TECNICHE DELLA FOTOGRAFIA.pdf

# Understanding human perception and its subjective nature Human perception is a subjective and selective process, deeply influenced by individual experiences, culture, and interests, leading to varied interpretations of visual information [13](#page=13) [1](#page=1). ### 1.1 The perceptual process and the human eye The visual perception process analyzes our interaction with the world through images. While the human eye functions similarly to a camera, it is the brain that interprets visual information based on past experiences. This makes human vision inherently subjective and selective, unlike the objective nature of photography [13](#page=13) [1](#page=1). #### 1.1.1 Subjectivity in image interpretation Experiments using electrodes and eye-tracking cameras have demonstrated that different individuals focus on different parts of the same image. This variation is influenced by the questions posed or the individual's acculturation. Cultural background is directly proportional to the speed and specificity with which iconographic elements are understood [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14) [1](#page=1) [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** Understand that your personal background and current focus will significantly shape how you perceive and interpret visual information. #### 1.1.2 Tests on subjectivity and acculturation A test titled "What do you see from the window?" highlighted the subjective nature of human perception, with individuals from different professions noticing distinct details (e.g., an architect noting a turret, an engineer noting masked eyes, a chef noting a pastry shop) [14](#page=14) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). A second test involving temporal cadence showed that the speed of identifying ambiguous images varies based on cultural heritage and projection speed (1/30th of a second, 1/4th of a second, or 2 seconds) [14](#page=14) [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). ### 1.2 Optical illusions as evidence of reconstructive perception Optical illusions are visual deceptions that reveal how perception is an active process of reconstructing reality rather than a passive recording [14](#page=14) [2](#page=2). #### 1.2.1 Types of optical illusions * **Reversible figures:** These images present two equally valid interpretations. Examples include the Rubin vase, the Necker cube, and the image "My wife and my mother-in-law" by Hill [14](#page=14) [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). * **Impossible figures:** These are objects that cannot exist in three-dimensional space but can be depicted in two dimensions. Examples include the Penrose triangle and M.C. Escher's "Belvedere" [14](#page=14) [3](#page=3). * **Distortion illusions:** * **Horizontal-vertical illusion:** A vertical line appears longer than a horizontal line of the same length [14](#page=14) [3](#page=3). * **Hering illusion:** Parallel lines appear to curve when presented against a specific background [14](#page=14) [3](#page=3). * **Müller-Lyer illusion:** A line with inward-pointing arrowheads appears shorter than a line of equal length with outward-pointing arrowheads [14](#page=14) [4](#page=4). * **Ponzo illusion:** Two rectangles of the same size appear different when placed between converging lines, similar to railway tracks [14](#page=14) [4](#page=4). #### 1.2.2 Interpretation of visual distortions These distortions are related to how the brain uses perspective to judge distances and depth, expanding internal angles and narrowing external ones in photography [14](#page=14) [4](#page=4). > **Example:** The Müller-Lyer illusion demonstrates how our brains interpret converging lines as cues for distance, affecting our perception of length. ### 1.3 The technical eye and its capabilities The camera's "eye," its lens, possesses capabilities that extend far beyond human vision [10](#page=10) [14](#page=14) [1](#page=1). #### 1.3.1 Extended visual capacities of cameras * Cameras can explore aspects of reality inaccessible to human sight, such as documenting chlorophyll photosynthesis or recording infrared and ultraviolet radiation [10](#page=10) [14](#page=14) [1](#page=1). * They can see through fog and in near-total darkness by accumulating light stimuli over long exposure times [10](#page=10) [14](#page=14) [1](#page=1). * Cameras can freeze motion with rapid shutter speeds or convey dynamism with prolonged exposures [10](#page=10) [14](#page=14) [1](#page=1). #### 1.3.2 Monoscopic versus stereoscopic vision A camera's vision is monoscopic, meaning it is flat and lacks a sense of depth, in contrast to human stereoscopic vision [14](#page=14) [3](#page=3). #### 1.3.3 Artificial creation of depth in photography Depth in photography is artificially created through: * Perspective presentations and the contrast of light and shadow [14](#page=14) [3](#page=3). * The skillful use of side or backlighting, which generates extended shadows and emphasizes textures [14](#page=14) [3](#page=3). * The interaction between focal length, shooting distance, and the extent of the depth of field [14](#page=14) [1](#page=1) [3](#page=3). #### 1.3.4 The framed field of view The camera's frame follows precise geometric shapes (square, rectangular, circular) and decontextualizes the subject from its surroundings [14](#page=14) [2](#page=2). #### 1.3.5 Image formation The image forms on the film plane or sensor, appearing upside down and reversed [14](#page=14) [2](#page=2). ### 1.4 Lenses and perspective The choice of lens significantly influences the perspective and representation of reality in a photograph [14](#page=14) [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [9](#page=9). #### 1.4.1 The "normal" lens A "normal" lens has a focal length conventionally analogous to the diagonal of the film/sensor format (e.g., 50mm for a 24x36mm format) and offers a perspective close to that of the human eye [14](#page=14) [4](#page=4). #### 1.4.2 Wide-angle and telephoto lenses * **Wide-angle lenses:** These have a focal length shorter than the format's diagonal. They increase the angular field of view and exaggerate the relationship between near and distant planes, making foreground elements appear larger and the background smaller. They require careful use to avoid converging vertical lines [14](#page=14) [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). * **Telephoto lenses:** These have a focal length longer than the format's diagonal. They narrow the angular field of view, magnify the image, and compress planes, making distant subjects appear closer [14](#page=14) [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). #### 1.4.3 Special lens types * **Variable focal length (Zoom/Transfocal):** These lenses allow for a range of focal lengths, though sometimes with a compromise in image quality [14](#page=14) [5](#page=5). * **Catadioptric (Reflex):** These lenses use mirrors to reduce weight and length but do not have a diaphragm [14](#page=14) [5](#page=5) [8](#page=8). * **Fish-eye:** These lenses capture 180 degrees or more with a characteristic spherical distortion [14](#page=14) [5](#page=5). * **Shift/Tilt (Decentrabili/Basculabili):** These lenses allow for correcting the parallelism of lines (shifting) or tilting the plane of focus (tilting) [14](#page=14) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * **Macro:** Designed for focusing at very short distances [14](#page=14) [8](#page=8). * **UV:** Lenses sensitive to ultraviolet radiation [14](#page=14) [8](#page=8). #### 1.4.4 Types of perspective Photographers can choose from four types of perspective: * **Academic rectilinear:** Straight lines remain straight, and vertical lines are parallel. This is achieved with a camera held "level" and vertical shifting [15](#page=15) [9](#page=9). * **Real rectilinear:** Similar to the academic rectilinear, but vertical convergence is not considered a defect [15](#page=15) [9](#page=9). * **Cylindrical:** Produced by panoramic cameras with rotating optics. Horizontal and vertical lines appear curved, except at the center of the image [15](#page=15) [7](#page=7) [9](#page=9). * **Spherical:** Characteristic of fish-eye lenses, where all straight lines, except radial ones, appear curved [15](#page=15) [9](#page=9). ### 1.5 Depth of field and aperture Depth of field is a crucial element in controlling the perceived sharpness of an image [11](#page=11) [15](#page=15). #### 1.5.1 Definition and regulation of depth of field Depth of field refers to the extent of desired sharpness within an image. It is inversely proportional to focal length, directly proportional to the square of the distance from the subject, and inversely proportional to the aperture's diameter [11](#page=11) [15](#page=15). #### 1.5.2 Factors influencing depth of field * **To decrease depth of field:** Open the aperture (use a lower f-number), use a telephoto lens, move closer to the subject, or use a large format camera [11](#page=11) [15](#page=15). * **To increase depth of field:** Close the aperture (use a higher f-number), use a wide-angle lens, move further from the subject, or use a small format camera [11](#page=11) [15](#page=15). #### 1.5.3 The diaphragm The diaphragm, composed of concentric blades, regulates the amount of light entering the lens and influences the depth of field. The "f" values indicate the aperture size (e.g., $f/1.4$, $f/2.8$); a lower number signifies a wider aperture and greater brightness [12](#page=12) [15](#page=15). ### 1.6 Color and tonality The representation of color and tonality in photography is influenced by lighting conditions and camera settings [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17). #### 1.6.1 Black and white photography Black and white photography transforms images into gradations of gray, which can create a more abstract effect, subtle nuances, and a sense of depth and atmosphere [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17). #### 1.6.2 Achieving accurate chromatic rendition Exact color rendition is achieved when the light's color temperature (e.g., 5400K for neutral, 3400K for warm, 7000K for cool) matches the white balance setting on the camera. While the human eye automatically adjusts to different lighting, a camera requires manual white balance settings [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17). --- # Types of cameras and their characteristics This section provides a detailed overview of various camera types, outlining their historical development, key features, advantages, disadvantages, and notable models. ### 1.1 Single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR) Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras allow the photographer to see the image exactly as the lens sees it through a mirror and prism system [17](#page=17). #### 1.1.1 Characteristics * **Mechanism:** A mirror reflects light from the lens up into a pentaprism and then to the viewfinder. When the shutter is pressed, the mirror flips up, allowing light to hit the sensor or film [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Versatile, user-friendly, and allow previewing of depth of field on the ground glass [17](#page=17). * **Disadvantages:** Can be heavy and noisy. Focusing can be difficult in critical situations like low light or with extreme focal lengths. There is a momentary loss of vision during the shot, and mirror movement can cause vibrations (micromotion). Some models offer an anticipatory mirror lift feature [17](#page=17). * **Shutter:** Typically a mechanical or electronic focal-plane shutter [17](#page=17). * **Formats:** Available in analog (SLR) and digital (DSLR) versions, including Full Frame, APS-H, APS-C, and Micro Four Thirds [17](#page=17). * **Crop Factor:** Using a full-frame lens on a smaller sensor reduces the field of view (e.g., a 50mm lens on an APS-C sensor with a 1.6x crop factor becomes equivalent to an 80mm lens) [17](#page=17). * **Brands/Models:** Nikon and Canon have historically been leaders, with Sony, Pentax, Leica, Sigma, and Fuji also prominent. Canon initially led with CMOS full-frame sensors, followed by Nikon [17](#page=17). * **Optical Technologies:** Require retrofocus optical designs to ensure the lens does not interfere with the mirror mechanism inside the camera body [17](#page=17). ### 1.2 Twin-lens reflex cameras (TLR) Twin-lens reflex (TLR) cameras combine reflex and Galilean viewfinding with two coupled lenses, one for viewing and one for capturing the image [17](#page=17). * **Viewing:** Typically use a waist-level finder (hood viewfinder), presenting an upright but laterally reversed image. This method can aid concentration and accurate composition [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Feature a very quiet central shutter, well-balanced weight, and are excellent for low-angle shots or shooting through crowds [17](#page=17). * **Disadvantages:** Suffer from parallax errors in close-up shots, as the fields of view from the two lenses do not perfectly align [17](#page=17). * **Format:** Generally