted comedies and tragedies with universal themes [25](#page=25) [26](#page=26). * **Sculpture:** Reached its zenith in the 5th century BCE, focusing on the idealized human form, particularly athletes, in marble and bronze [26](#page=26). #### 2.3.7 Science and Philosophy: Foundational intellectual pursuits The Greeks made significant scientific contributions in mathematics (Pythagoras, Euclid), physics (Archimedes), medicine (Hippocrates), and astronomy (Ptolemy). Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," originated in Ancient Greece, with thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle exploring fundamental questions about existence, reality, and knowledge [26](#page=26) [27](#page=27). ### 2.4 The Romans (circa 800 BCE – circa 500 CE) The Roman civilization, beginning as a small settlement, grew into a vast and highly organized empire that left an indelible mark on Western law, language, and engineering [27](#page=27). #### 2.4.1 Time and Space: Expansion and the Roman Empire Traditionally founded in 753 BCE by Romulus and Remus, Rome evolved from a village into the immense "Imperium Romanum" through relentless conquest and military prowess. By the 1st century CE, the empire encompassed all Mediterranean coasts, reaching its greatest territorial extent by the early 2nd century CE, spanning three continents. The empire's extensive borders, known as "limes," were secured by a system of forts, watchtowers, and roads. The Roman Empire was a multicultural society that facilitated cultural exchange, a process known as Romanization. The empire faced increasing pressure from the 4th century CE, ultimately dissolving in Western Europe around 500 CE [27](#page=27) [28](#page=28). #### 2.4.2 Economy: Agriculture and widespread trade The Roman economy was predominantly agrarian, with a large portion of the population engaged in farming. Large agricultural estates, often worked by enslaved people, produced Mediterranean staples like grain, grapes, and olives, many of which were introduced to other regions. The empire possessed a vast internal market, fueled by large cities like Rome, a substantial army, and a growing demand for luxury goods. Regions specialized in certain products, which were then distributed across the empire. Roman trade was facilitated by a strong merchant fleet and an extensive network of paved roads, known as "heirbanen" (military roads). A standardized system of currency, weights, and measures further aided commerce [28](#page=28) [29](#page=29). #### 2.4.3 Society: Stratification and military organization Roman society was marked by significant social distinctions, initially between patricians and plebeians, though this became more fluid during the imperial period [29](#page=29). * **Patricians:** The ruling class, holding political and military power. * **Plebeians:** The common citizens, forming the majority of the population. * **Enslaved People:** Their status varied greatly; gladiators were among the most harshly treated. Slave revolts, like that of Spartacus, occurred periodically [29](#page=29). Women, within Roman citizen families, remained under the legal guardianship of the "pater familias". The Roman army played a crucial role in defense, expansion, infrastructure development, and as a pathway to citizenship, offering soldiers financial rewards and land upon retirement [29](#page=29). #### 2.4.4 Governance: Monarchy, Republic, and Empire Rome experienced three major forms of government: 1. **Monarchy:** Ruled by a king, assisted by a senate and popular assembly, though their power was limited [30](#page=30). 2. **Republic:** Power was shared between two consuls, with a senate and assemblies. Julius Caesar's rise to power challenged this system, leading to his assassination [30](#page=30). 3. **Empire:** Established by Augustus (Octavian) in 27 BCE, the emperor held ultimate authority. The first two centuries of the empire, known as the Pax Romana, were characterized by stability, prosperity, and peace, supported by efficient governance, a strong military, and uniform legal principles. This era also saw the widespread dissemination of Roman culture (Romanization) and the development of an imperial cult. The empire began to decline in the 3rd century CE [30](#page=30). #### 2.4.5 Religion: From polytheism to Christianity as state religion Rome adopted and adapted deities from conquered cultures, often renaming them (e.g., Greek Zeus became Roman Jupiter). The emperor was also deified, and while Romans were generally tolerant of other religions, Christianity was initially persecuted due to its monotheistic nature and rejection of the imperial cult. Emperor Constantine's conversion and declaration of religious freedom in the early 4th century CE proved pivotal, and within a century, Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire [30](#page=30) [31](#page=31). #### 2.4.6 Art: Masterful builders and practical engineering Roman art and architecture are renowned for their practicality and engineering prowess, with a significant debt to Greek influences [31](#page=31). * **Architecture:** Roman temples, such as the Pantheon with its impressive dome, were built across the empire. Civil engineering marvels included aqueducts for water transport, forums as civic centers, and elaborate public baths (thermae) that also served as social hubs (#page=31, 32). Basilicas, rectangular public buildings, served as market halls and law courts, later influencing Christian church architecture. They also constructed freestanding theaters, circuses for chariot races (like the Circus Maximus), and amphitheaters for spectacles (like the Colosseum). Triumphal arches and columns celebrated Roman power and emperors [31](#page=31) [32](#page=32). ### 2.5 The Celts The Celts, originating from Central Europe, spread across much of Europe around 2500 years ago. Roman accounts often portrayed them as warlike barbarians, but archaeological evidence reveals a more complex societal structure. The Celts lived in tribal confederations, sharing a common language and customs but never forming a unified empire. Their society comprised free individuals (nobles, merchants, farmers, artisans) and unfree individuals, led by chieftains [32](#page=32). #### 2.5.1 Culture and influence Characteristic of Celtic culture were fortified settlements on elevated sites, from which they controlled surrounding territories and trade routes. They excelled in metalworking, producing weapons, tools, art, and jewelry. Their extensive trade networks stretched from the Mediterranean to Britain. By the first century BCE, most Celtic tribes were conquered by the Romans and Germanic peoples. Today, Celtic languages are still spoken in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, and Galicia [33](#page=33). ### 2.6 The ancient world in our regions In the areas of modern-day Belgium, various Celtic tribes (e.g., Eburones, Belgae) resided. Roman conquest, led by Julius Caesar, brought these regions under Roman rule, a process marked by resistance, such as Ambiorix's victory over Roman legions. Over four centuries, Romanization led to significant societal changes, including the adoption of stone construction, public baths, underfloor heating, coinage, and writing. The Roman province of Belgica developed cities like Tongeren, which became a thriving Roman center, Atuatuca Tungrorum. Gallo-Romans, Gauls who adopted Roman language and customs, lived in Roman villas and were buried in tumuli (burial mounds). Many Roman roads and military camps from this period remain visible today [33](#page=33). --- # The Middle Ages: early and late periods This section explores the significant transformations in Mediterranean society from approximately 500 to 1500 AD, marking the transition from antiquity to modernity, and examines the development of distinct political, social, and cultural spheres in Western Europe and the Arab world. ### 3.1 Early middle ages (ca. 500 – ca. 1000) #### 3.1.1 Fall of the West-Roman empire The Roman Empire weakened from the 3rd century AD onwards due to internal issues (weakening imperial power, neglected borders) and external pressures from migrating Germanic peoples. In the late 4th century, it was divided into Western and Eastern (Byzantine) Empires for better administration. The Western Roman Empire officially ended in 476 AD when its last emperor was deposed [35](#page=35). #### 3.1.2 The Franks establish the most influential Germanic kingdom Following the migrations, various Germanic kingdoms emerged on the former Western Roman territories, with the Frankish kingdom becoming the most enduring and influential [35](#page=35). ##### 3.1.2.1 The Merovingians Clovis was the founder and most significant king of the Merovingian dynasty. He unified various smaller kingdoms into a single Frankish realm, encompassing modern-day France and a large part of Belgium, establishing Paris as its new capital. Clovis codified tribal law in the Salic Law and converted to Christianity, fostering a strong, lasting alliance between the Church and the State. The Merovingian realm fragmented after Clovis's death due to the Germanic tradition of dividing inheritance among sons, leading to continuous internal disputes and a weakened kingdom in the 6th and 7th centuries [35](#page=35) [36](#page=36). ##### 3.1.2.2 The Carolingians & Charlemagne Around 700 AD, the Merovingian dynasty's power waned, and real authority shifted to their mayors of the palace (chief ministers). These officials eventually seized power, establishing the Carolingian dynasty, with Charlemagne as its most prominent ruler. Through continuous warfare, Charlemagne greatly expanded the empire, fighting against Islamic rulers in Spain, Saxons in Northwest Europe, and Lombards in the South. His empire was vast, earning him the title "father of Europe," and he brought several decades of relative peace. Christianity served as a significant unifying force within this large empire. In 800 AD, the Pope crowned him emperor, a moment of great significance as Charlemagne saw himself as the heir to the Western Roman emperors. Although he and his court traveled extensively, Aachen became his chosen capital, with his palace chapel still existing as part of the Aachen Cathedral. Charlemagne organized his vast realm by dividing it into counties (gouwen), each headed by a count (gouwgraaf), with inspectors overseeing their administration. He also extensively implemented the feudal system within his empire. Following a period of cultural decline, Charlemagne stimulated art, education, and sciences, establishing schools and inviting scholars, leading to the era being known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne died in 814 AD, succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious. Conflicts between