Revision Sheet - ONE.docx

# Understanding culture and its definitions Culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that can be understood in various ways, ranging from simple behavioral patterns to intricate social constructions that shape group identity and societal structures. ## 1. Understanding culture and its definitions Culture is a complex phenomenon encompassing a wide range of human behaviors, beliefs, and creations. At its most basic, it can be defined as behavior, including language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, and ceremonies. ### 1.1 Core definitions of culture A foundational definition, as articulated by Edward Burnett Tylor, describes culture as "that complex of whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." This broad understanding emphasizes the learned and societal aspects of culture. Expanding on this, culture is also defined as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings that are learned through socialization. From this perspective, culture can be viewed as the development of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to that group. ### 1.2 Cultural studies and its characteristics As an academic field, cultural studies is characterized by two main features: * **Subjectivity:** This aspect examines culture in relation to individual lives and the changes that occur within them, influencing a person's overall way of life. * **Engaged analysis:** Early cultural studies recognized that societies are not structured equally and that individuals do not have uniform access to resources like education, money, or healthcare. This approach often worked in favor of those with fewer resources. Cultural studies distinguishes itself from a narrow definition of 'high culture' that assumes constant value. Raymond Williams, in his work *Culture and Society*, critiqued the separation of culture from society and 'high culture' from 'culture as a whole way of life,' while acknowledging that this separation could imbue modern culture with a unique energy. ### 1.3 Culture as hegemony and governmentality From the early 1970s, culture began to be understood as a form of "hegemony," a concept associated with Antonio Gramsci. Hegemony describes relations of domination that are not overtly visible, involving coercion coupled with the consent of the dominated. Gramsci used this concept to explain the popularity of fascism despite its curtailment of liberties. Because hegemonic forces adapt to changing social and cultural conditions, counter-hegemonic strategies must also be continuously revised. Michel Foucault's concept of "governmentality" also relates to culture, viewing it as a means of producing conforming or "docile" citizens, often through educational systems. As culture was increasingly seen as an apparatus within larger systems of domination rather than an expression of local communal lives, cultural studies offered critiques of its hegemonic effects. #### 1.3.1 Semiotic analysis of culture Initially, these critiques heavily relied on semiotic analysis, breaking down culture into discrete messages or "dignifying practices or discourses" disseminated by institutions and media. For example, a semiotic analysis of cigarette smoking among workers would not just view it as a life practice but as a signifier produced by images (e.g., the "Marlboro Man") that symbolize masculinity, freedom, and escape from daily work life. ### 1.4 Ideology and common sense Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan proposed that individuals are constructs of ideology. Ideology, in this context, refers not to beliefs one disapproves of, but to the set of discourses and images that form the most widespread knowledge and values, often termed "common sense." For the state and capitalism to reproduce themselves without revolutionary threats, ideology is considered essential. This perspective posits that dominant ideology makes political, partial, and changeable matters appear "natural," universal, and eternal, thereby protecting exploitative "relations of production" and class differences necessary for capitalism. ### 1.5 Diversity and its implications Diversity, encompassing culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity, enriches human experience. It is defined as "a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system." In a world with significant global migration, societies are increasingly composed of many cultures, presenting both opportunities for mutual enrichment and challenges related to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. #### 1.5.1 Understanding difference and diversity The term 'diversity' is often used ambiguously. While 'difference' suggests clear distinctions, 'diversity' emphasizes multiplicity, overlap, and intersectionality among sources of human variation. This is analogous to how "biodiversity" refers to biological and ecological variations. Culture is closely linked to identity, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities, creating both opportunities and challenges for education and society. Understanding different cultures and identities is crucial for living together and collaborating, requiring individuals to learn about other perspectives to diminish misunderstandings and biases. #### 1.5.2 Challenges and conflicts arising from diversity Difficulties can arise when different identities are not compatible or compete with each other, especially when underlying prejudices and misconceptions lead to resistance to living together or cooperating. The struggle for social justice and human rights, aimed at rectifying past injustices and promoting equity and inclusion, can be challenging amidst conflicts fueled by misunderstandings and fears towards different cultures and identities. ### 1.6 Cultural diversity as a concept and policy Cultural diversity is used in various contexts: * **Sociology and everyday life:** Sometimes synonymous with ethnic pluralism. * **Philosophy, politics, and education:** Used as a theory, policy, and curriculum. The core theme in discussions of cultural diversity, regardless of its form, is equity and justice. This can range from respecting all cultures to maintaining