use 6x6 cm format on 120/220 film [17](#page=17). * **Brands/Models:** Rolleiflex is an iconic model, and the Mamiya C330 Professional S is another example [17](#page=17). ### 1.3 Medium format cameras Medium format cameras utilize roll film 6.2 cm wide (120 or 220) producing negatives ranging from 4.5x6 cm to 6x9 cm [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Offer a significant leap in image quality, exceptional color and dynamic range, better low-light readability, and fewer blown-out highlights [17](#page=17). * **Disadvantages:** Are larger and heavier than smaller formats. They have a shallower depth of field due to equivalent longer focal length lenses [17](#page=17). * **Brands/Models:** Hasselblad is a leading brand with models like the 500C, 2000FC, H series, and the digital H6D. Other notable brands include Rolleiflex 6008, Fuji GFX 50S, Phase One, and Pentax 645Z [17](#page=17). * **Technologies:** Employ either focal-plane shutters or central lens shutters. They often feature interchangeable film backs for different formats [17](#page=17). ### 1.4 Large format view cameras Large format view cameras are professional, bulky, and heavy equipment requiring high mechanical precision [17](#page=17). * **Operation:** Feature movable bellows with front and rear standards allowing for precise micrometric movements like tilt and shift [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Enable correction of converging vertical lines in architectural photography, precise control over the tilted plane of focus for macro photography, and adjustments to perspective and distortion [17](#page=17). * **Viewing:** The image appears upside down and laterally reversed on the focusing screen, necessitating a deliberate approach to composition [17](#page=17). * **Formats:** Come in various analog formats on sheet film (e.g., 4"x5", 8"x10") and are compatible with digital backs (one-shot, multi-shot, and scanning) [17](#page=17). * **Brands/Models:** Sinar is a leader with models like the P2 and P3DF digital focus. Linhof M679 and Fatif are also notable [17](#page=17). * **Digital Technologies:** The Sinar E can connect to a computer with a probe to adjust the plane of sharpness, achieving large file sizes through "macroscan" (108MB in 2000) [17](#page=17). ### 1.5 Field cameras Field cameras represent a portable and compact category within large format photography. They can sometimes be used handheld thanks to a multifocal Galilean viewfinder or a rangefinder. They are often "folding" cameras with a collapsible base [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Offer easy portability and the ability to utilize extensive tilt and shift movements (e.g., Technikardan) [17](#page=17). * **Brands/Models:** The Linhof Master Technika is an iconic folding model, the Linhof Technikardan 45 S is a foldable view camera, and the Silvestri S4 is a robust Italian option with vertical shift [17](#page=17). ### 1.6 Panoramic cameras Panoramic cameras create images with a cylindrical perspective, often achieved with a rotating lens. Horizontal lines may appear curved towards the edges [17](#page=17). * **Usage:** Ideal for landscapes but can be used creatively in other genres [17](#page=17). * **Characteristics:** Often complex, lack automation, and are expensive [17](#page=17). * **Formats:** Use 135 or 120 film [17](#page=17). * **Analog Brands/Models:** Notable analog models include the Russian Horizon/Horizont (120°), Japanese Widelux (140°), German Noblex (120°), and Globuscope and Roundshot (360°) [17](#page=17). * **Digital Technologies:** Many smartphones and action cameras feature integrated panorama functions. Dedicated digital 360° cameras like the Nikon KeyMission and Ricoh Theta exist. Professional models such as the Seitz Roundshot D3 offer 300 megapixels [17](#page=17). * **Accessories:** Motorized or mechanical heads can be used to create multiple shots that are then stitched together in post-production [17](#page=17). ### 1.7 Panorama cameras Panorama cameras produce images with a rectilinear (academic or real) perspective. They are distinct from panoramic cameras due to their narrow, elongated format (e.g., 6x12, 6x17, 24x65) [17](#page=17). * **Brands/Models:** Examples include the Hasselblad X-Pan, Fuji GX 6x17, Linhof Technorama, and Silvestri T30/H25 [17](#page=17). * **Technologies:** Often feature interchangeable super-wide-angle lenses and the possibility of using the shift movement [17](#page=17). ### 1.8 Stereo cameras Stereo cameras use two coupled lenses, typically spaced about 65mm apart (similar to human eyes), to capture reality in 3D through parallax [17](#page=17). * **Analog Brands/Models:** Early examples include the John Benjamin Dancer (patented 1852), Kodak Stereo Camera, Iso Duplex (an Italian commercial success), Realist, and Nimslo 3D [17](#page=17). * **Accessories:** Bars can be used to mount two cameras side-by-side, or front optical attachments can be added to SLRs. Images are viewed using dedicated viewers [17](#page=17). ### 1.9 Aerial cameras Aerial cameras were historically specialized, heavy devices with oversized controls for use with gloves and either a sighting or optical viewfinder [17](#page=17). * **Modern Usage:** Today, standard digital SLRs or, increasingly, drones (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles - UAVs) are used [17](#page=17). * **Regulation:** Drone usage is regulated in many countries (e.g., ENAC in Italy, with maximum altitudes of 150m and a 50m distance from people) [17](#page=17). * **Drone Brands:** DJI (Phantom, Inspire), Parrot, Lehmann, and Storm are prominent drone manufacturers [17](#page=17). ### 1.10 Underwater cameras The first underwater camera project dates back to 1892 by the Boutan brothers [17](#page=17). * **Analog Brands/Models:** The Nikon Nikonos (I-V) was a compact, robust camera with interchangeable lenses, designed for underwater use (UW only) or surface and underwater (W). It featured a Galilean viewfinder and estimated focusing [17](#page=17). * **Optics:** Underwater, the field of view is reduced by approximately 30% due to the refractive index of water [17](#page=17). * **Digital Brands/Models:** The Nikonos RS was the first autofocus underwater SLR [17](#page=17). * **Accessories:** Underwater housings (scafandrature) allow almost any camera to be used underwater, with controls accessible externally [17](#page=17). ### 1.11 Instant-developing cameras Instant-developing cameras were introduced by Edwin Land with the first Polaroid model in 1948 [17](#page=17) [95](#page=95). * **Process:** The process involves diffusion transfer onto unsensitized paper. Development times rapidly decreased [17](#page=17). * **Evolution:** Evolved from sepia film to black-and-white and then to color (Polacolor, 1962) [17](#page=17). * **Iconic Models:** * **Model 100 (Filmpack):** Featured automatic exposure and development outside the camera [17](#page=17). * **SX-70:** A compact, folding reflex camera with self-developing color images that appeared in minutes due to UV light. It was described as "the most sophisticated and innovative consumer product of its time". Andy Warhol used this model [17](#page=17) . * **SLR 680/690:** Used type 600 film, incorporated sonar autofocus, and had a built-in flash [17](#page=17). * **Decline and Revival:** The advent of digital photography led Polaroid to bankruptcy (2001/2008). "The Impossible Project" revived the production of compatible films [17](#page=17). * **Competition:** Kodak (which was sued and defeated by Polaroid), Fuji (with its Instax line, still in production), and Leica (Sofort) were competitors [17](#page=17). * **Digital Products:** Polaroid also produced digital models like the Socialmatic, Snap, and PIC-300 [17](#page=17). ### 1.12 Mirrorless cameras Mirrorless cameras utilize an electronic viewfinder (EVF) or integrated monitor for image preview and lack a mirror system [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Offer compactness and lighter weight due to a thinner body and smaller lenses, as no space is needed for a mirror. They deliver high image quality [17](#page=17). * **Disadvantages:** The electronic viewfinder requires activation, leading to a delay in viewing. Battery consumption can be rapid [17](#page=17). * **Formats and Brands:** Include Micro Four Thirds (Olympus, Panasonic, 4:3 aspect ratio), APS (Fuji, 3:2 aspect ratio), and Full Frame (Sony Alpha, 3:2 aspect ratio) [17](#page=17). * **Specific Technologies:** Fuji offers hybrid viewfinders (Galilean/electronic). Olympus employs "pixel-shift" (High Res Shot) to combine multiple shots for higher resolution files (40-50 megapixels) [17](#page=17). * **Medium Format Mirrorless:** Hasselblad X1D and Fuji GFX 50S are examples, both featuring Sony 50-megapixel sensors [17](#page=17). ### 1.13 Microcameras Microcameras originated from the need for discretion, often disguised as everyday objects like books, watches, or buttons, during an era when cameras were bulky and noisy [17](#page=17). * **Evolution:** Technological advancements have led to the development of miniaturized, precision devices [17](#page=17). * **Formats:** Typically use 16mm film, producing 12x17mm negatives [17](#page=17). * **Brands/Models:** Minox is renowned as the "Rolls Royce of microcameras." Minolta, Rollei, and the Pentax 110 (a reflex camera with interchangeable lenses) are also notable [17](#page=17). * **Kodak Pocket Instamatic:** A highly successful amateur system that was simple, lightweight, and affordable [17](#page=17). * **Digital:** Digital microcameras are integrated into smartphones, function as action cameras (e.g., GoPro), or are disguised [17](#page=17). ### 1.14 Smart cameras / Smartphones Smart cameras and smartphones are multifunctional devices where the photographic capability has become a primary feature [17](#page=17). * **Social Impact:** Photography has become immediate, gestural, and shareable, often losing its purely documentary function once posted online [17](#page=17). * **Technologies and Brands:** * **Sony Xperia:** Features predictive autofocus and high-performance sensors [17](#page=17). * **LG G5:** Offered modular accessories (Cam Plus) for ergonomics and a dual camera system (standard + wide-angle) [17](#page=17). * **OPPO:** Utilizes a three-axis sensor stabilizer [17](#page=17). * **Huawei P9/P10:** Developed in partnership with Leica, featuring a dual camera with separate monochrome and color sensors, advanced autofocus, and a Portraiture function [17](#page=17). * **Motorola/Hasselblad MOTOZ:** A modular camera attachment by Hasselblad with a 10x optical zoom [17](#page=17). * **Apple iPhone 7:** Boasts a bright f/1.8 lens, 2x optical zoom, and autofocus with Focus Pixel technology [17](#page=17). * **Samsung Galaxy S8:** Features Smart Auto Focus, a bright f/1.7 lens, and a manual Pro mode [17](#page=17). * **Accessories:** High-quality optical add-ons are available (e.g., Zeiss ExoLens for iPhone) [17](#page=17). * **Operating Systems:** iOS (Apple, graphical, many apps), Android (Google, more open, less app quality control), and Windows Phone (Microsoft, declining) are the primary mobile operating systems [17](#page=17). * **Future:** Trends point towards augmented and mixed reality, with potential replacement by wearable technologies [17](#page=17). --- # Types of perspective and photographic tools This section outlines various types of photographic cameras and their distinct features, along with an exploration of different perspective renderings and the tools used to achieve them [17-21. ### 3.1 Types of photographic cameras This subsection details the evolution and characteristics of different camera types, from early reflex cameras to modern digital devices. #### 3.1.1 Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras SLR cameras, both analog (SRL) and digital (DSLR), are characterized by a mirror system that directs light from the lens to a prism and then to the viewfinder, allowing for precise framing and focus verification [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Portability, ease of use, and the ability to preview depth of field on the ground glass [17](#page=17). * **Disadvantages:** Weight, noise, focusing difficulties in low light or with extreme focal lengths, temporary loss of vision during exposure, and mirror-induced vibrations (micromotion). Some models offer an anticipatory mirror lock-up [17](#page=17). * **Shutter:** Typically a mechanical or electronic focal-plane shutter [17](#page=17). * **Formats:** Available in Full Frame, APS-H, APS-C, and Four Thirds sensor sizes [17](#page=17). * **Crop Factor:** When a full-frame lens is used on a smaller sensor, the angle of view is reduced; for instance, a 50mm lens on a 1.6x APS-C sensor effectively becomes an 80mm lens [17](#page=17). * **Brands:** Nikon and Canon have historically led the market, with Sony, Pentax, Leica, Sigma, and Fuji also prominent. Canon was a leader with full-frame CMOS sensors, with Nikon catching up later [17](#page=17). * **Optical Technologies:** Require