Louis and his sons resulted in the Treaty of Verdun in 843, dividing the Carolingian Empire into three parts, which later evolved into France and Germany [36](#page=36). #### 3.1.3 Society ##### 3.1.3.1 Estate society and a closed or manorial agricultural economy In the early Middle Ages, agriculture was the primary economic activity, and land ownership was the main source of wealth. Cities were few and small. Agriculture took place on large estates (domains), comprising the lord's land, land worked by free and unfree peasants, and common lands. Peasants owed dues in kind or money to the lord and also engaged in home crafts. Trade was limited to essential products, making the domain a self-sufficient unit. Life for common people was arduous, with simple housing and a monotonous diet, leading to frequent famines and a low life expectancy of around 30 years [37](#page=37). Society was divided into three closed estates: * **The nobility:** Dukes, counts, knights, or lords who owned vast lands and held economic and military power [37](#page=37). * **The clergy:** Bishops, abbots, priests, monks, etc., who dedicated their lives to the Church [37](#page=37). * **The 'third estate':** Common working people, including free peasants who owned land and paid taxes but retained personal freedom, and serfs (horigen) who surrendered land for protection, were tied to the land, and owed labor and taxes. Unfree individuals (lijfeigenen) had no freedom and worked land in exchange for sustenance. Craftsmen also belonged to the third estate. An individual's rights and obligations were determined by their estate, a system that persisted until the French Revolution [37](#page=37). ##### 3.1.3.2 The feudal system or feodality In exchange for an oath of loyalty and military support, kings or powerful nobles (liege lords or leenheren) granted land to lesser nobles (vassals or leenmannen). This system of mutual loyalty formed the basis of what historians call 'feodality'. The fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire, coupled with invasions by peoples like the Normans (Vikings), weakened royal authority. Many vassals took on the responsibility of defending their territories and local populations, building fortified castles for protection. These vassals often ruled their fiefs independently, administering justice and raising their own armies, leading to a feudal hierarchy. Eventually, vassals began to regard their fiefs as hereditary, weakening their ties to the liege lord. The feudal system, initially a unifying force, contributed to the political and territorial fragmentation of the empire [37](#page=37) [38](#page=38). > **Tip:** The feudal system, while intended to organize defense and loyalty, ultimately led to decentralized power and the rise of local lords who often acted independently of the king. #### 3.1.4 The Christian middle ages Christianity saw significant spread in this period. Initially introduced by Roman soldiers, local populations continued to worship their own gods for centuries. Widespread and lasting conversion began in the 7th century due to [39](#page=39): * **Missionaries:** They traveled widely, preaching Christianity in various regions [39](#page=39). * **Monasteries and abbeys:** The Benedictine order, founded by Benedict of Nursia (480-547), became influential due to its simple, humane, and balanced rule, emphasizing prayer and manual labor. Monasteries became centers of religion, economy, and culture, and played a crucial role in copying manuscripts, preserving ancient texts [39](#page=39). * **Alliance between Frankish rulers and the Church:** This close relationship, exemplified by rulers like Clovis and Charlemagne, ensured that subjects often shared the ruler's faith and facilitated administrative collaboration, with clergy frequently serving as royal officials [39](#page=39). #### 3.1.5 Art: Romanesque churches and monasteries The growth of monasticism from around 1000 AD onwards was reflected in the Romanesque architectural style. Characterized by a sober appearance, small window openings, thick walls, short towers, and the use of rounded arches for windows, doors, and vaults, many churches and monasteries were built in this style [39](#page=39). #### 3.1.6 The Arab world ##### 3.1.6.1 Origin and spread of Islam Islam emerged in the Middle East around 600 AD, with the flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Muhammad founded Islam, based on five pillars. After Muhammad's death, Islam rapidly spread from Arabia to North Africa and the Near East. In the early 8th century, Islamic forces crossed the Strait of Gibraltar into Spain, but their advance into Europe was halted by the Frankish king Charles Martel at Poitiers in 732 AD. The early caliphs initially based their capital in Damascus, later developing Baghdad into the center of the Islamic world from around 750 AD. Baghdad became home to impressive palaces, mosques, and a "House of Wisdom," a center for scholars researching mathematics, medicine, physics, and astronomy. Translations of works by classical Greek philosophers and mathematicians, as well as Indian and Persian texts, were undertaken. Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) is considered one of the most important Islamic scholars [39](#page=39) [40](#page=40). ##### 3.1.6.2 Al-Andalus Muslims conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the early 8th century, and much of modern Spain and Portugal remained under Islamic rule throughout the Middle Ages. This region is known as Al-Andalus. Islamic rule in Spain was generally tolerant towards Christians and Jews, allowing them to practice their religion upon payment of taxes. Al-Andalus developed a vibrant culture that significantly influenced medieval Christian Europe. Through Al-Andalus, Europe gained access to Mediterranean products like citrus fruits and gained intellectual insights from the translation and dissemination of works by Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, and Euclid. This influx of knowledge spurred advancements in European universities. The Alhambra palace in Granada is a notable remnant of this civilization. Al-Andalus gradually fragmented into warring states, which were eventually reconquered by Christian kingdoms in the north through a process called the Reconquista, completed in 1492 with the expulsion of the last Muslim ruler. Converted Muslims, known as conversos, faced persecution due to suspicions of secretly practicing Islam [40](#page=40). ##### 3.1.6.3 The Crusades: confrontation between the Christian world and Islam Relations between Christian Europe and the Islamic world deteriorated from the 11th century onwards. Pope Urban II called for the first Crusade in 1095 to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslims. The first Crusade succeeded in capturing Jerusalem in 1098, leading to the establishment of several Christian kingdoms in the Near East. Subsequent Crusades were less successful, and Christian presence in the Holy Land declined, ending by the late 13th century. Despite the conflict, the contact between Europeans and Muslims resulted in significant exchanges in economics and culture, including the adoption of Arabic numerals, knowledge of chemistry, and the introduction of spices and coffee to Europe [41](#page=41). #### 3.1.7 The Normans or Vikings From the late 8th century, raiding groups from Scandinavia, known as Vikings or Norsemen, attacked Europe. While often depicted as ferocious plunderers, their raids involved relatively few casualties but targeted churches and monasteries, explaining the negative portrayal by Christian chroniclers. Swedish Vikings traveled through the Baltic states to present-day Russia and Ukraine, where they were called "Rus," giving rise to the name Russia. Danish and Norwegian Vikings, using swift longships called drakars or snekkars, navigated rivers into Western Europe, their shallow drafts allowing deep inland penetration. Beyond raiding, Vikings were also traders and settlers, discovering Iceland, Greenland, and even North America. Initially, Carolingian rulers were unable to repel Viking incursions; the trading town of Dorestad never recovered from its plundering. Later, resistance grew, and rulers and local nobles became more effective in protecting populations or making agreements with the Vikings, such as Rollo, a Norman leader who was granted land around the Seine estuary, which became the Duchy of Normandy [41](#page=41) [42](#page=42). ### 3.2 Late middle ages (ca. 1000 – ca. 1500) #### 3.2.1 Emergence of a city on the Dijle While some Roman-era towns existed, most modern cities originated in the late Middle Ages, particularly the 11th and 12th centuries. Leuven serves as an example of urban development and society during this period [42](#page=42). ##### 3.2.1.1 Where do cities emerge? Cities emerged in favorable locations such as at the confluence of land and water routes for trade. Proximity to a castle or abbey offered protection. Some cities re-emerged on sites of former Roman settlements. For Leuven, its location on the Dijle River and along the Bruges-Cologne trade route, and its proximity to the castle of the Counts of Leuven, were crucial factors [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43). ##### 3.2.1.2 Why do cities emerge? From around 1000 AD, a period of peace and stability in Europe led to population growth due to new agricultural techniques like the three-field system. This created a surplus population in rural areas seeking new opportunities. International trade also revived due to political stability and renewed contact with the Near East through the Crusades. Initially, itinerant merchants followed fairs, but they soon established permanent settlements in accessible locations [43](#page=43). #### 3.2.2 Cities strive for autonomy ##### 3.2.2.1 Burghers strive for independence from the local lord These new commercial settlements did not fit within the feudal system. Initially, city dwellers (burghers or poorters) had the same feudal obligations as rural populations, which hindered their professions as merchants and artisans. After often prolonged struggles, they gained rights and freedoms documented in charters (keuren). These charters were stored in special buildings called belfries, which became symbols of urban power, wealth, and independence [43](#page=43) [44](#page=44). ##### 3.2.2.2 What were the rights of city inhabitants in a medieval city? The boundaries of medieval cities were defined by defensive walls. Access was controlled through city gates, where tolls were collected from rural peasants and foreign merchants. Within the walls, the city's own law (stadsrecht) applied, distinct from the local lord's law outside. Cities established their own courts. Burghers enjoyed legal rights such as personal freedom, economic privileges like levying taxes and holding markets, and administrative rights like electing their own city government. They were also responsible for the city's defense [44](#page=44). > **Example:** The Keure of Kortenberg significantly limited the Duke of Brabant's power, granting considerable authority to city representatives, particularly the patricians, who would influence politics [43](#page=43). #### 3.2.3 Social groups in the city ##### 3.2.3.1 Trades and guilds Craftsmen practicing the same trade organized into trades (ambachten), which developed into well-organized professional associations. These trades often left their mark on street and family names. Trades had strict regulations governing production and a social role, providing support during illness. Merchants and traders, who organized the supply of raw materials and the export of finished goods, formed guilds (gilden) [45](#page=45). ##### 3.2.3.2 Growing tensions and democratic revolts in cities Initially, solidarity among burghers was strong, but tensions emerged from the late 12th century, sometimes leading to revolts. Artisans (in trades) became increasingly dependent on merchants/traders/entrepreneurs (in guilds), who also monopolized political power. Artisans demanded greater economic and political influence. Conflicts also arose within groups, such as rivalries among merchant families and disputes over the limited number of permitted trades [45](#page=45). > **Example:** The Battle of the Golden Spurs (Guldensporenslag) in 1302 at Kortrijk was a conflict not only between the Count of Flanders and the French King but also a confrontation between the patricians (Lelieaarts), who sided with France, and the artisans (Klauwaerts), who supported the Count [45](#page=45). #### 3.2.4 International trade flourishes: cloth manufacturing and trade Cloth manufacturing was a major economic activity after agriculture, with fine wool textiles traded across Europe. Wool was primarily imported from England. Many trades were involved in cloth production, including weavers, fullers, dyers, and shearers. Cloth halls served as centers for inspection and trade. Bruges grew into one of Europe's most important trading cities due to its strategic location at the intersection of various trade routes. The cloth industry gradually declined from the mid-14th century [46](#page=46). #### 3.2.5 Living in a medieval city Timber-framed houses with wattle-and-daub construction, covered with straw, were common in working-class districts. Houses were narrow, typically with only a couple of rooms, and had overhanging upper floors that partially covered the narrow streets, contributing to the high risk of fire. Only churches, town halls, belfries, and the homes of the wealthy were built of stone with slate or tiled roofs. From the 13th century, patrician homes featured stained-glass windows and rich interiors. Streets were unpaved, and sanitation was poor, with waste often dumped in the streets, facilitating the rapid spread of diseases like the plague, most notably the Black Death in the 14th century [46](#page=46). > **Tip:** Medieval cities were crowded and often unsanitary, with a constant risk of fire and disease, a stark contrast to modern urban living. > **Example:** The description of living in a medieval city highlights the overwhelming sounds and smells, the constant threat of disease spread by vermin, and the gradual improvements in sanitation and paving towards the end of the period [47](#page=47). #### 3.2.6 Faith in the late middle ages ##### 3.2.6.1 New monastic orders: the mendicant orders From the 12th century, new religious ideas emerged, including the mendicant orders like the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Carmelites. They preached in vernacular languages in cities, emphasizing extreme poverty and living on alms and charity [47](#page=47). ##### 3.2.6.2 The Beguines A unique feature of the Low Countries were the Beguines: unmarried women or widows who formed religious communities in cities. They lived soberly and chastely, establishing beguinages – walled communities within cities with their own churches, cemeteries, infirmaries, and governance. They engaged in prayer, manual labor, education, and care for the poor and sick. These beguinages are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage sites [47](#page=47). #### 3.2.7 Cultural life in the late middle ages ##### 3.2.7.1 Founding of the University of Leuven The University of Leuven was founded by the Pope in 1425 and officially established the following year, becoming the first university in the Low Countries. It initially had four faculties: Arts, Medicine, Canon Law, and Civil Law, with Theology added later. The university was housed in what is now the University Hall, formerly part of the cloth hall, and Latin was the language of instruction [48](#page=48). ##### 3.2.7.2 Gothic architecture Gothic architecture dominated the late Middle Ages, particularly in cities. Its key characteristic is verticalism, striving for slender, light, and tall structures. Architectural innovations like flying buttresses, pointed arches, large stained-glass windows, pinnacles, and gargoyles enabled this style. Cities used this style to construct impressive churches, cathedrals, monasteries, and civic buildings like belfries, halls, and town halls as expressions of their power and confidence [48](#page=48). ##### 3.2.7.3 The 'Flemish Primitives' The 15th century saw the flourishing of the "Flemish Primitives" painting school, now often referred to as the "Northern Renaissance". These painters, active across various cities, used oil paint and paid meticulous attention to realistic details, depicting religious scenes in contemporary settings and creating many portraits. Key artists included Rogier van der Weyden, Hans Memling, the Van Eyck brothers (Jan and Hubert), and Dirk Bouts, who worked in Leuven [48](#page=48). #### 3.2.8 Administration: the Burgundian Netherlands From the 14th century, the Dukes of Burgundy began to geographically unify and expand their territories. Although initially vassals of the French king, they pursued an independent course. Through conquest, purchase, and strategic marriages, the Burgundians expanded their domains across present-day Belgium, the Netherlands, and France. Their realm grew into a major power between France and the German lands in the 15th century, significantly shaping the administration of the region. The court at the Coudenberg Palace in Brussels hosted lavish banquets and fostered the arts, exemplified by the Flemish Primitives [49](#page=49). --- # Early Modern Period: Exploration, Absolutism, and Humanism This period marks a significant shift in European history, characterized by global exploration, the rise of centralized monarchies, and profound intellectual and artistic transformations. ### 4.1 The European age of discovery and colonization The European understanding of the world was limited in the Middle Ages, primarily encompassing Africa, Asia, and Europe. Ancient astronomers had already theorized about Earth's spherical shape, based on observations like ships disappearing hull-first over the horizon. This knowledge was revived in Europe through Arab and Spanish scholars, leading to empirical verification in the 15th and 16th centuries [51](#page=51). #### 4.1.1 Technological advancements enabling exploration Several innovations facilitated long-distance sea voyages: * **Navigation tools:** The compass provided directional guidance, while instruments like the quadrant and astrolabe allowed for latitude determination [52](#page=52). * **Cartography:** Portolan charts improved the accuracy of mapping European and African coastlines, with a focus on depicting harbors [52](#page=52). * **Shipbuilding:** The caravel, a new ship type, featured a higher and more spacious bow to navigate rough ocean waves and store provisions. It also incorporated multiple sails and a new rudder design, enabling sailing against the wind (tacking or 'laveren') [52](#page=52). * **Gunpowder and weaponry:** The adoption of gunpowder from China led to advancements in firearms and a revolution in warfare, including portable weapons and ranged combat [52](#page=52). #### 4.1.2 Motivations for exploration West European seafarers embarked on expeditions due to a confluence of factors: * **Economic:** The primary driver was the lucrative trade in spices and luxury goods. Ancient Silk Roads connected the Far East with the Middle East and Mediterranean, but multiple intermediaries increased prices. The Turkish expansion and instability in the Far East further escalated costs, creating a demand for direct sea routes to the East, either westward or around Africa [52](#page=52). * **Political:** The desire to expand power and influence of European nations played a role [52](#page=52). * **Religious:** The mission to spread Christianity was another significant motivation [52](#page=52). #### 4.1.3 Key explorers and their voyages Three prominent explorers sought to reach the Far East via different routes: * **Christopher Columbus:** An experienced Italian navigator sponsored by the Spanish monarchs. He sailed west, aiming for the Far East, and "discovered" America in 1492. He died unaware that he had reached a new continent. His landing on the South American coast on October 12, 1492, is now a subject of controversy due to the suffering inflicted on indigenous populations [53](#page=53). * **Vasco da Gama:** A Portuguese navigator who, in 1497, became the first to sail past the Cape of Good Hope, thereby reaching India [53](#page=53). * **Ferdinand Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães):** A Portuguese navigator commissioned by Spanish ruler Charles V. His expedition completed the first "voyage around the world," though Magellan himself died in the Philippines [53](#page=53). > **Example:** The voyages of Columbus (westward), Vasco da Gama (southeast), and Magellan (southwest and then around the world) illustrate the different approaches to reaching Asia [53](#page=53). #### 4.1.4 Consequences of exploration The discoveries led to: * **Colonialism and Imperialism:** European nations established colonies and subjugated local populations, expanding their power and control over vast territories [54](#page=54). * **Spanish and Portuguese Dominance:** Initially, Spain and Portugal were the leading colonial powers. Portugal focused on establishing fortified trading posts, while Spain, with more resources, claimed extensive territories. Spanish adventurers, known as *conquistadores*, conquered empires like the Aztecs under Hernán Cortés [54](#page=54). * **Impact on Indigenous Populations:** European arrival brought devastating diseases, leading to a demographic catastrophe