retrofocus optical designs to ensure the lens does not interfere with the camera's mirror mechanism [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.2 Twin-lens reflex (TLR) cameras TLR cameras combine reflex and Galilean viewing systems, featuring two coupled lenses: one for viewing and one for capturing the image [17](#page=17). * **Viewing:** A waist-level viewfinder displays an upright but laterally inverted image, promoting focused composition [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Silent central shutter, well-distributed weight, and suitability for low-angle shots or shooting through crowds [17](#page=17). * **Disadvantages:** Parallax errors in close-up shots due to the non-collinear fields of view of the two lenses [17](#page=17). * **Format:** Commonly used 6x6 cm format on 120/220 film [17](#page=17). * **Brands:** Rolleiflex (iconic model) and Mamiya C330 professional S are notable examples [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.3 Medium format cameras These cameras use roll film typically 6.2 cm wide (120 or 220), producing negatives ranging from 4.5x6 cm to 6x9 cm [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Significant improvement in image quality, exceptional color and dynamic range, and superior detail in low and high light conditions [17](#page=17). * **Disadvantages:** Larger size and weight, and reduced depth of field due to longer equivalent focal lengths [17](#page=17). * **Brands:** Hasselblad (leader, with models like the 500C, 2000FC, H series, and H6D digital), Rolleiflex 6008, Fuji GFX 50S, Phase One, and Pentax 645Z are prominent [17](#page=17) [35](#page=35). * **Technologies:** Employ either focal-plane shutters or central lens shutters. Interchangeable film backs allow for different formats [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.4 Large format view cameras These are professional, bulky, and heavy cameras with high mechanical precision, featuring movable standards with micrometer movements for tilt and shift [17](#page=17). * **Functionality:** Allow for perspective correction, particularly for architecture, and precise control over the tilted focal plane (Scheimpflug principle), enabling manipulation of perspective and distortion [17](#page=17). * **Viewing:** The image appears inverted and laterally reversed on the focusing screen, requiring a deliberate approach to composition [17](#page=17). * **Formats:** Available in various analog film formats (e.g., 4"x5", 8"x10") and are compatible with digital backs (one-shot, multi-shot, and scanning) [17](#page=17). * **Brands:** Sinar (leader, with models like the P2 and P3DF digital focus), Linhof M679, and Fatif are key manufacturers [17](#page=17). * **Digital Technologies:** The Sinar E can connect to a computer for precise focus plane adjustment, producing large files (e.g., 108MB in 2000) through "macroscan" technology [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.5 Field cameras Field cameras are portable and compact large format cameras, sometimes usable handheld due to multifocal Galilean viewfinders or rangefinders. They are often folding designs [17](#page=17). * **Advantages:** Easy portability and the ability to utilize extensive tilt and shift movements (e.g., Technikardan) [17](#page=17). * **Brands:** Linhof Master Technika (iconic folding camera), Linhof Technikardan 45 S (foldable view camera), and Silvestri S4 (Italian, robust, with vertical shift) are notable models [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.6 Panoramic cameras These cameras offer a cylindrical perspective, where horizontal lines can appear curved towards the edges, due to a rotating lens mechanism [19](#page=19). * **Use:** Ideal for landscapes but can be used creatively in other genres [19](#page=19). * **Characteristics:** Often complex, lacking automation, and expensive [19](#page=19). * **Formats:** Use 135 or 120 film [19](#page=19). * **Analog Brands:** Horizon/Horizont (Russian, 120°), Widelux (Japanese, 140°), Noblex (German, 120°), Globuscope, and Roundshot (360°) [19](#page=19). * **Digital Technologies:** Panorama functions are integrated into smartphones and action cameras. Dedicated 360° digital cameras (e.g., Nikon KeyMission, Ricoh Theta) and professional models like the Seitz Roundshot D3 (300 megapixels) exist [21](#page=21). * **Accessories:** Motorized or mechanical heads can create multiple shots for later stitching [21](#page=21). #### 3.1.7 Panorama cameras These cameras produce an academically rectilinear (or real) perspective and are distinguished by their narrow, long formats (e.g., 6x12, 6x17, 24x65) [22](#page=22). * **Brands:** Hasselblad X-Pan, Fuji GX 6x17, Linhof Technorama, and Silvestri T30/H25 are examples [22](#page=22). * **Technologies:** Often feature interchangeable super-wide-angle lenses and shift capabilities [22](#page=22). #### 3.1.8 Stereo cameras Stereo cameras use two coupled lenses, spaced approximately 65mm apart like human eyes, to capture reality in 3D through parallax [24](#page=24). * **Analog Brands:** John Benjamin Dancer (patent 1852), Kodak Stereo Camera, Iso Duplex (Italian), Realist, and Nimslo 3D [24](#page=24). * **Accessories:** Bars can hold two cameras, or optical front attachments can be used with SLRs. Images are viewed with specialized viewers [24](#page=24) [25](#page=25). #### 3.1.9 Aerial cameras Historically, aerial cameras were specialized, heavy devices with oversized controls for gloved operation and sighting or optical viewfinders [26](#page=26). * **Modern Usage:** Today, standard digital SLRs or, increasingly, drones (Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems - RPAS) are used [26](#page=26). * **Regulation:** Drone usage is regulated in many countries, with height and distance restrictions [26](#page=26). * **Drone Brands:** DJI (Phantom, Inspire), Parrot, Lehmann, and Storm are notable [27](#page=27). #### 3.1.10 Underwater cameras The first underwater camera project dates back to 1892 by the Boutan brothers [28](#page=28). * **Analog Brands:** The Nikon Nikonos series (I-V) was compact and robust with interchangeable lenses, featuring a Galilean viewfinder and estimate focusing [28](#page=28). * **Optics:** Underwater, the angle of view is reduced by approximately 30% due to water's refractive index [28](#page=28). * **Digital Brands:** The Nikonos RS was the first autofocus underwater SLR [28](#page=28). * **Accessories:** Underwater housings (scafandrature) allow regular cameras to be used underwater with external controls [29](#page=29). #### 3.1.11 Instant development cameras Edwin Land introduced the first Polaroid model in 1948, utilizing a diffusion transfer process onto unsensitized paper [30](#page=30) [95](#page=95). * **Evolution:** Development times rapidly decreased, and color photography (Polacolor) was introduced in 1962 [30](#page=30). * **Iconic Models:** * **Model 100 (filmpack):** Introduced automatic exposure and development outside the camera [31](#page=31). * **SX-70:** A compact, folding SLR that produced dry color images within minutes, powered by UV rays. It was considered highly innovative and used by Andy Warhol [31](#page=31) [32](#page=32). * **SLR 680/690:** Used 600-type film, featuring sonar autofocus and a built-in flash [32](#page=32). * **Crisis and Revival:** The advent of digital photography led to Polaroid's bankruptcy, but "The Impossible Project" revived the production of compatible film [33](#page=33). * **Competition:** Kodak (initially), Fuji (with Instax), and Leica (Sofort) have been competitors [33](#page=33). * **Digital Products:** Polaroid also produced digital models like the Socialmatic, Snap, and PIC-300 [33](#page=33). #### 3.1.12 Mirrorless cameras Mirrorless cameras use an electronic viewfinder (EVF) or the integrated monitor for image visualization, lacking a mirror system [34](#page=34). * **Advantages:** Compactness and lightness due to thinner bodies and smaller lenses, coupled with high image quality [34](#page=34). * **Disadvantages:** Electronic viewfinders require activation, leading to potential viewing delays, and battery consumption can be rapid [34](#page=34). * **Formats and Brands:** Micro Four Thirds (Olympus, Panasonic), APS (Fuji), and Full Frame (Sony Alpha) sensors are common [34](#page=34). * **Specific Technologies:** Fuji offers hybrid viewfinders, and Olympus uses "pixel-shift" technology (High Res Shot) to create high-resolution files [34](#page=34). * **Medium Format Mirrorless:** Hasselblad X1D and Fuji GFX 50S feature 50-megapixel sensors [35](#page=35). #### 3.1.13 Microcameras Microcameras were initially designed for discretion, often disguised as everyday objects, when cameras were bulky and noisy [36](#page=36). * **Evolution:** Technological advancements have led to miniaturized precision instruments [36](#page=36). * **Formats:** Typically use 16mm film with a 12x17mm negative format [36](#page=36). * **Brands:** Minox (highly regarded), Minolta, Rollei, and Pentax 110 (SLR with interchangeable lenses) are notable [37](#page=37). * **Kodak Pocket Instamatic:** A highly successful, simple, lightweight, and economical amateur system [37](#page=37). * **Digital:** Modern microcameras are integrated into smartphones, action cameras, or disguised devices [37](#page=37). #### 3.1.14 Smart cameras / Smartphones In these multifunctional devices, photography has become a primary function, often surpassing telephony [38](#page=38). * **Social Impact:** Photography becomes immediate, gestural, and shareable, with its documentary function sometimes superseded by online posting [38](#page=38). * **Technologies and Brands:** * **Sony Xperia:** Predictive autofocus, high-performance sensors [38](#page=38). * **LG G5:** Add-on modules, dual cameras (normal + wide-angle) [38](#page=38). * **OPPO:** Three-axis sensor stabilization [39](#page=39). * **Huawei P9/P10:** Leica partnership, dual cameras (B&W and color sensors), advanced autofocus, Portraiture function [39](#page=39). * **Motorola/Hasselblad MOTOZ:** Hasselblad camera module with 10x optical zoom [40](#page=40). * **Apple iPhone 7:** Bright f/1.8 lens, 2x optical zoom, Focus Pixel autofocus [40](#page=40). * **Samsung Galaxy S8:** Smart Auto Focus, f/1.7 lens, Pro manual mode [40](#page=40). * **Accessories:** Quality optical add-ons like Zeiss ExO Lens for iPhone exist [40](#page=40). * **Operating Systems:** iOS (Apple), Android (Google), and Windows Phone (Microsoft) are prevalent [40](#page=40). * **Future:** Trends point towards augmented and mixed reality, with potential replacement by wearable technologies [40](#page=40). ### 3.2 Types of perspective Perspective rendering in photography can be manipulated through camera and lens choices, as well as specific camera movements. #### 3.2.1 Real rectilinear perspective This perspective is achieved with a tripod-mounted camera without tilting, or with cameras featuring movements like shift, which is crucial for architectural photography to correct converging vertical lines. It also includes tilt and swing movements to adjust the focal plane (Scheimpflug principle) [21](#page=21). #### 3.2.2 Cylindrical perspective This perspective is characteristic of panoramic photography, where multiple frames are joined together [21](#page=21). #### 3.2.3 Spherical perspective This perspective is created using fisheye lenses, which produce a circular image with curved lines [21](#page=21). ### 3.3 Photographic tools and fundamental principles This section touches upon essential photographic concepts and tools. #### 3.3.1 Fundamental principles of photography The three core parameters for exposure are aperture, shutter speed, and ISO, forming the exposure triangle [20](#page=20). * **Aperture:** Controls the amount of light reaching the sensor/film. A wider aperture (smaller f-number) allows more light, requires a shorter exposure time, and results in a shallower depth of field. A narrower aperture (larger f-number) requires a longer exposure time and increases depth of field [20](#page=20). * **Shutter Speed:** Determines the duration light strikes the sensor/film. Fast shutter speeds freeze action, while slow speeds create motion blur or are used in low light [20](#page=20). * **ISO (Sensitivity):** Represents the sensor's sensitivity to light. Higher ISO values allow shooting in dimmer conditions but can increase digital noise [20](#page=20). * **Focusing:** Unlike the selective vision of the human eye, a camera is a precise technical instrument [20](#page=20). #### 3.3.2 Difference between human and photographic vision Human vision perceives reality as a sequence of scenes, akin to a film camera, whereas a camera accumulates all parameters onto a single frame, enabling the capture of frozen moments in time and speed, which is impossible for the naked eye [21](#page=21). * **Historical Example:** Early war photography, with long exposure times, made stationary bodies appear tangible while moving soldiers appeared as blurred "spirits" [21](#page=21). #### 3.3.3 History and key innovations * **1888:** A significant year for photographic advancements [21](#page=21). * **Lumière Brothers:** Developed a camera to freeze motion and later color photography [21](#page=21). * **Jules Marey:** Pioneered motion studies with his "photographic gun" and chronographer for sequential images [21](#page=21). * **Eadweard Muybridge:** Used 24 cameras to demonstrate that a galloping horse has all four legs off the ground simultaneously, anticipating cinema [21](#page=21). * **Erik Salomon (Ermanox):** A pioneer of political photojournalism, using a concealed Ermanox camera for spontaneous shots [21](#page=21). * **Oskar Barnack (Leica):** Designed the Ur-Leica and Leica I, the first mass-produced 35mm film camera, making photography portable and discreet, birthing photojournalism and street photography [21](#page=21) [5](#page=5). * **Hasselblad and Rolleiflex:** High-quality medium format cameras, with the Rolleiflex noted for its fixed lens and quiet shutter [21](#page=21). * **Polaroid SX-70 Aladino:** The first instant camera with autofocus that immediately ejected the photo [21](#page=21). * **Digital Photography:** The MAICA (Magnetic Video Camera) recorded 50 photos on floppy disks [21](#page=21). * **Veracity of Photography:** Initially believed to be objective, many historical photos (e.g., Rosenthal at Iwo Jima) were staged due to long exposure times [21](#page=21). #### 3.3.4 Microcameras as tools The Minox microcamera is a famous example of a sub-miniaturized camera used for espionage during the Cold War [21](#page=21). --- # The evolution of photography and its technological advancements This section traces the historical development of photography, from its early conceptualizations and experimental beginnings to the sophisticated digital technologies of today. ### 4.1 Early concepts and camera obscura The principles of the camera obscura, a darkened room or box with a small hole or lens that projects an inverted image onto a surface, have ancient roots. Aristotle and Alhazen used it for safe solar eclipse observation. Leonardo da Vinci suggested using a paper screen for tracing while Gerolamo Cardano introduced a lens in 1540. Daniele Barbaro added a diaphragm in 1569 and Giovanni Battista Della Porta discussed its uses in "Magiae naturalis". Athanasius Kircher made portable versions and Johann Zahn developed a reflex prototype with a mirror for tracing on frosted glass around 1676 [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ### 4.2 Early attempts at image fixation The darkening of silver salts when exposed to light was observed in the Middle Ages. Johann Heinrich Schulze, in 1725, created a light-sensitive compound with chalk and silver nitrate but did not recognize its photographic potential. Jules Alexandre-Cèsar Charles produced a fleeting "silhouette" by projecting a profile onto sensitive paper, but the image quickly faded due to a lack of fixation. Thomas Wedgwood and Humphry Davy recognized the graphical potential of light but failed to fix their images [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ### 4.3 Joseph Nicéphore Niépce and heliography Joseph Nicéphore Niépce is credited with creating the first permanent photographic image, which he termed "Heliographie". He used bitumen of Judea as the light-sensitive material. In 1826, he produced the first permanent exterior heliograph, a view from his window at Le Gras, which required an exposure time of approximately ten hours. In 1829, Niépce partnered with Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). ### 4.4 Louis Daguerre and the daguerreotype Following Niépce's death in 1833, Daguerre continued his research, discovering the latent image concept in 1835, which could be revealed using mercury vapors. By 1837, he had developed the daguerreotype, significantly reducing exposure times to 20-30 minutes and fixing the images with a warm salt solution. The official birth of photography is often cited as January 7, 1839, when Jean-François-Dominique Arago announced Daguerre's discovery at the Academy of Sciences in Paris. The daguerreotype produced a unique, non-reproducible positive image on a silver-plated copper sheet and involved costly and complex equipment [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). ### 4.5 William Henry Fox Talbot and the calotype William Henry Fox Talbot developed "photogenic drawing" and, by 1840, invented the Calotype (or Talbotype). This process was revolutionary because it produced a paper negative from which an unlimited number of positive prints could be made. The term "photography" was coined by John Herschel in 1839, who also introduced the terms "positive" and "negative". Although the calotype offered less definition and longer exposure times than the daguerreotype, it was adopted by photographers like Hill and Adamson in Scotland [5](#page=5) [7](#page=7). ### 4.6 Evolution of support and technique Technological improvements continued to advance photography. In 1840, Baron Seguier proposed folding bellows cameras, tripods, and articulated heads. Josef Max Petzval enhanced lenses in 1841, increasing their luminosity to f/3.5 and reducing exposure times to 20-40 seconds. Frederick Scott Archer's introduction of the wet collodion process on glass plates in 1851 dramatically reduced exposure times to 2-3 seconds, largely replacing daguerreotypy and calotypy. Roger Fenton was the first to use this process for war reporting in the Crimean War. Eadweard Muybridge utilized collodion's sensitivity for his chronophotography, such as "The Horse in Motion," achieving exposure times of 1/1000th of a second in 1878. Richard Leach Maddox's gelatine-bromide of silver technique in 1871 further simplified photography with dry plates. George Eastman, founder of Kodak, launched the Kodak No. 1 in 1888, a simplified camera for amateurs using roll film for 100 circular shots, advertised with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest" [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12) [7](#page=7) [9](#page=9). ### 4.7 The twentieth century and the digital age The 20th century saw photography evolve in aesthetics and art. Alfred Stieglitz founded "Photo-Secession" in 1902 to promote photography as an art form. The Bragaglia brothers explored Futurist photodynamism focusing on movement while László Moholy-Nagy experimented with photograms and "Tipofoto" at the Bauhaus. The introduction of 35mm film led to the Leica in 1925, designed by Oscar Barnack, which significantly propelled photojournalism. The 1930s saw the emergence of "New Objectivity" in Europe and the "Group f/64" in America (Weston, Adams), advocating for maximum sharpness. Color photography became commercially viable with Kodacolor and Agfacolor [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15) [16](#page=16) . The digital revolution began with Steven J. Sasson creating the first digital camera in 1975. Sony's Mavica magnetic camera in 1981 marked the start of this transformation. Today, discussions revolve around the objectivity of photography, its increasing digital manipulation, and the dominance of smartphones [17](#page=17) [18](#page=18). ### 4.8 The photographic eye and its capabilities The camera functions as a technical eye, capable of modifying its field of view and altering our perception of reality. It can explore realms inaccessible to human vision, such as documenting photosynthesis or capturing infrared and ultraviolet radiation. Cameras can also see through fog and near-total darkness by accumulating light over extended exposures and can freeze motion with fast shutter speeds or render it dynamically with long exposures. Unlike stereoscopic human vision, a camera's view is monoscopic and flat. Depth in photography is artificially created through perspective, light and shadow contrast, skilled use of side and backlighting to enhance textures, and the interplay of focal length, shooting distance, and depth of field. The framed field follows precise geometric shapes and decontextualizes the subject. The image forms on the film/sensor plane, appearing inverted and reversed [10](#page=10) [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ### 4.9 Optics and perspective A "normal" lens typically has a focal length similar to the diagonal of the film/sensor format (e.g., 50mm for 24x36mm), offering a perspective close to human vision [4](#page=4). * **Wide-angle lenses:** Have a focal length shorter than the format diagonal, increasing the angular field and exaggerating the relationship between near and far planes. They require careful use to avoid converging vertical lines [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). * **Telephoto lenses:** Have a focal length greater than the format diagonal, narrowing the angular field, magnifying the image, and compressing planes, making distant subjects appear closer [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). Specialized optics include: * **Variable focal length (Zoom):** Allows for focal length adjustment, sometimes with image quality compromise [5](#page=5). * **Catadioptric (Reflex) lenses:** Use mirrors to reduce size and weight but lack a diaphragm [5](#page=5) [8](#page=8). * **Fish-eye lenses:** Capture angles of 180° or more with spherical distortion [5](#page=5). * **Tilt-Shift lenses:** Enable correction of parallel lines (shifting) or tilting the plane of focus (tilting) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * **Macro lenses:** For focusing at very close distances [8](#page=8). * **UV lenses:** Sensitive to ultraviolet radiation [8](#page=8). Photographers can choose from four types of perspective: * **Academic Rectilinear:** Straight lines remain straight, vertical lines are parallel, achieved with a level camera and vertical shift [9](#page=9). * **Real Rectilinear:** Similar to academic but vertical convergence is not considered a flaw [9](#page=9). * **Cylindrical:** Produced by panoramic cameras with rotating optics; horizontal/vertical lines appear curved, except at the center [7](#page=7) [9](#page=9). * **Spherical:** Typical of fish-eye lenses; all non-radial straight lines appear curved [9](#page=9). ### 4.10 Depth of field and diaphragm Depth of field refers to the range of sharpness desired in an image. It is inversely proportional to focal length, directly proportional to the square of the distance to the subject, and inversely proportional to the diaphragm diameter [11](#page=11). * **To decrease depth of field:** Open the diaphragm, use a telephoto lens, move closer to the subject, or use a large format camera [11](#page=11). * **To increase depth of field:** Close the diaphragm, use a wide-angle lens, move away from the subject, or use a small format camera [11](#page=11). The diaphragm, composed of concentric blades, regulates light and influences depth of field. "f" values indicate the aperture (e.g., f/1.4, f/2.8), with lower numbers signifying greater luminosity [12](#page=12). ### 4.11 Viewfinders and vision * **Optical (Galilean) Viewfinder:** Offers direct vision but can have parallax error at close distances [13](#page=13). * **Reflex Viewfinder:** Uses a mirror and pentaprism to show exactly what the lens sees, correcting the inverted image [13](#page=13). * **Electronic Viewfinder (EVF):** A small monitor useful for previewing effects like filters or black and white in mirrorless cameras [13](#page=13). ### 4.12 Color and tonality Black and white photography automatically transforms images into gray gradations, offering a more abstract effect with subtle nuances and the ability to generate depth and atmosphere. Exact color rendition occurs when the light's color temperature matches the camera's white balance setting. The human eye adapts automatically, while the camera does not [17](#page=17). ### 4.13 Camera types and features The camera is the iconic medium of the 21st century. There is no single "ideal" camera; selection should be based on the subject matter and personal needs. Key factors include ergonomics, weight and size, modularity, the viewing system, format, and optical versatility [1](#page=1). #### 4.13.1 Galilean and rangefinder cameras These cameras offer direct vision through an eyepiece. A key advantage is that the scene remains visible even during exposure. However, parallax error means the displayed image differs from the recorded one, especially at close distances. "Toy cameras" are simple, inexpensive devices used for uninhibited shooting. Sophisticated rangefinders use a split-image rangefinder coupled with the lens for precise focusing, even in low light, and a bright frame automatically corrects parallax. They are compact and offer silent shooting due to the absence of a mirror mechanism. Leica is a prominent manufacturer in this category [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). #### 4.13.2 Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras SLRs show exactly what the lens sees via a 45° mirror and pentaprism system, which also rights the image. They are user-friendly and allow previewing of sharpness on the ground glass. Disadvantages include