among indigenous peoples. They were subjected to forced labor on plantations and in mines, and their natural resources, such as gold and silver, were exploited, causing economic depletion. New languages, religions (Christianity), and products were introduced, creating a stratified society based on ethnic origin [54](#page=54). * **Shifting Colonial Powers:** In the 17th century, France, England, and the Dutch Republic challenged Spanish and Portuguese colonial superiority, establishing their own colonies in North America, Asia, and Oceania, often leading to conflicts over territories [54](#page=54). > **Example:** La Malinche, an indigenous woman, played a crucial role as an interpreter and advisor to Hernán Cortés during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, symbolizing the complex origins of Mexican identity [54](#page=54). ### 4.2 The economic landscape The period witnessed significant economic transformations, building upon the foundations of agriculture and expanding into global trade and new industries. #### 4.2.1 Agriculture as the economic backbone Agriculture remained the primary determinant of European prosperity, with the majority of the population living in rural areas and working in farming. While agricultural innovations were slow, the introduction of new crops like potatoes in the first half of the 18th century significantly improved food availability and created reserves, making the potato a staple for ordinary people [55](#page=55). #### 4.2.2 Rise of global trade The age of discovery initiated the first true global trade network, connecting all continents commercially. The Atlantic triangular trade became a fixed route: European goods were traded for enslaved Africans in West Africa, who were then transported to the Americas to labor on plantations or in mines. Ships returned to Europe laden with products such as sugar, rum, coffee, cotton, silver, and tobacco. This colonial trade was controlled by monarchs, states, or chartered trading companies like the Dutch West India Company (WIC). The center of global trade shifted from the Mediterranean to Atlantic ports in Western Europe, with Antwerp becoming a major world port in the early 16th century, experiencing an "Golden Age" of economic, financial, and cultural flourishing. Profits from colonial trade were frequently reinvested in trade and industry [55](#page=55). #### 4.2.3 Industrial developments The growth in trade stimulated industrial expansion: * **Textile industry:** This remained a key sector [55](#page=55). * **New industries:** Paper manufacturing, shipbuilding, and glass production emerged [55](#page=55). * **Proto-industry:** Rural domestic industries, managed by merchant-entrepreneurs, continued, but larger workshops employing dozens of workers also developed, though production still relied on manual labor [56](#page=56). ### 4.3 Societal changes and the re-emergence of slavery The existing social hierarchy persisted, but the age of discovery and colonization exacerbated social inequalities. #### 4.3.1 Growing social stratification The gap between the rich and the poor widened. The bourgeoisie (the Third Estate) gained economic power and influence through investments in colonial trade, though they lacked political power [56](#page=56). #### 4.3.2 Slavery and the slave trade After largely disappearing from Europe due to Christianity during the Middle Ages, slavery re-emerged on a massive scale with the colonization of the Americas. The high mortality rates among indigenous populations prompted colonial powers to seek labor from enslaved Africans. The slave trade was a crucial component of the Atlantic triangular trade. Despite growing protests in the 18th century, laws against the slave trade were only enacted in the 19th century, influenced by the Enlightenment. Between 1500 and 1875, over 12.5 million enslaved people were forcibly transported to the Americas, leaving lasting legacies of socioeconomic inequality, racial tensions, and cultural impacts [56](#page=56). ### 4.4 Political context: the Habsburgs and absolutism Following the fragmentation of medieval Europe, certain rulers and dynasties succeeded in consolidating vast territories. The Habsburg family was particularly dominant in Western Europe during the early modern period, ruling over significant parts of the continent for over 600 years. This era also saw the rise of monarchs seeking absolute power [56](#page=56). #### 4.4.1 The Habsburgs: Emperor Charles V By 1500, the Low Countries became part of the vast Habsburg empire, centered around Emperor Charles V (1500-1558). His inheritance included Austrian lands, the Netherlands, parts of Italy and Spain, and Spanish colonies, in addition to being Holy Roman Emperor, leading to the saying that "the sun never set on his empire". Charles V aimed to unify the Netherlands into a strong European state, centralizing administration and transferring powers from the nobility and cities to central government institutions, despite significant opposition. He appointed regents, such as his aunt Margaret of Austria and sister Mary of Hungary, due to his frequent absences. Charles V enforced strict policies against Protestants to maintain religious unity, but his rule in the Netherlands was not entirely successful due to the cities' attachment to their rights and the heavy taxes needed to fund his numerous wars, which led to riots and revolts. He also failed to prevent the spread of Protestantism despite his actions. Disillusioned, he abdicated in 1555, dividing his empire: his son Philip II inherited the Netherlands and Spanish colonial territories, while his brother Ferdinand received the Austrian possessions [57](#page=57). #### 4.4.2 Philip II: the Eighty Years' War and the division of the Netherlands Philip II is remembered in Spain as a great king, but in the Low Countries, he is known as a fanatical and tyrannical ruler. His attempts to further centralize the administration and his harsh stance against Protestants led to increasing discontent, culminating in the Iconoclastic Fury of 1566, where Protestant groups destroyed Catholic religious imagery. The Duke of Alba was sent with Spanish troops to suppress the rebellion, igniting the Eighty Years' War. Although Philip II regained control of several cities, the war ended in 1648 with the division of the Netherlands: the north became an independent republic, while the south (present-day Belgium and Luxembourg) remained under Spanish Habsburg rule as the Spanish Netherlands. The region subsequently became a battleground for international conflicts [58](#page=58). #### 4.4.3 The Austrian Habsburgs: the Austrian Netherlands Ferdinand I inherited the Holy Roman Empire and the Austrian Habsburg territories upon Charles V's abdication. These diverse Austrian lands were united only by the Habsburg monarchy. In the 18th century, the Austrian Habsburg realm grew into a major European power. The Spanish Netherlands became part of this empire in the early 18th century, becoming the Austrian Netherlands. Under rulers like Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Joseph II, significant reforms were implemented, including modernizing secondary education and developing transportation infrastructure [58](#page=58). #### 4.4.4 Royal absolutism European monarchs in the early modern period pursued centralization, aiming to consolidate administrative control and reduce the influence of nobility and cities. The Habsburg rulers Charles V and Philip II exemplified this by centralizing their empires and striving for religious uniformity. In France, Louis XIV's reign is a prime example of absolutism, where he exerted power over political, economic, military, cultural, and religious spheres, earning him the nickname "the Sun King". Absolute monarchs required substantial funds, obtained through colonial wealth, taxation, and economic regulation. They also utilized art, such as paintings, sculptures, writings, and grand architecture like the Palace of Versailles, to project and reinforce their authority [58](#page=58) [59](#page=59). ### 4.5 The cultural sphere The early modern period witnessed a significant shift in intellectual and artistic paradigms, driven by humanism, the printing press, and new artistic movements. #### 4.5.1 Humanism: a new way of thinking In contrast to the church-dominated medieval era, humanism, an intellectual movement originating in 15th and 16th century Italy, emphasized critical thinking and placed the human being at the center of thought. Desiderius Erasmus was a prominent humanist, advocating for critical inquiry and establishing the College of Three Languages in Leuven. Humanists questioned established doctrines, relying on personal observation and research, leading to advancements in mathematics, medicine, biology, cartography, and astronomy [59](#page=59). * **Cartography:** Gerardus Mercator developed the Mercator projection, a revolutionary method for mapping the Earth that, despite distorting landmass areas, proved invaluable for navigation and is still used today (e.g., in GPS and Google Maps). He also popularized the term "atlas" [59](#page=59). * **Medicine (Anatomy):** Andreas Vesalius, chief physician to Charles V and Philip II, revolutionized anatomy with his detailed studies and his influential work "De humani corporis fabrica" [59](#page=59). * **Astronomy:** Challenging the medieval geocentric model, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed heliocentrism, later supported by Galileo Galilei's telescopic observations [59](#page=59). * **Physics:** Isaac Newton formulated fundamental laws of physics, including the law of universal gravitation [59](#page=59). #### 4.5.2 The printing press disseminates new ideas and knowledge The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450, utilizing movable metal type and a printing press, drastically accelerated the dissemination of humanist ideas, scientific innovations, Renaissance concepts, and Reformation doctrines. In the Low Countries, Dirk Martens was an early printer, and Christophe Plantin established a major printing house in Antwerp, now a UNESCO World Heritage site (Museum Plantin-Moretus) [60](#page=60). > **Tip:** The printing press was crucial for the spread of new ideas, making knowledge more accessible and contributing to intellectual revolutions [60](#page=60). #### 4.5.3 New art movements: Renaissance and Baroque * **Renaissance (15th–16th century):** Emerging in Italy, the Renaissance sought to revive classical antiquity, focusing on humanism, nature, and ideal forms. Artists studied anatomy, worked with live models, and employed perspective, emphasizing order, rhythm, harmony, and symmetry. Themes from antiquity and classical aesthetics were prevalent in painting, sculpture, and architecture. Leonardo da Vinci, a polymath embodying the "homo universalis," was a leading figure, alongside Michelangelo, Raphael, and Donatello [60](#page=60). * **Baroque (16th–18th century):** In contrast to the Renaissance's tranquility, Baroque art was characterized by dynamism, complexity, theatricality, grandeur, and emotion. It featured strong contrasts (color, light/dark), abundant ornamentation, asymmetry, and dramatic lines. Baroque art served the aims of absolute monarchs and the Catholic Church, using its opulent style to impress and express power. In the Southern Netherlands, Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck, and Jacob Jordaens were prominent Baroque painters [61](#page=61). > **Example:** The dramatic and emotive style of Peter Paul Rubens's "The Elevation of the Cross" exemplifies the Baroque period's departure from the balanced aesthetics of the Renaissance [61](#page=61). ### 4.6 Religion: Reformation and religious conflicts In the 15th century, the Roman Catholic Church held significant sway in Western Europe, with faith and the afterlife playing central roles in people's lives. However, corruption and perceived failings within the Church, coupled with the spread of humanist criticism, fueled a widespread protest movement in the 16th century [61](#page=61). #### 4.6.1 The Reformation and its consequences These reform efforts led to a schism within the Western Christian Church, with various Protestant movements emerging. The reduction of the Catholic Church's power and influence precipitated intense religious conflicts across Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, marked by intolerance and numerous religious wars. Catholic rulers, such as Emperor Charles V and Philip II, actively sought to suppress Protestantism and prevent further conversions [62](#page=62). --- # Modern Times: Revolutions and Industrialization This period witnessed transformative revolutions in thought and politics, alongside a profound industrial transformation, fundamentally reshaping Western society and laying the groundwork for the modern era [63](#page=63). ### 5.1 Revolutions in thought and politics #### 5.1.1 The Enlightenment: a revolution in thinking The 17th and 18th centuries saw a surge in scientific discoveries, fostering a belief in human reason. This led to the Enlightenment, a broad cultural and philosophical movement in Europe that advocated for a more just society based on rational principles. Enlightenment thinkers challenged existing social and political structures, such as absolute monarchy and the rigid social hierarchy of the Estates System, advocating for liberty, equality, and tolerance. Many ideas that are considered fundamental today, like constitutional government and human equality, originated during this period [63](#page=63). #### 5.1.2 Political revolutions The Enlightenment provided the intellectual impetus for major political revolutions, including the American and French Revolutions [63](#page=63). ##### 5.1.2.1 The French Revolution . Economic and financial crises, coupled with significant social inequality, led to widespread unrest in France, culminating in the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. The ideals of "liberty, equality, and fraternity" fueled the revolution. The "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" abolished the Estates System and proclaimed the equality of all citizens before the law. A new constitution was introduced, limiting royal power and establishing the separation of powers and the separation of church and state, ending absolute monarchy and eventually leading to the king's execution [63](#page=63). * **Consequences:** * **Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte:** In 1799, Napoleon seized power in a coup d'état and later crowned himself emperor, aiming to establish a vast empire and engaging in numerous wars. His reign can be divided into periods of increasing power until approximately 1810, followed by a decline leading to his final defeat in 1815. His conquests helped spread Enlightenment ideals across Europe [64](#page=64). * **Battle of Waterloo:** Napoleon's ultimate defeat occurred at the Battle of Waterloo, leading to his exile and eventual death [64](#page=64). ##### 5.1.2.2 The French Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands From 1794 to 1814, the Austrian Netherlands were under French rule, during which French revolutionary reforms were implemented. These included the abolition of monasteries and abbeys, the confiscation of church property, a new administrative division, and the separation of church and state. Initially, the region faced heavy taxation and the conscription of men into the French army, leading to significant protest. Under Napoleon, opposition decreased due to improved relations with the church, the abolition of some reforms, and economic recovery [64](#page=64). * **Lasting impacts of French rule in the region:** * **Political-Administrative:** Introduction of civil registration, requiring births, deaths, and marriages to be registered with the municipality, and the mandatory registration of surnames [64](#page=64). * **Legal:** The Napoleonic Code (Code Civil) formed the basis of the current civil code, establishing a rule of law with uniform legal principles and public justice [64](#page=64). * **Religious:** Separation of church and state [64](#page=64). * **Education:** Establishment of state education, previously dominated by the church [64](#page=64). * **Social:** Government control over welfare services, leading to the organization of public assistance, the precursor to modern social welfare organizations [64](#page=64). * **Cultural:** Francization [64](#page=64). * **Other:** Implementation of the metric system of weights and measures (meter, kilogram, liter), mandatory driving on the right side of the road, and the introduction of house numbering [64](#page=64). ##### 5.1.2.3 The Belgian Revolution . Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the victorious powers established the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, merging Belgium and the Netherlands as a buffer against France. King William I's reign quickly led to dissatisfaction in the southern part of the kingdom. The revolution erupted on August 25, 1830, with riots breaking out during a performance of the opera *La Muette de Portici*, which glorified freedom and patriotism. These revolts, initially fueled by hunger, spread to other cities. After brief resistance from the Dutch army, Belgium declared independence and established a constitutional parliamentary monarchy based on a census suffrage system. Leopold I became king on July 21, 1831, pledging allegiance to a constitution that guaranteed significant fundamental rights and freedoms, including freedom of education, religion, and the press [65](#page=65). #### 5.1.3 The Industrial Revolution(s) Beginning around 1750, first in England and then across Europe, a series of profound and lasting changes in manufacturing, daily life, and society occurred, earning the designation of a revolution. This marked the first phase of the Industrial Revolution, which was followed by subsequent phases that further transformed the economic landscape [65](#page=65). ##### 5.1.3.1 Three phases in the Industrial Revolution * **First phase (c. 1750 – c. 1850):** Mechanization of the textile and iron industries, the steam engine, coal as the primary energy source, and the development of railways [65](#page=65). * **Second phase (c. 1870 – c. 1960):** Application of electricity, growth of the chemical industry, petroleum as the main energy source, and the advent of the automobile, airplane, and communication media [65](#page=65). * **Third phase (post-1960):** Construction of nuclear reactors (nuclear energy), advancements in electronics and computing (informatica), telecommunications, and globalization [65](#page=65). * **Fourth phase (emerging):** Characterized by robotics and artificial intelligence [65](#page=65). ##### 5.1.3.2 Factors underlying the First Industrial Revolution The First Industrial Revolution was driven by several key factors: * **Demographic revolution:** A significant decrease in death rates and a sustained high birth rate in the 18th and 19th centuries led to substantial population growth [66](#page=66). * **Agricultural revolution:** A marked increase in agricultural production occurred in the latter half of the 18th century, supporting the growing population [66](#page=66). * **Technical evolution:** The introduction of machinery (mechanization) led to a significant boost in production efficiency [66](#page=66). ##### 5.1.3.3 The revolution in industry The Industrial Revolution was a cumulative process of innovations and inventions spanning over a century. It initially impacted the coal, metal, and textile industries. Driven by a shortage of wood, the search for alternative methods to smelt iron using coal as fuel began in the early 18th century in England. Innovations like the steam engine in mining and the use of coke enabled the mass production of high-quality iron at a lower cost. Simultaneously, the growing population in England created a demand for inexpensive cotton textiles, necessitating mechanization to achieve high and affordable production levels [66](#page=66). ##### 5.1.3.4 Consequences of the First Industrial Revolution The First Industrial Revolution brought about sweeping changes: 1. **Growth of trade, transport, and communication:** The increased production and trade necessitated improved transportation networks, leading to the development of roads, railways, steam trains, canals, and steamships for faster and more extensive goods transport. Communication also advanced with inventions like the telegraph and telephone [66](#page=66). 2. **Industrial take-off:** Machines increasingly replaced human labor, increasing output per person per day. Various industries experienced significant progress and mechanization, following the lead of the textile and iron sectors [66](#page=66). 3. **Economic liberalism:** This economic theory, popular in the 19th century, advocated for minimal state intervention in the economy, granting entrepreneurs and merchants considerable freedom [66](#page=66). 4. **Changed occupational structure:** The Industrial Revolution led to a decline in agricultural employment (primary sector) and a rise in industrial jobs (secondary sector), with a concurrent growth in the service sector (tertiary sector) [67](#page=67). 