weight, noise, focusing difficulties in critical situations, momentary vision loss during exposure, and mirror vibration. Shutters are typically mechanical or electronic. SLRs exist in analog (SLR) and digital (DSLR) versions across various sensor formats like Full Frame, APS-H, APS-C, and Four Thirds. The crop factor on smaller sensors affects the field of view. Nikon and Canon have been historical leaders, with Sony, Pentax, Leica, Sigma, and Fuji also significant players [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7). #### 4.13.3 Twin-lens reflex (TLR) cameras TLRs combine reflex and Galilean viewing with two coupled lenses: one for viewing and one for taking the picture. They feature a waist-level viewfinder, producing a right-side-up but laterally reversed image, which encourages concentration and careful composition. Advantages include a very quiet central shutter, balanced weight, and suitability for low-angle or crowd photography. Parallax issues can arise in close-up shots. They typically use 6x6cm format on 120/220 film. Rolleiflex is an iconic model [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). #### 4.13.4 Medium format cameras These cameras use 6.2cm wide roll film (120 or 220) producing negatives from 4.5x6cm to 6x9cm. They offer a significant jump in image quality with exceptional chromatic and dynamic range, allowing for better readability in low light and avoidance of blown highlights. Downsides include larger size and weight, and shallower depth of field due to equivalent longer lenses. Hasselblad is a leading brand, with models like the 500C and digital H-series. They may have leaf shutters or focal-plane shutters and interchangeable film backs [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). #### 4.13.5 Large format field cameras These are professional, cumbersome, and heavy professional cameras with high mechanical precision. Their mobile bodies have front and rear standards with micrometer movements for tilt and shift, allowing correction of falling lines (architecture), precise control of inclined focus planes, and modification of perspective and distortions. Images appear inverted and reversed on the focusing screen, requiring a deliberate approach. They utilize various analog film formats (e.g., 4"x5", 8"x10") and are compatible with digital backs. Sinar is a leading manufacturer known for its digital focus systems [13](#page=13) [14](#page=14) [15](#page=15). #### 4.13.6 Portable large format field cameras These are compact, portable large format cameras, some usable handheld due to multi-focal Galilean viewfinders or rangefinders. They often feature folding designs. Advantages include ease of transport and the ability to use extensive tilt and shift movements. Linhof Master Technika and Technikardan are notable models [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17). #### 4.13.7 Panoramic cameras These cameras produce cylindrical perspective, where horizontal lines appear curved towards the edges, due to rotating optics. They are ideal for landscapes but can be used creatively in other genres. They are often complex, lack automation, and are expensive. Analog models include Horizon, Widelux, and Noblex. Modern digital solutions include panorama functions in smartphones and action cameras, as well as 360° cameras like Ricoh Theta and professional models like the Seitz Roundshot D3. Motorized or mechanical heads can be used for creating stitched multi-shot panoramas [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20) [21](#page=21). #### 4.13.8 Panorama cameras (rectilinear) These cameras produce rectilinear (academic or real) perspective, differing from true panoramic cameras by their narrow, elongated format (e.g., 6x12, 6x17). Hasselblad X-Pan and Fuji GX 6x17 are examples. They often feature super-wide-angle lenses with interchangeable optics and shift capabilities [22](#page=22) [23](#page=23). #### 4.13.9 Stereo cameras Stereo cameras use two coupled lenses (approximately 65mm apart, mimicking human eyes) to capture reality in 3D due to parallax. Early models date back to John Benjamin Dancer in 1852. Kodak Stereo Camera and Iso Duplex were commercially successful. Accessories like bars for attaching two cameras or optical add-ons for SLRs exist, and images are viewed with special viewers [24](#page=24) [25](#page=25). #### 4.13.10 Aerial cameras Initially, these were specialized, heavy devices with oversized controls for gloved operation and sighting or optical viewfinders. Today, standard digital SLRs or, increasingly, drones (RPAS - Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems) are used [26](#page=26). --- # Contemporary artistic uses of photography and its historical references Photography's evolution from a technical process to a profound artistic medium is deeply intertwined with its historical development and the continuous reinterpretation of its early forms and practitioners by contemporary artists. The course explores the foundational techniques, key figures, and technological advancements that have shaped photography, alongside the ways in which modern artists engage with this rich history to create new meanings and expand the boundaries of visual expression [1](#page=1) [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [5](#page=5). ### 5.1 The genesis of photography and early techniques The birth of photography is marked by significant dates and pioneering individuals. The official birth date is August 19, 1839 though earlier experiments laid the groundwork [1](#page=1). #### 5.1.1 Early processes and inventions The earliest photographic processes involved complex chemical treatments and the use of light-sensitive materials. * **Heliography:** Joseph Nicéphore Niépce created the oldest known photograph in 1826 using this method. The process involved [1](#page=1): * **Polishing:** A silver-plated copper plate was polished [1](#page=1). * **Sensitization:** The silver plate was exposed to iodine vapors, making it sensitive to light [1](#page=1). * **Development:** The plate was then exposed to mercury vapors at approximately 60 degrees Celsius to develop the image [1](#page=1). * Images were mirrored and exhibited exceptional definition, though early results could be damaged during polishing, leading to circular frames [1](#page=1). * **Daguerreotype:** Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre is credited with this process, first utilized by the King of France [1](#page=1). * It produced rigid, heavy, and fragile images with extraordinary precision, sharpness, and detail, differing significantly from modern paper prints [1](#page=1). * The first camera built in Italy for this process was by Enrico Jest on October 8, 1839 [1](#page=1). * **Fox Talbot:** A pivotal historical figure, Fox Talbot invented various photographic dimensions and was the first to create a book with images, titled "The Pencil of Nature" [1](#page=1). * While Herschel studied the darkening of silver salts, he did not find a fixing agent; this was later discovered using common salt [1](#page=1). * The term "photography" originates from Herschel [1](#page=1). * **Collodion Process:** Emerging in the mid-19th century, the "golden age" of photography, this was a new method particularly prevalent in Europe [1](#page=1). * **Wet Collodion:** More sensitive and faster, requiring preparation immediately before use, but still involved heavy equipment [2](#page=2). * **Dry Collodion:** Enabled shorter exposure times, leading to more instantaneous photos [2](#page=2). * This process also involved stabilizing images on glass for improved quality [2](#page=2). #### 5.1.2 The evolution of photographic technology Technological advancements democratized photography and changed its accessibility and application. * **George Eastman and Kodak:** In 1888, George Eastman revolutionized photography with a portable camera [2](#page=2). * This system simplified the photographer's role by offering a pre-loaded box with a film (negative on paper) and a cellulose strip to make it transparent [2](#page=2). * The camera could capture around 100 photos. Users would then return the camera to the optician for developing, printing, and reloading [2](#page=2). * This made photography accessible for capturing memories and everyday life without being a professional [2](#page=2). * Kodak's marketing emphasized simplicity, though it was criticized for associating photography with women, implying anyone could use it [2](#page=2). * **Early photographic cameras:** * The "fucile fotografico" (photographic rifle) featured a long focus barrel with two lenses and a viewfinder, allowing for sequential shooting with a disc film [6](#page=6). * In 1924, two historical small-format cameras were released: * **Ermalox:** Featured a very bright lens and small dimensions, enabling indoor photography with natural light and pioneering clandestine political photojournalism [6](#page=6). * **Leica:** Developed by Barnak at Leitz, this analog camera used 29x36mm film (full frame) and became a benchmark [7](#page=7). * **Medium and Large Format Cameras:** * **Hasselblad:** Introduced in 1948, this medium-format reflex camera offered larger negatives for greater definition, using 120 or 220 film rolls [7](#page=7). * **Rolleiflex Bioptica:** A famous medium-format reflex camera known for its quiet operation, making it ideal for discreet shooting [7](#page=7). * **Graflex:** Used by Dorothea Lange and Bourke-White for its large format capabilities [2](#page=2) [4](#page=4). * **Rangefinder Cameras:** Preferred for reportage due to their silence, smaller size, and less intrusive nature, allowing photographers to capture moments more effectively by seeing beyond the lens's direct view. Leica and Contax were prominent examples, though they had specific vulnerabilities (Leica to light, Contax to humidity) [7](#page=7). * **Instant Photography:** * **Polaroid:** Invented by Edwin Land, this camera offered instant development in about 60 seconds. Each roll was relatively expensive at two dollars [7](#page=7). * **Polaroid SX-70 Aladino:** A designer instant-development reflex camera with manual focus, featuring unique textures and materials, and an improved auto-positive film pack [7](#page=7). #### 5.1.3 The advent of digital photography The transition to digital photography marked a significant paradigm shift. * **Early Digital Cameras:** The digital age began with cameras like the MAVICA (Magnetic Video Camera) [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). * Initially, it was a misconception that analog and digital photography were the same [7](#page=7). * Digital cameras require telecentric lenses for optimal performance [7](#page=7). * Kodak played a role by adapting existing camera bodies into digital versions [7](#page=7). * Digital photography emerged from professional needs for speed and immediate review [7](#page=7). * **Digital Sensor Technology:** * Sensors capture reality in black and white, converting light into numerical data (0 for black, 256 for white, with intermediate shades) [7](#page=7). * Color in digital photography is an artifact of reconstruction, not pigment, working with ethereal light and lenses sensitive to specific color wavelengths (green, blue, red). This means digital cameras are not ideal for photographing paintings due to color reconstruction [7](#page=7). * **Advanced Digital Technologies:** * **Multishot Cameras:** Capture three images, with pixels dedicated to green, blue, and red respectively, which are then merged for accurate color rendition [7](#page=7). * **Scanning Backs:** Employ a trilinear bar that scans across the subject, capturing red, blue, and green data sequentially for extremely high resolution, though requiring immobile subjects and tripods [7](#page=7). * **Post-Photography Eras:** * **Post-Photography 1.0:** Characterized by "smart photography" (phones with cameras and network connectivity), exemplified by the iPhone 2, and the computational era where the act of shooting is primary [8](#page=8). * **Post-Photography 2.0:** Features advanced computational photography, including image generation by AI and the concept of "photos without cameras" [8](#page=8). ### 5.2 Women in photography: Pioneers and revolutionaries The history of photography, particularly in its early and evolving stages, was significantly shaped by women who defied conventions and carved out unique artistic voices. * **1. Bonney:** Opened the first photographic press agency around 1920, a feat achieved by no man at the time. She was an image selector and refined visual taste, becoming a war reporter on the Russian and Finnish fronts, though often omitted from photography history books [2](#page=2). * **2. Cameron:** Known as the "magician of photography" for her use of shallow depth of field, working with large glass plates (30x30 or 30x40 cm) and focusing on portraiture [2](#page=2). * **3. Dorothea Lange:** Documented the living conditions of people during the Great Depression in America using a Graflex large-format camera [2](#page=2). * **4. Boughton:** Created