5. **Factory production and urbanization:** Home-based work was increasingly replaced by factory labor. The burgeoning factory industry attracted many impoverished rural dwellers to cities in search of work and housing, leading to significant urbanization. Life became dictated by the rhythm of machines rather than seasons, imposing discipline and regularity on workers, often at the cost of personal freedom. Child labor was prevalent, with children often working long hours for meager wages or payment in kind. Workers lived in overcrowded, impoverished neighborhoods called "beluiken". Working conditions in many factories were unsafe, unhygienic, and unhealthy, and workers had limited recourse to protest due to laws prohibiting unions, strikes, and gatherings. The emergence of socialism in the late 19th century aimed to combat worker exploitation, leading to the introduction of early social welfare legislation such as laws on old-age pensions, industrial accidents, and Sunday rest [67](#page=67). 6. **Impact on landscape:** The First Industrial Revolution transformed landscapes through the construction of mines, factories, and ironworks, resulting in widespread environmental pollution from coal mining, heavy industry, and clay pits. Terrils, artificial hills formed from coal mining waste, became characteristic features of coal-rich regions like Limburg. New infrastructure like canals, bridges, and railways also altered the landscape [67](#page=67). ##### 5.1.3.5 The Industrial Revolution in Belgium Belgium was the first industrialized nation on the European continent, possessing favorable conditions such as a dense population, existing urbanization, a developed agricultural sector, crucial raw materials, and an industrial tradition with skilled labor. State authorities also promoted economic development. Belgium saw the first railway line on the European mainland, connecting Brussels and Mechelen. Industry primarily developed in Wallonia, with Englishman William Cockerill establishing a modern coal and metal industry near Liège, and coal mining commencing in the Borinage region. The iron and glass industries flourished in the Charleroi area. Flanders lagged behind industrially, with the exception of mechanized textile production in Ghent, where entrepreneur Lieven Bauwens smuggled a steam-powered spinning jenny from Great Britain and established factories. Bauwens made Ghent a major center for cotton factories in Europe, though he is noted for low wages and the use of incarcerated workers, and for his collaboration with the French occupiers [68](#page=68). ##### 5.1.3.6 Emigrants: millions of people, one dream Between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an estimated 200,000 Belgians emigrated to North America due to an economic and agricultural crisis in their homeland. Across Europe, approximately 37 million people made the transatlantic journey during this period, many seeking work, while others were motivated by political or religious reasons. The Red Star Line ships transported many of these emigrants between 1873 and 1934, and the Red Star Line Museum in Antwerp now preserves their stories [68](#page=68). ### 5.2 The First World War (1914-1918) The First World War, also known as the Great War, decisively ushered in the 20th century. Primarily fought in Europe, it became a global conflict due to the involvement of the United States and its repercussions in colonial territories [68](#page=68). #### 5.2.1 Causes The primary cause was the pursuit of power by various European states. Population growth and industrialization, creating a demand for raw materials and markets, drove European nations to acquire new territories, fostering rivalry and leading to the formation of two major alliance blocs in Europe [68](#page=68). #### 5.2.2 Trigger – Belgium at war The war began in the Balkans with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian nationalist. This event triggered a chain reaction due to the highly tense relations between European powers in the summer of 1914. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, activating the alliance systems and rapidly escalating the conflict across Europe and beyond. Germany requested passage through neutral Belgium to attack France as part of its Schlieffen Plan. Upon King Albert I's refusal, Kaiser Wilhelm II declared war on Belgium, and German troops invaded on August 4. Great Britain, a guarantor of Belgium's neutrality, subsequently declared war on Germany [69](#page=69). #### 5.2.3 Alliances and the course of the First World War The war was fought between two main alliances: the Central Powers, primarily Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the Allied Powers, comprising Russia, France, and the United Kingdom. As Belgium was invaded by Germany, it joined the Allied Powers. Neutral countries like the Netherlands and Switzerland remained outside the conflict [69](#page=69). Two main fronts were established in Europe: * **Western Front:** A line stretching from Nieuwpoort to Switzerland/Northern Italy [69](#page=69). * **Eastern Front:** Primarily in Russia [69](#page=69). Initially, the Central Powers achieved rapid successes, particularly on the Western Front. However, after a few months, the war devolved into trench warfare along the Western Front, with both sides digging in on opposite sides of the front line. This front became the site of major battles such as Verdun, the Somme, and around Ypres [69](#page=69). The year 1917 marked a turning point due to the Russian Revolution (October Revolution), which brought the communists (Lenin) to power and led to Russia's peace treaty with Germany in March 1918, and the United States' entry into the war in response to German submarine warfare. Ultimately, due to war exhaustion and internal revolutions, Germany capitulated on November 11, 1918 (Armistice Day), unable to overcome the superior manpower and material of the Americans. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed severe terms on Germany, holding it and its allies responsible for the war and requiring them to pay reparations. As part of the reparations, German Alsace-Lorraine became part of Belgium, and Belgium was also given a mandate over the former German colonies of Rwanda and Burundi [70](#page=70). #### 5.2.4 The First World War: a 'total war' The First World War is characterized as a "total war" because it involved all aspects of society, not just the military. This scope was due to the vast number of participating countries and individuals, including soldiers from European nations and their colonies, as well as civilians involved in war industries. The war resulted in a massive number of casualties, including deaths, injuries, and disappearances. It was also the first industrialized war, featuring new weaponry such as tanks, artillery, aircraft, and chemical weapons like mustard gas (Yperite). The conflict became an attrition battle, pushing the economies of both power blocs to their limits [70](#page=70). #### 5.2.5 Belgium during the First World War ##### 5.2.5.1 Military course Within days, Liège and then Brussels were captured by German forces, leading to harsh reprisals against those who resisted, particularly in cities known as "Martyr Cities" like Aarschot, Leuven, and Dendermonde. After the fall of Antwerp, the king and the Belgian army retreated to the Westhoek. French and British troops joined the Belgian soldiers behind the Yser River, and the Battle of the Yser Plains began in October 1914. In a critical situation, the Belgian army, forced to retreat to the Nieuwpoort-Diksmuide railway line, initiated a plan to stop the German advance by artificially flooding the Yser plain. On October 29, the sluices of the canal were opened, releasing approximately 700,000 cubic meters of water, creating the "drowned no man's land". This marked the beginning of a four-year stalemate of trench warfare, characterized by extensive networks of trenches, barbed wire defenses, and sandbag fortifications. King Albert I remained within this small section of Belgian territory throughout the war [70](#page=70) [71](#page=71). * **Leuven during WWI:** Leuven suffered greatly, with German troops systematically looting and setting fire to the city in August 1914, an event known as the "Great Fire of Leuven". Large parts of the city were destroyed, 272 civilians were killed, and many others were mistreated. Significant monuments, including the city theater, the Tafelrond, and the courthouse, were demolished; only the city hall remained undamaged. The destruction of the historically valuable university library was also a symbolic loss. Over 1500 houses in the city center were destroyed [71](#page=71). * **The "reconstruction stone":** This facade stone was mandated for buildings rebuilt in Leuven after the war, bearing the year 1914, the city's coat of arms, a sword, and a burning torch, serving as a lasting reminder of the war and the city's resilience [71](#page=71). ##### 5.2.5.2 The Belgian population during the war The war was a severe ordeal for the Belgian population, with German occupiers exploiting the country for four years. The Belgian economy was harnessed for the war effort, and resources, from livestock to household items, were confiscated. The Allied economic blockade of enemy and occupied territories further isolated Belgium, halting its economy, and remaining resources and machinery were sent to Germany. Many workers were also conscripted to work in Germany. Food scarcity was the most significant hardship, with organized charity efforts providing some relief, particularly during the harsh winter of 1916-1917. Belgium became a police state with press censorship, curfews, and blackout orders, leading to constant surveillance. The ban on keeping pigeons, which could be used to transmit military secrets, was notably enforced. Educational institutions were shut down in many areas, ironically, shortly after the introduction of compulsory education in May 1914. Hundreds of thousands of families fled abroad, mainly to France and the Netherlands, at the war's outset. Over half a million Belgians remained abroad until the war's end, and children from high-risk areas were evacuated to school colonies in France, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. During the war, women took on traditionally male roles in industry and agriculture, and in professions like train driving and postal delivery. Women from middle and upper-class families often worked as doctors or nurses, while others organized charitable efforts to support those in need [71](#page=71) [72](#page=72). ##### 5.2.5.3 Life at the front and daily life during the war War diaries, contemporary accounts, and soldier testimonies offer vivid descriptions of life at the front and daily existence during the war [72](#page=72). #### 5.2.6 Cemeteries, monuments, and memorials of the First World War * **The Menin Gate (Ypres):** Ypres was on the front line during WWI and was defended by British forces in a semi-circle. The city was largely destroyed by 1918. After the war, the British rebuilt the Menin Gate as a memorial inscribed with the names of over 50,000 British and Commonwealth soldiers who died but whose bodies were never found or identified. The "Last Post," a bugle call signifying the end of the working day in the military, is played nightly at the gate as a final farewell to the fallen, a tradition that continues to honor all war dead, including Germans [72](#page=72). * **The Yser Tower (Diksmuide):** The first Yser Tower was built in 1928-1929. The Belgian army during WWI was predominantly Flemish, while the officer corps was largely French-speaking, leading to discontent and the formation of the Front Movement, advocating for the rights of Flemish soldiers. When it was decided after the war to bury all Belgian soldiers under a single, official gravestone, the remaining individual Flemish soldier gravestones were gathered in Diksmuide, and a large monument, the first Yser Tower, was erected. Annual pilgrimages transformed the tower into a symbol of Flemish emancipation and peace ("never again war"). The tower was blown up in 1946; a new tower was inaugurated in 1965, and the renewed Museum aan de IJzer reopened in 2014 with a message of peace, freedom, and tolerance [72](#page=72) [73](#page=73). * **Military cemeteries (especially in the Westhoek):** Half a million soldiers perished around Ypres, and numerous military cemeteries are scattered throughout the region, including Belgian, French, German (consolidated into four sites, including Vladslo and Langemark in the 1950s), and British cemeteries (such as the largest, Tyne Cot Cemetery in Passendale). British cemeteries are maintained as extensions of Britain, designed uniformly with a central Cross of Sacrifice and a register at the entrance, featuring rows of identical gravestones. These cemeteries honor soldiers from across the British Empire. The Heverlee War Cemetery was established in 1946, commemorating 30 casualties from WWI and 988 from WWII. These cemeteries have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites since 2023 [73](#page=73). * **The Death Corridor (Dodengang):** Located in a bend of the Yser River near Diksmuide, this was the most advanced post of the Belgian army. It is a network of trenches and bunkers that has been a protected monument since 1992 and has been fully restored [73](#page=73). * **Local war monuments and memorials:** Many villages and cities have local monuments commemorating war victims or specific wartime events, such as the monument on Martelarenplein near Leuven station, honoring the numerous civilian victims of August 1914 [73](#page=73). --- # Contemporary History: Post-WWII Developments This section examines the profound transformations of the contemporary era, from the conclusion of World War II to the present, marked by global conflicts, the rise of international cooperation, societal shifts, and technological revolutions [75](#page=75). ### 6.1 The Second World War (1939-1945) #### 6.1.1 Causes and Outbreak The Second World War was primarily driven by the expansionist ambitions of the Axis powers: Germany, seeking global dominance under Adolf Hitler; Italy, aiming to control the Mediterranean; and Japan, striving for control over the Pacific. These nations formed the Axis powers, standing against the Allied nations who sought to defend their freedom, independence, and democratic principles. The immediate trigger for the war was Germany's invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, following earlier annexations of Austria and the occupation of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939 [75](#page=75). #### 6.1.2 Course of the War Until the summer of 1942, the Axis powers experienced significant successes. The United States entered the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. A turning point occurred during the winter of 1942-1943 with setbacks for the Axis powers on multiple fronts. The Allied landing in Normandy on June 6, 1944 (D-Day) initiated the reconquest of Europe. Allied and Soviet forces met at the Elbe River on April 25, 1945, and Hitler committed suicide on April 30. Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945 (V-Day), marking the end of the war in Europe. Japan was compelled to surrender after the American deployment of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945 [75](#page=75) [76](#page=76). #### 6.1.3 Character of the War The Second World War is characterized as a "total war" due to: * **Global scope:** Initially confined to Europe and North Africa, it expanded to a global scale following Germany's invasion of Russia in June 1941 and Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in late 1941, affecting all continents except the Americas [76](#page=76). * **Human cost:** It resulted in an estimated 50 million (with figures up to 70 million) deaths, with a significant proportion being civilians [76](#page=76). * **Industrialization:** It was the second industrialized war, featuring significant advancements in science, tactics, and technology, including the decisive role of air power, the deployment of early rockets (V1 and V2), and nuclear weapons (the atomic bomb) [76](#page=76). #### 6.1.4 Belgium during the Second World War Despite its neutrality, Belgium was invaded by Germany on May 10, 1940, as part of Hitler's Blitzkrieg against the Benelux. After 18 days, King Leopold III surrendered, while the Belgian government fled to England. Unlike World War I, Belgium was occupied, leading to harsh living conditions characterized by food rationing, shortages of essential goods, and a thriving black market. Allied air raids and German V-bombs, particularly in strategic locations like Leuven, caused significant damage. From 1942, mandatory labor in Germany was imposed, meeting immense resistance. Daily life was heavily influenced by the occupation, with strict regulations like curfews and blackout orders, alongside severe censorship that impacted education. This period saw widespread resistance, including aiding downed Allied pilots, underground press, and armed attacks. Conversely, collaboration with Germany also occurred, categorized into political, military, and economic forms. Brussels and Antwerp were liberated in early September 1944, but Allied advances were briefly halted by fierce German resistance in the Ardennes Offensive (December 1944 – January 1945) [76](#page=76) [77](#page=77). #### 6.1.5 The Holocaust or Shoah The Holocaust, or Shoah, was the systematic persecution and genocide of Jews by the Nazis and their allies. Rooted in racist, antisemitic, and anti-Marxist ideologies, Nazism viewed the Germanic race as superior and sought to expand its "Lebensraum" (living space). Anti-Jewish measures began in the early 1930s. In Belgium, the systematic persecution of Jews began with their social exclusion through administrative measures, culminating in the mandatory wearing of the Star of David from May 1942. The Dossinkazerne in Mechelen served as a transit camp (SS-Sammellager Mechelen) from 1942 to 1945, from which Jews were deported to concentration camps like Auschwitz-Birkenau, Buchenwald, and Ravensbrück. Other groups, including communists, Roma, homosexuals, and the mentally ill, were also victims of Nazi persecution and extermination. Twenty-eight transports departed from Dossinkazerne, deporting 25,484 Jews and 352 Roma, with fewer than five percent surviving [77](#page=77). #### 6.1.6 The Fort of Breendonk The Fort of Breendonk served as a Nazi prison camp from the summer of 1940, holding Jews, resistance fighters, and political opponents. Approximately 3,600 prisoners were incarcerated there, enduring forced labor, deprivation, and abuse, with less than half surviving the war [78](#page=78). ### 6.2 Increased International Cooperation after 1945: EU and UN #### 6.2.1 The Cold War and European Integration Ideological tensions between the wartime allies, the United States and the Soviet Union, led to the Cold War from 1948, dividing the world into opposing political, economic, and military blocs. Germany and Berlin were split between East and West, symbolized by the Berlin Wall, which fell in 1989, marking the end of the Cold War. To prevent future conflicts, particularly between Germany and France, Europe opted for cooperation over rivalry, leading to the formation of the European Union (EU) [78](#page=78). #### 6.2.2 The European Union (EU) The EU originated as an endeavor for peace and cooperation in Europe. Key milestones include [78](#page=78): * **1951:** Establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) with six founding members, including Belgium [78](#page=78). * **1957:** Creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) to deepen economic cooperation and establish a common market [78](#page=78). * **1993:** The Maastricht Treaty aimed for political and social cooperation alongside economic integration, leading to the introduction of the euro in 1999 [78](#page=78). * **2007:** The Lisbon Treaty further advanced European integration, enhancing the European Parliament's influence and establishing roles for an EU President and a Minister of Foreign Affairs [78](#page=78). The EU's membership has grown, with 8 Central and Eastern European countries joining in 2004. As of today, the EU has 27 member states, with the United Kingdom being the first to withdraw in 2020 (Brexit) [78](#page=78). Key EU institutions include the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the Court of Justice of the European Union, and the European Central Bank. The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens. While not having an official capital, Brussels serves as the de facto center for several important EU institutions [79](#page=79). The EU's impact on its inhabitants includes: * **Peace and stability:** No wars have occurred between EU member states since its formation [79](#page=79). * **Economic integration:** Facilitated by the euro (introduced in 2002 for 19 Eurozone members), free movement of persons (Schengen Zone), goods, services, and capital [79](#page=79). * **Environmental protection and food safety:** Promoted through legislation and stringent controls [79](#page=79). Challenges remain, such as achieving common political stances on issues like refugees and international conflicts, and developing a common defense policy and a cohesive social Europe [79](#page=79). #### 6.2.3 The United Nations (UN) On a global scale, cooperation was also prioritized with the establishment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945. The UN aims to promote international peace and cooperation and prevent future conflicts. Its specialized agencies include [79](#page=79): * **UNESCO:** Focuses on heritage and culture [79](#page=79). * **WHO (World Health Organization):** Promotes international cooperation in