self-portraits and aimed to challenge prejudices against women, advocating for photography as an expressive art form [2](#page=2). * **5. Behrend:** A professional photographer known for close-up portraits, catering to the bourgeois need for affordable and fast portraits. She utilized wide-angle lenses [2](#page=2). * **6. Hoeg and Berg:** A Norwegian lesbian couple who, while supporting themselves through portraiture, created innovative studio shoots. Their staged environments directly challenged contemporary prejudices about women and femininity, with them often dressing as men and mimicking masculine gestures in their self-portraits [3](#page=3). * **7. Abbott:** A portraitist of artists and writers, favoring surrealism, and trained in Man Ray's studio in Paris [3](#page=3). * **8. Ilse Bing:** Dubbed "the queen of Leica," she stopped photographing in the late 1950s, believing the world was already saturated with images and she had nothing new to say. Her work possessed a surreal imprint characteristic of photographers from the 1920s and 30s [3](#page=3). * **9. Henri:** Frequently used mirrors not only for portraits but also for photographing objects, serving as an inspiration to many. Her work conveyed a deeply felt vision. She eventually ceased photography to become an abstract painter, with some works exhibited at the Venice Biennale [3](#page=3). * **10. Yva:** Possessed exceptional technical skill and a highly refined use of light, leading a large studio with 15-20 assistants. She was Jewish and, after her studio was closed due to persecution, she was forced to take X-ray photos in a hospital before being sent to a concentration camp. Much of her work was destroyed in a bombing raid in Hamburg, limiting exhibitions of her extensive output, which included fashion photography [3](#page=3). * **11. Model:** Taught photography and transmitted her passion, working as a fashion photographer for Vogue. She focused on the power of the gaze and captured the soul of American streets. A hand injury forced her to stop shooting but she remains alive [3](#page=3). * **12. Bourke-White:** The first woman to publish a cover for Life magazine. She was granted access to the Soviet Union and produced significant war correspondence and artistic industrial photography with a unique perspective. Her extensive reportages in India and the USSR, aerial photography, and pursuit of danger (photographing miners underground) are notable. She sought unusual viewpoints to reveal more to the public. Her photograph of Stalin smiling at a press conference is unique, captured when she arrived late with a large camera that made him laugh. She also famously met Gandhi, learned to spin from him, and then photographed him [4](#page=4). * **13. Morath:** A prolific traveler who spoke several languages and was the first woman accepted into Magnum Photos. She was an eclectic and emancipated photographer known for humorous and ironic framing [4](#page=4). * **14. Miller:** Famous for the photograph in the bunker of the Führer, recreated by Sherman. Initially a model for Vogue, a controversial tampon advertisement led her to pursue photography. She trained with and surpassed Man Ray in rayographs. After their relationship ended, Man Ray incorporated her photos into his own works [4](#page=4). * **15. Arbus:** Known as "the photographer of monsters" and "the photographer of the different," her "stray photography" sought out diversity, often at the borderline. She inspired many directors and photographers. Her life ended in suicide [4](#page=4). * **16. Freund:** The first woman to submit a university thesis on photography. She was courageous, anticonformist, and joined Magnum Photos [4](#page=4). * **17. Breslauer:** A surrealist photographer who studied with Man Ray and was known for photographing the backs of models and their clothing. Despite a prolific 10-year career, she produced a vast number of images [4](#page=4). * **18. Schwarzenbach:** An independent photographer from a wealthy Swiss industrial family. She was a lesbian whose family disapproved of her identity. She struggled with drug use and was often in expensive rehabilitation centers. She traveled the world with a photographer partner, documenting states of American life in her books, which integrated text and images. She was opposed to Nazism, a stance that conflicted with her parents' pro-Nazi sympathies [4](#page=4). * **19. Woodman:** Focused exclusively on self-portraits with highly surreal imagery, refusing to assign fixed meanings. She died by suicide at 22, feeling her life had served its purpose [5](#page=5). * **20. Cindy Sherman:** Known for her self-portraits, she worked in a gallery where she would impersonate new artists and photograph herself in disguise. She leveraged technological advancements [5](#page=5). ### 5.3 Contemporary artistic uses of photography and historical references Contemporary artists frequently draw upon the history of photography, reinterpreting past styles, techniques, and iconic images to create new dialogues and explore contemporary issues. #### 5.3.1 Reinterpreting historical works and archives Many artists engage directly with existing photographic archives or re-enact historical photographic styles. * **Mario Cresci:** Reinterpreted Carjat's portrait of Baudelaire, transforming the photograph into a material work with 46 folds, referencing Baudelaire's age [5](#page=5). * **Fregni Nagler:** An artist known internationally, who works with photographic history and archives. Her piece "the hidden mother" for the Venice Biennale presented 997 studio portraits of children where a maternal figure was obscured to highlight the child. She also experimented with analog plates at CERN, exposing one to protons [5](#page=5). * **Rapisarda and Galeotti:** Their work explores "spirit photography" and mediumship, creating images where a second figure appears, often related to attempts to connect with the deceased. This work is "totally detached from the mechanical representation of reality" [5](#page=5). * **Paolo Leonardo:** Reuses archive photographs, questioning their role in documenting historical events. He participated in documenting the Paris Commune [5](#page=5). * **Trapezio and Giorgi:** Modernized Pedriali's reportage of Pasolini, who had requested to be photographed as if spied on naked in his room while reading. Their work transports this concept into a more contemporary visual language [5](#page=5). * **Mulas:** A reporter whose work spans neorealist reportage to the 1968 movements at the Venice Biennale. His "Verifiche" series (1970s) consists of 14 images exploring how reality can be distorted by photography. He paid homage to Niépce by photographing empty 36-exposure rolls, suggesting photography contains all that is photographable. Mulas reflected on the commercialization of photography, from Niépce's beginnings to the present. He also explored the core photographic elements: "the sun, the diaphragm, the exposure time". He demonstrated how the camera can immortalize speed, citing Capa's photograph of a soldier dying. Mulas also considered the camera not just as monocular but potentially multi-ocular, referencing the human multi-ocular vision [6](#page=6). * **Jeff Wall:** Originally a painter and graphic designer, Wall became a photographer known for his gigantic, immersive color formats that utilize light to construct and reproduce images [8](#page=8). #### 5.3.2 Exploring the medium and its perception Artists use photography to question its fundamental nature, its relationship with reality, and how it is perceived. * **Historical Staging:** The political use of photography normalized the staging of images. Before instant photography, posed scenes were common, and events were sometimes reconstructed if the photographer missed the moment, as with Rosenthal's "Raising the flag on Iwo Jima". Fenton was instructed to create war images devoid of death or sickness to encourage enlistment, and viewers did not question their authenticity. Beato documented death as a warning [8](#page=8). * **Perspective and Depth of Field:** Artists manipulate perspective and depth of field to alter how reality is perceived. * **Wide-angle lenses** (under 50mm) separate image planes, creating a similarity between objects of different sizes [9](#page=9). * **Telephoto lenses** (50mm and up) compress image planes, distorting the perception of distance [9](#page=9). * **Depth of Field** is the area of sharpness and is influenced by aperture, sensor size, focal length, and proximity to the subject [9](#page=9). * **Camera Types and Reality:** Understanding different camera types helps interpret how they capture reality. * **Rangefinder cameras** are preferred for reportage due to their discretion [7](#page=7). * **Reflex cameras** have an internal mirror, creating a pentaprism protrusion [8](#page=8). * The human eye is multi-ocular, unlike many cameras, though bi-ocular cameras exist [8](#page=8). ### 5.4 Lighting and studio techniques in contemporary art Contemporary photographic art relies heavily on sophisticated lighting techniques and meticulously planned studio setups. #### 5.4.1 Tools for illumination Controlled lighting is essential for artistic photographic expression. * **Light Sources:** * **Electronic Flash (Strobe):** Autonomous flash units, with or without external generators, often feature a "pilot light" to preview lighting effects [9](#page=9). * **On-Camera Flash (Speedlight):** Compact units that attach to the camera's hot shoe [9](#page=9). * **Generator (Power Pack):** External units that can power multiple flash heads, allowing centralized intensity control [9](#page=9). * **Trigger:** A device that synchronizes the camera and flash units [9](#page=9). * **Light Modifiers:** Used to shape and control light for specific artistic effects [9](#page=9). * **Softboxes and Banks:** Produce soft, even light, minimizing shadows. Banks are larger than softboxes. They offer greater control over light direction and shape compared to umbrellas [9](#page=9). * **Umbrella:** Diffuses and softens light, making shadows less harsh. Interiors can be gold, white, or silver [9](#page=9). * **Reflector Dish (Parabolic Reflector):** Provides more direct and easily directed light than a softbox, with silver, gold, or white interiors [9](#page=9). * **Grid (Honeycomb):** Attaches to reflectors or softboxes to refine color separation on the image while maintaining light softness, subtly altering tonal incision [9](#page=9). * **Fresnel Lens:** Commonly used in cinema and theater for soft, atmospheric light that diffuses uniformly and controllably [9](#page=9). * **Optical Spot ("Follow Spot"):** Used in theater, it creates a directed beam with a diaphragm for adjustment, allowing the projection of shapes via "GOBO" plates [9](#page=9). #### 5.4.2 Exemplary studio workflows The course details specific studio setups for various subjects, emphasizing controlled lighting and composition. * **Basic Setup:** Many examples utilize a white backdrop seamlessly integrated into the floor and wall (a "infinity cove" or "limbo") [10](#page=10). * **Specific Examples:** * **Perfume Bottle (Frosted Glass):** Frontal framing, lit by a softbox with a 90° grid on the left and a white panel at 90° on the right. Settings: f11, 1/125s, ISO 200 [10](#page=10). * **Coconut and Glasses (Motion Effect):** A 3/4 shot, secured with mastic. Lit by a perpendicular softbox on the left and a panel on the right. A torch with a reflector and red gel was used on the backdrop, with falling chalk to create a sense of movement. Settings: f8, 1/100s, ISO 200 [10](#page=10). * **Rubber Duck (Blurred/Doubled Effect):** A profile shot on a transparent surface. Lit by a perpendicular softbox on the left and a panel on the right. A slow shutter speed (1s) combined with moving the transparent surface created a motion blur effect. Settings: f22, 1s, ISO 200 [10](#page=10). * **Triangular Base and Spheres (Top Light):** Frontal framing with a torch and reflector (with grid) positioned directly overhead. A variant included a second torch with a reflector and red gel on the backdrop. Settings: f11, 1/100s, ISO 200 [10](#page=10). * **Perfume Bottle (Transparent Glass):** Overhead framing (not directly zenithal). Lit from behind and to the right by a torch with a reflector (and grid), with a black panel on the left to attenuate light. A second torch with a reflector (and grid) was placed 3/4 in front, with a white panel to highlight the logo on the cap. Settings: f16, 1/100s, ISO 200 [10](#page=10). --- The contemporary artistic landscape of photography is deeply intertwined with its rich historical evolution, with modern practitioners continually referencing and reinterpreting earlier techniques, aesthetics, and theoretical debates to explore new artistic frontiers. ### 5.1 The evolution of photographic technology and its artistic impact The development of photography from its nascent stages to the digital age has been a continuous process of innovation, each advancement profoundly influencing artistic expression. #### 5.1.1 Early innovations and the quest for image fixation The fundamental understanding of light-sensitive silver salts, observed as early as the Middle Ages, laid the groundwork for photographic pursuits. Johann Heinrich Schulze's experiments in 1725 with a light-sensitive compound, though not immediately applied to photography, demonstrated an early grasp of light's chemical effects. Later attempts, such as those by Jules Alexandre-Cèsar Charles and the collaborative efforts of Thomas Wedgwood and Humphry Davy, managed to capture images but struggled with the crucial step of fixation, rendering their creations ephemeral [11](#page=11). #### 5.1.2 Niépce, Daguerre, and the dawn of permanent imagery Joseph Nicéphore Niépce is credited with producing the first permanent photographic image, an "Heliographie," in 1826 using bitumen of Judea. His collaboration with Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre in 1829 was pivotal. Following Niépce's death, Daguerre's discovery of the latent image, which could be developed with mercury vapor, led to the daguerreotype in 1837. This process, officially announced in 1839, produced a unique positive image on a silver-plated copper sheet and, despite its cost and complexity, marked the official birth of photography as a reproducible medium [11](#page=11). #### 5.1.3 Talbot and the negative-positive process Concurrently, William Henry Fox Talbot developed his "photogenic drawing" and, by 1840, the calotype (or Talbotype). The revolutionary aspect of the calotype was its ability to produce a paper negative from which an unlimited number of positive prints could be made. This negative-positive process, along with the terms "positive" and "negative," was introduced by John Herschel in 1839, establishing a foundational concept for photographic reproduction. While the calotype offered less definition and longer exposure times than the daguerreotype, it found use among photographers like Hill and Adamson [11](#page=11). #### 5.1.4 Advancements in equipment and materials The mid-19th century saw significant technical improvements. Barone Seguier's 1840 proposals included collapsible bellows cameras, tripods, and articulated heads. Josef Max Petzval's lens designs in 1841 increased brightness, reducing exposure times. A major breakthrough was Frederick Scott Archer's 1851 introduction of the wet collodion process on glass plates, drastically reducing exposure times to mere seconds and quickly supplanting earlier methods. This process was famously used by war reporter Roger Fenton during the Crimean War. Richard Leach Maddox's 1871 proposal of the gelatin-silver bromide technique simplified the process further with dry plates. George Eastman's 1888 launch of the Kodak No. 1 camera, with its roll film and slogan "You press the button, we do the rest," democratized photography for amateurs [11](#page=11). #### 5.1.5 The 20th century: artistic movements and the digital revolution The 20th century witnessed photography solidifying its place as an art form. Alfred Stieglitz's "Photo-Secession" movement, founded in 1902, championed photography's artistic merit. The Futurist photographers, the Bragaglia brothers, explored photodynamism, focusing on movement. László Moholy-Nagy's experiments at the Bauhaus included photograms and "Typofoto". The introduction of the 35mm film and the Leica camera in 1925 revolutionized photojournalism. The 1930s saw the rise of the "New Objectivity" in Europe and the "Group f.64" in America, advocating for sharp focus. Color photography became commercially available with Kodacolor and Agfacolor films in the mid-1930s [11](#page=11). The digital age began with Steven J. Sasson's creation of the first digital camera in 1975. Sony's 1981 Mavica magnetic camera marked the start of the digital revolution. Today, the pervasive use of digital manipulation and smartphone photography raises ongoing debates about objectivity and authorship, with every photographer inherently making creative choices regarding perspective, focal length, shutter speed, and aperture [11](#page=11). ### 5.2 Artistic interpretations and historical references in contemporary photography Contemporary artists draw upon photography's historical trajectory, employing its evolving technologies and theoretical discussions to craft unique artistic statements. #### 5.2.1 The camera as a technical eye with expanded capabilities Unlike the human eye, which is subjective and selective, the camera is a technical instrument capable of significantly altering its field of vision and manipulating reality. It can explore realms inaccessible to human sight, such as documenting photosynthesis or capturing infrared and ultraviolet radiation. The camera can also "see" in near darkness by accumulating light over long exposures and freeze or dynamically represent motion with precise shutter speeds. Its vision is monoscopic, creating a flat image, and the perception of depth is achieved through artificial means like perspective, light and shadow contrast, and careful manipulation of focal length and depth of field. The framed image, following precise geometric forms, decontextualizes the subject [14](#page=14). #### 5.2.2 Lenses, perspective, and depth of field The choice of lens is crucial in shaping perspective and manipulating reality. A "normal" lens offers a perspective similar to the human eye. Wide-angle lenses increase the field of view and exaggerate the relationship between near and distant planes, while telephoto lenses compress planes and bring distant subjects closer. Special optics, including zoom, catadioptric, fish-eye, tilt-shift, and macro lenses, offer further creative control [15](#page=15). Perspective in photography can be rectilinear academic, rectilinear real, cylindrical, or spherical, each producing distinct visual effects. Depth of field, the extent of sharpness in an image, is meticulously controlled through aperture, focal length, and distance to the subject. The aperture, regulated by f-numbers, dictates the amount of light entering the lens and directly influences depth of field [15](#page=15). #### 5.2.3 Camera types and their artistic applications The diverse range of camera types available to contemporary artists reflects a conscious engagement with historical photographic practices. * **Rangefinder and Viewfinder Cameras:** Historically significant, these cameras offer a direct view but can suffer from parallax error. "Toy cameras" like Lomo, Holga, and Diana are often used for their uninhibited, free-style aesthetic. Sophisticated rangefinders, like the Leica, are renowned for their precision and compact design [16](#page=16). * **Single-Lens Reflex (SLR) Cameras:** These cameras provide an accurate view through the lens, offering versatility and ease of use. Both analog (SRL) and digital (DSLR) versions exist in various formats, with the "crop factor" influencing the effective focal length [17](#page=17). * **Twin-Lens Reflex (TLR) Cameras:** Combining reflex and viewfinder vision, TLRs, such as the iconic Rolleiflex, offer a waist-level viewfinder that encourages careful composition and a quiet shutter [17](#page=17). * **Medium Format Cameras:** These cameras, using film sizes from 4.5x6cm to 6x9cm, deliver exceptional image quality, color rendition, and dynamic range. Hasselblad, Fuji, and Phase One are prominent manufacturers in this category [17](#page=17). * **Large Format Field Cameras:** These professional, often portable, cameras offer extensive control over perspective and focus through bellows movements. They are prized for architectural photography and macro work, allowing for precise correction of converging lines and manipulation of the plane of focus [18](#page=18). * **Panoramic Cameras:** Producing images with a cylindrical or rectilinear perspective and an extended aspect ratio, these cameras are ideal for landscapes and offer creative possibilities across various genres. While traditional analog panoramic cameras exist, digital panorama functions in smartphones and dedicated 360° cameras are now prevalent [18](#page=18). * **Stereo Cameras:** Utilizing two paired lenses to capture three-dimensional images, stereo cameras engage with an early form of photographic dimensionality [19](#page=19). * **Instant Development Cameras:** Pioneered by Polaroid and continued by brands like Fuji Instax, instant cameras offer immediate physical prints, fostering a unique immediacy and tangible quality that resonates with contemporary artistic practices. Andy Warhol famously used the Polaroid SX-70 [19](#page=19). * **Mirrorless Cameras:** These modern cameras, characterized by their electronic viewfinders and absence of a mirror mechanism, offer compactness, lighter weight, and high-quality imaging [19](#page=19). * **Smart Cameras and Smartphones:** The integration of advanced photographic capabilities into smartphones has made photography ubiquitous and socially immediate. Artists often leverage the instant sharing and manipulation possibilities of these devices, engaging with a new paradigm of visual communication. Partnerships between smartphone manufacturers and established camera brands like Leica and Hasselblad underscore the ongoing dialogue between historical photographic expertise and cutting-edge technology [20](#page=20). #### 5.2.4 Color and tonal considerations in artistic practice Contemporary artists engage with color and tonality with an awareness of historical photographic processes. The accurate rendition of color is achieved when the camera's white balance matches the light source's color temperature. Black and white photography, often chosen for its abstract qualities and ability to generate depth and atmosphere, continues to be a powerful artistic tool, drawing on a long tradition of monochrome imagery [16](#page=16). #### 5.2.5 The dialogue between human and photographic perception The understanding of how humans perceive images, a topic explored through experiments on subjectivity and acculturation informs contemporary photographic art. Optical illusions demonstrate that perception is an active construction, not a passive recording. Artists can deliberately employ these principles to challenge viewers' assumptions and explore the nature of visual representation. The inherent subjectivity of human vision, contrasted with the technical objectivity of the camera, remains a fertile ground for artistic exploration, with photographers consciously interpreting reality through their chosen technical and aesthetic parameters [11](#page=11) [13](#page=13). --- This topic explores the evolution of photographic capabilities and how historical developments have influenced contemporary artistic applications of the medium. ### 5.1 The essence of photographic perception versus human vision Human vision perceives reality as a sequence of scenes, akin to a video camera, whereas a camera captures all parameters on a single frame, allowing for the freezing of time and motion, a feat impossible for the naked eye [21](#page=21). #### 5.1.1 Historical example of time-freezing in early war photography In early war photography, prolonged exposure times rendered the immobile bodies of the deceased tangible, while moving soldiers appeared as blurred "spirits" [21](#page=21). ### 5.2 Key historical milestones and innovations in photography The development of photography has been marked by significant technological advancements that have profoundly shaped its artistic and documentary potential. #### 5.2.1 Early innovations in capturing motion and color * **1888:** This year is noted as crucial for advancements in photography [21](#page=21). * **Lumière Brothers:** They invented a camera capable of stopping motion and later developed color photography using potato starch [21](#page=21). * **Jules Marey:** A physician and pioneer in motion study, Marey invented the "photographic gun" and the chronograph to capture sequences of images [21](#page=21). * **Eadweard Muybridge:** Famously used 24 cameras to prove, through a wager, that a galloping horse has all its legs simultaneously lifted at a precise instant. His photographic sequences are considered precursors to cinema [21](#page=21). #### 5.2.2 The rise of photojournalism and portable photography * **Erik Salomon (Ermanox):** A pioneer in political photojournalism, Salomon used an Ermanox camera, concealed under his jacket, for spontaneous shots [21](#page=21). * **Oskar Barnack (Leica):** Barnack designed the Ur-Leica and later the Leica I the first mass-produced 35mm film camera. This innovation made photography portable and discreet, paving the way for photojournalism and street photography [21](#page=21). #### 5.2.3 Advancements in medium format and instant photography * **Hasselblad and Rolleiflex:** These are high-quality medium format cameras. The Rolleiflex was distinctive for its fixed optics and nearly imperceptible shutter release [21](#page=21). * **Polaroid SX-70 Aladino:** This was the first instant camera with autofocus that immediately ejected the photograph [21](#page=21). #### 5.2.4 The dawn of digital photography * **Digital Photography:** The introduction of the MAVICA (Magnetic Video Camera) allowed for the recording of 50 photos onto floppy disks [21](#page=21). #### 5.2.5 The evolving concept of photographic truth Initially, photography was considered objective. However, due to long exposure times, many historical photographs, such as Rosenthal's iconic image at Iwo Jima, were revealed to be staged [21](#page=21). ### 5.3 Types of perspective and photographic tools The way a photograph is captured significantly influences its perspective and the information it conveys. #### 5.3.1 Real rectilinear perspective This perspective is achieved with a camera on a tripod without tilting, or with cameras equipped with movements like shift, which is essential in architecture for correcting converging vertical lines. It also includes tilt/swing movements to extend or reduce the plane of focus, governed by the Scheimpflug principle [21](#page=21). #### 5.3.2 Cylindrical and spherical perspectives * **Cylindrical perspective:** Used for panoramic photos by stitching multiple frames together [21](#page=21). * **Spherical perspective:** Achieved using "fish-eye" lenses that create a circular image with curved lines [21](#page=21). #### 5.3.3 Microcameras and specialized applications * **Microcameras:** The Minox is a famous example of a sub-miniaturized camera used for espionage during the Cold War [21](#page=21). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Perceptual Process | The visual perception analyzes our relationship with the world through images, which trigger the perceptual process. | | Human Eye | Functions like a camera, but the brain "sees" and interprets information based on past experiences. | | Subjectivity | Human vision is subjective and selective, unlike photographic vision which is objective; interpretation depends on cultural level and individual interests. | | Optical Illusions | Visual deceptions where the eye and brain can be tricked, demonstrating that perception is an active process of reality reconstruction rather than passive recording. | | Reversible Figures | Images that convey two equally valid possible representations, such as the Rubin Vase or Necker Cube. | | Impossible Figures | Objects that cannot exist in three-dimensional space but can be depicted in two dimensions, like the Penrose triangle or Escher's "Belvedere." | | Distortion Illusions | Visual phenomena where lines or shapes appear altered, such as the horizontal-vertical illusion where a vertical line seems longer than an equal horizontal one. | | Ponzo Illusion | An illusion where two rectangles of equal size appear different when placed between converging lines, similar to train tracks, affecting the perception of distance and depth. | | Temporal Cadence Test | A test demonstrating that the speed of identifying ambiguous images varies based on cultural background and projection speed. | | Iconographic Reading | The interpretation of visual symbols and images, where cultural heritage is directly proportional to the speed and specificity of this reading. | | Single-Lens Reflex (SLR) Camera | These cameras are characterized by their maneuverability and ease of use, allowing for preview of focus planes on a ground glass. However, they can be heavy, noisy, and present focusing challenges in low light or with extreme focal lengths. They also experience a momentary loss of vision during the shot due to mirror movement, causing vibrations. Some models feature an anticipatory mirror lift. | | Twin-Lens Reflex (TLR) Camera | TLR cameras combine reflex and Galilean viewing systems, utilizing two coupled lenses: one for viewing and one for capturing the image. They typically feature a waist-level viewfinder where the image appears upright but laterally inverted, aiding in concentration and accurate composition. Advantages include a very quiet central shutter and good weight distribution, making them suitable for low-angle shots or shooting in crowds. A key disadvantage is parallax error in close-up shots, where the fields of view from the two lenses do not perfectly align. | | Medium Format Camera | Medium format cameras utilize roll film, typically 6.2 cm wide (120 or 220), producing negatives ranging from 4.5x6 cm to 6x9 cm. They offer a significant qualitative leap with exceptional color and dynamic range, providing excellent readability in low light and avoiding blown-out highlights. Downsides include larger size and weight, and a reduced depth of field due to longer equivalent focal lengths. | | Large Format View Camera | These are professional, bulky, and heavy cameras requiring high mechanical precision. They feature movable bodies with front and rear standards allowing for micrometric movements like tilt and swing. Their primary advantage is the ability to correct converging vertical lines (essential for architecture) and precisely control the tilted focus plane, useful in macro photography, while also allowing modification of perspective and distortions. The image appears inverted and laterally reversed on the focusing screen, demanding a deliberate approach. | | Field Camera | Field cameras represent a portable and compact category of large format cameras. Some can be used handheld thanks to a multifocal Galilean viewfinder or a rangefinder. They are often "folding" cameras with a collapsible base. Their advantages include easy transportability and the ability to utilize extensive tilt and shift movements. | | Panoramic Camera | Panoramic cameras produce images with a cylindrical perspective, often achieved with a rotating lens. Horizontal lines may appear curved towards the edges. They are ideal for landscapes but can be used creatively in other genres. These cameras are often complex, lack automatic features, and are expensive. They can use 135 or 120 film. Digital panoramic capabilities are now integrated into smartphones and action cameras, alongside dedicated 360° digital cameras. | | Stereo Camera | Stereo cameras function using two coupled lenses, typically spaced about 65mm apart (similar to human eyes), to capture reality in 3D through parallax. These cameras record two slightly different perspectives of the same scene, which can then be viewed with special viewers to create a stereoscopic effect. | | Mirrorless Camera | Mirrorless cameras display the image via an electronic viewfinder (EVF) or an integrated monitor and lack a mirror system. This design leads to compactness and lighter weight, as the camera body can be thinner and lenses can be smaller since there's no need to accommodate mirror movement. However, the electronic viewfinder requires activation, which can introduce a slight delay, and battery consumption can be rapid. | | Smart Camera / Smartphone | These are multifunctional devices where the photographic function has become a primary feature, often surpassing traditional telephony. Photography on these devices is immediate, gestural, and easily shareable online. They incorporate advanced technologies such as predictive autofocus, high-performance sensors, optical image stabilization, and partnerships with established lens manufacturers to enhance image quality. | | Large Format Camera | Professional, bulky, and heavy cameras with high mechanical precision, featuring movable bodies with front and rear standards that allow for micrometric movements like tilting and shifting. These movements are crucial for correcting converging vertical lines in architecture and precisely controlling the plane of focus. | | Aerial Camera | Specialized, heavy cameras with oversized controls for use with gloves, featuring a sighting or optical viewfinder. Modern aerial photography often utilizes standard digital SLRs or, increasingly, remotely piloted aircraft (drones). | | Underwater Camera | Cameras designed for use beneath the water's surface, often requiring specialized housings (scafandrature) to protect them from water pressure and allow external control of camera functions. The refractive index of water causes the field of view to narrow by approximately 30%. | | Instant Development Camera | Cameras that produce a developed photograph shortly after exposure, pioneered by Polaroid. The process involves diffusion transfer onto unsensitized paper, with development times rapidly decreasing over the years. | | Microcamera | Small, discrete cameras, often disguised in everyday objects, originally developed for espionage. With technological advancements, they have evolved into miniaturized precision instruments, though modern digital equivalents are often integrated into smartphones or action cameras. | | Camera Obscura | An optical device that projects an image of its surroundings onto a screen inside a darkened box or room. Early versions used a small hole, later enhanced with lenses and diaphragms, and were used for safe solar eclipse observation and drawing. | | Heliography | The first permanent photographic process invented by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, which used bitumen of Judea as a photosensitive substance. The earliest surviving photograph, "View from the Window at Le Gras," was created using this method. | | Daguerreotype | A photographic process invented by Louis Daguerre, announced in 1839, that produced a unique positive image on a silver-plated copper sheet. It significantly reduced exposure times and was the first commercially successful photographic method, though the images were not reproducible. | | Calotype (Talbotype) | A photographic process developed by William Henry Fox Talbot, invented in 1840, that produced a paper negative from which multiple positive prints could be made. This negative-positive process was a significant advancement over the unique image of the daguerreotype. | | Photogenic Drawing | An early photographic process developed by William Henry Fox Talbot, which involved placing objects directly onto light-sensitive paper and exposing it to light to create a silhouette-like image. This was a precursor to the calotype. | | Collodion Wet Plate Process | A photographic process introduced by Frederick Scott Archer in 1851 that used a glass plate coated with collodion and light-sensitive salts. It significantly reduced exposure times to a few seconds, making it more practical than earlier methods and widely adopted. | | Chronophotography | A photographic technique that captures a sequence of images to record motion. Eadweard Muybridge famously used this to analyze the movement of horses, achieving very short exposure times. | | Gelatin-Bromide Emulsion | A photographic technique developed by Richard Leach Maddox in 1871, which used a dry gelatin emulsion containing silver bromide. This simplified the photographic process by eliminating the need for wet plates and allowing for pre-prepared dry plates. | | Kodak No. 1 Camera | The first simplified camera for amateurs, launched by George Eastman in 1888. It used roll film for 100 exposures and popularized photography with its slogan, "You press the button, we do the rest." | | 35mm Film | A standard film format introduced with the Leica camera in 1925. Its small size and portability revolutionized photography, particularly enabling dynamic photojournalism. | | New Objectivity (Neue Sachlichkeit) | An artistic movement in Germany in the 1920s and 1930s that influenced photography. Photographers associated with this movement aimed for a clear, objective, and unsentimental depiction of reality. | | Group f/64 | An association of American photographers, including Ansel Adams and Edward Weston, formed in 1932. They advocated for sharp focus and maximum depth of field, using the aperture f/64 to achieve this. | | Collodion Wet Plate | A photographic process introduced by Frederick Scott Archer in 1851, using a glass plate coated with collodion, which significantly reduced exposure times to 2-3 seconds and became widely adopted. | | Gelatin-Silver Bromide | A photographic technique proposed by Richard Leach Maddox in 1871, which simplified the photographic process by using dry plates, reducing the need for immediate preparation and making photography more accessible. | | Photo Secession | An art movement founded by Alfred Stieglitz in 1902, aimed at promoting photography as a fine art form and establishing its legitimacy within the art world. | | Photodynamism | A Futurist artistic study focusing on the representation of movement in photography, explored by artists like the Bragaglia brothers in the early 20th century. | | Fotogramma (Photogram) | A photographic image made without a camera by placing objects directly onto photographic paper or film and exposing it to light, a technique experimented with by artists like László Moholy-Nagy. | | Tipofoto | A term associated with László Moholy-Nagy and the Bauhaus, referring to experimental typography integrated with photographic elements. | | Leica | A pioneering 35mm camera introduced in 1925, designed by Oscar Barnack, which revolutionized photography by making it more portable and dynamic, significantly contributing to the rise of photojournalism. |