healthcare [79](#page=79). * **UNICEF:** The United Nations Children's Fund [79](#page=79). The UN can deploy peacekeeping forces ("blue helmets") to conflict zones upon agreement by its members, with current operations in Lebanon, Cyprus, and Congo [79](#page=79). ### 6.3 The Welfare State Following World War II, Western Europe experienced a period of unprecedented prosperity, making products like cars, washing machines, and private housing accessible to a larger population. The state provided free or heavily subsidized healthcare, infrastructure, and education. This increased prosperity led to significant societal changes [79](#page=79): * **Decline of religious influence:** The influence of the church and religion diminished rapidly [80](#page=80). * **Emancipation:** Various groups gained emancipation and equal rights. Women, in particular, achieved greater autonomy through access to contraception and the opportunity to pursue professional careers. The legalization of same-sex marriage occurred in the 1990s [80](#page=80). * **Migration:** The demand for labor led to significant migration flows. In the 1950s and 1960s, Italian, Greek, Moroccan, and Turkish "guest workers" were employed in mines and factories, fundamentally altering the demographic composition of regions like Limburg and major cities, leading to the development of a multicultural society [80](#page=80). > **Tip:** The introduction of the washing machine was a significant technological innovation that freed up considerable time for women, allowing them to pursue other activities or engage in paid employment outside the home [80](#page=80). ### 6.4 Decolonization - Congo's Independence Many developing nations gained independence in the latter half of the 20th century after periods of colonial rule by European countries. In 1960, 17 African nations, including Belgian Congo, achieved independence [80](#page=80). #### 6.4.1 The Kingdom of Kongo Before Belgian colonization, the Kingdom of Kongo, established by Lukeni lua Nimi in the late 14th century, was a well-structured state with foreign relations and a thriving economy. Portuguese navigators reached Kongo in the late 15th century, introducing Catholicism and establishing strong economic ties, particularly through the slave trade. Relations with Portugal eventually deteriorated, leading to conflict. King Garcia II rebuilt the kingdom in the 16th century. By the early 19th century, the slave trade was abolished, and Kongo leaders shifted to trading in raw materials like palm oil, rubber, ivory, and coffee, which were in demand in industrializing Europe. In the 1880s, Congolese leaders were deceived into signing treaties that undermined their authority [81](#page=81). #### 6.4.2 Independent Free State, Belgian Colony, and Democratic Republic of Congo At the Berlin Conference in 1885, European powers divided Africa, with King Leopold II of Belgium establishing the Congo as his "Independent State." This regime was characterized by brutal forced labor for rubber harvesting, leading to a drastic population decline. In 1909, the state became a Belgian colony under direct administration. Belgian rule in Congo was structured around the church, administration, and companies, such as Union Minière du Haut Katanga, which exploited the territory's mineral wealth, with profits flowing back to Belgium. Missionaries provided healthcare and education, while Belgian administrators relied on Congolese subordinates. Paul Panda Fernana was one of the few Congolese to attain a higher administrative position and advocated for equal rights, better wages, and access to education for Congolese people. For the Congolese, colonization meant occupation and subjugation [81](#page=81) [82](#page=82). The call for independence grew louder in the 1950s, leading to widespread riots in Leopoldville (now Kinshasa) and other cities by early 1959. On June 30, 1960, Belgium granted independence to Congo. The post-independence period was marked by unrest, with Colonel Mobutu seizing power, eventually becoming dictator of Zaire until his death in 1997 [82](#page=82). > **Note:** The history of the Kingdom of Kongo and the Belgian colony challenges the stereotype that Africans lived in isolated tribes before colonization; powerful political and economic structures existed, and coastal regions had long-standing relationships with Europe, including the establishment of Christianity [82](#page=82). ### 6.5 Technological and Societal Advancements The post-war era witnessed rapid scientific and technological progress, exemplified by the first moon landing in July 1969. The 1980s saw the explosive development of computing, leading to widespread applications. The internet has connected people globally, transforming communication, information sharing, and business. Email and social media have replaced traditional communication methods, making the world feel smaller. Digitalization has created an abundance of information but also raised concerns about privacy, data security, fake news, and online disinformation. The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) is a significant development with vast potential to reshape society in the coming decades, with applications in areas like medical diagnoses and self-driving cars [80](#page=80). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Prehistory | The period of human history before the development of writing systems, relying primarily on archaeological evidence for understanding. | | Big Bang theory | The prevailing cosmological model for the observable universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution, suggesting that the universe originated from a single, extremely hot and dense point that expanded rapidly. | | Evolution theory | The scientific concept that living organisms change over generations through a process of natural selection, leading to the diversity of life on Earth, as proposed by Charles Darwin. | | Hominids | The group of primates that includes humans and their direct ancestors, characterized by bipedal locomotion and larger brain sizes compared to other apes. | | Nomadic lifestyle | A way of life where people move from place to place, typically following a seasonal pattern or in search of food and resources, rather than settling in one fixed location. | | Archaeology | The scientific study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of artifacts and other physical remains. | | Agriculture | The practice of farming, including the cultivation of soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other products. | | Sedentarization | The process by which nomadic people settle in one place, typically leading to the development of villages and cities. | | Mesopotamia | An ancient region in Western Asia situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, considered one of the cradles of civilization. | | Ziggurat | A rectangular stepped tower, sometimes surmounted by a temple, that is found in ancient Mesopotamian cities. | | Hieroglyphs | A system of writing in which pictorial symbols are used to represent words or sounds, most famously used in ancient Egypt. | | Rosetta Stone | An ancient Egyptian stele inscribed with a decree issued at Memphis in 196 BC on behalf of King Ptolemy V Epiphanes in three scripts: ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, Demotic script, and ancient Greek, which proved key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs. | | Polis | An ancient Greek city-state, characterized by its independent political structure and surrounding agricultural territory. | | Democracy | A system of government where supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free elections. | | Philosophy | The study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline. | | Romanization | The process by which Roman culture, institutions, and language spread throughout conquered territories, influencing local populations. | | Feudalism | A social and political system in medieval Europe in which land was owned by kings and nobles, who then granted it to loyal followers in exchange for military service and loyalty. | | Gothic architecture | A style of architecture that developed in Europe during the high and late middle ages, characterized by pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, creating tall, soaring structures. | | Humanism | An intellectual movement during the Renaissance that emphasized the study of classical literature and human potential, focusing on human values and reason over divine intervention. | | Renaissance | A period in European history, marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity, and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by a flourishing of arts, literature, and science inspired by classical antiquity. | | Absolutism | A political doctrine and practice of unlimited centralized authority and absolute sovereignty, as vested in a monarch or dictator. | | Enlightenment | An intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism towards traditional authority. | | Industrial Revolution | A period of major industrialization and innovation that took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, beginning in Great Britain and spreading to the rest of the world, characterized by the transition to new manufacturing processes and the use of steam power. | | Socialism | A political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the community as a whole should own and control the means of production, distribution, and exchange. | | World War I | A global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918, involving the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Central Powers. | | Total war | A war that is unrestricted in terms of the weapons used, the territory or combatants involved, or the objectives pursued, in particular any wartime government or the conduct of the war against civilians as well as combatants. | | Holocaust (Shoah) | The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. | | Cold War | A state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its satellite states) and powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others). | | European Union (EU) | A political and economic union of 27 European countries that are located primarily on the continent of Europe. | | United Nations (UN) | An intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and serve as a center for harmonizing the actions of nations. | | Welfare state | A system whereby the government undertakes to protect the health and well-being of its citizens, especially by means of grants and allowances, and by ensuring the availability of services such as healthcare and education. | | Decolonization | The process by which colonies become independent of the colonizing country. |