diversity, recognizing all identities, and transforming social systems. #### 1.6.1 Recognition of cultures and identities Recognizing different cultures and identities is a major approach to acknowledging and rectifying past injustices where the contributions of some groups and individuals, along with their cultures and identities, have been denied or ignored. This is particularly relevant in immigrant-rich nations, where denying these contributions undermines the shared past of citizens. Admitting past wrongs is seen as essential for rectification and creating a just and inclusive environment. Recognition, a fundamental human need, is crucial for fostering a sense of belonging in a diverse society. However, there is no universal agreement on its meaning, which can encompass elementary recognition, respect, esteem, love, friendship, acknowledgment, and allowing coexistence. ##### 1.6.1.1 Forms of recognition Recognition can manifest in several ways: * **Political recognition:** Encompasses legal and political areas like citizenship and voting rights, emphasizing combining recognition with redistribution for equal participation. * **Social recognition:** Requires mutual recognition and respect for cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular recognition:** Advocates for an inclusive national narrative in curricula to unite people with different cultures and identities, ensuring that fundamental diverse cultures and identities are reflected. ##### 1.6.1.2 Multicultural states and policies The concept of a multicultural state involves: 1. **Repudiation of a single national group's ownership:** The state is viewed as belonging equally to all citizens. 2. **Replacement of assimilationist policies:** Nation-building policies that assimilate or exclude minority groups are rejected. Instead, individuals should access state institutions and act as full citizens without denying their ethnocultural identity. 3. **Acknowledgment of historical injustice:** Past assimilationist and exclusionary policies are recognized, with a willingness to offer remedies or rectification. ##### 1.6.1.3 Trends in multiculturalism Different forms of multiculturalism emerge when examining specific countries, but general trends include: * **Treatment of indigenous peoples:** A reversal from assimilationist policies to recognizing their right to exist as distinct societies with land claims, cultural rights, and self-government. * **Substate/minority nationalisms:** A shift from suppressing regionally concentrated groups with distinct nationhood aspirations to accommodating them through regional autonomy and official language rights, often via multination and multilingual federalism. * **Immigrant groups:** A move from assimilationist approaches to race-neutral admissions and a more "multicultural" conception of integration, where public institutions accommodate ethnic identities. * **Metics:** Refers to migrants not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens (e.g., undocumented individuals, asylum-seekers, overstayed visa holders). Their primary claim is often regularization of status and access to citizenship, presenting challenges for countries lacking integration infrastructure or with xenophobic tendencies. ### 1.7 Prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are significant global problems involving dehumanization, leading to restricted opportunities, violence, and genocide. Prejudice, literally meaning "prejudgment," is typically viewed as an attitude with cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and conative (intentions to behave) components. However, some definitions also include discriminatory behavior. Prejudice pervades social life, even when institutionalized and justified through sophisticated arguments, such as the apartheid system being publicly presented as a recognition of cultural differences. Researchers consider prejudice as doubly social, involving feelings and actions towards others, guided by group affiliations and historical circumstances. --- # Culture as a tool of power and analysis Culture is a complex construct that functions not only as a reflection of societal norms and behaviors but also as a potent instrument of power and a subject of critical analysis. ### 2.1 Understanding culture Culture can be broadly defined as shared patterns of behaviors, interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings learned through socialization. It encompasses elements such as language, ideas, beliefs, customs, laws, institutions, art, rituals, and everyday habits acquired by individuals as members of a society. This shared understanding fosters a group identity unique to its members. #### 2.1.1 Early approaches to cultural studies Early cultural studies were characterized by two main features: * **Subjectivity:** This approach examined culture in relation to individual lives and how changes within those lives impact an individual's overall way of being. * **Engaged analysis:** This perspective recognized that societies are not structured equally, and individuals do not possess the same access to resources like education or healthcare. Therefore, cultural studies worked in the interests of those with fewer resources. It is crucial to avoid reducing culture to merely "high culture," which implies a fixed value across time and space. Instead, culture should be understood as a "whole way of life." ### 2.2 Culture as hegemony and governmentality From the early 1970s, culture began to be viewed as a mechanism of "hegemony" and "governmentality," concepts associated with theorists like Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault, respectively. #### 2.2.1 Hegemony Hegemony describes relations of domination that are not overtly coercive but rather involve the consent of the dominated. Gramsci used this concept to explain the widespread popularity of fascism in Italy, even though it curtailed liberties. Because hegemonic forces adapt to changing social and cultural conditions, counter-hegemonic strategies must also be continuously revised. #### 2.2.2 Governmentality Governmentality, as conceptualized by Foucault, views culture as a means to produce conforming or "docile" citizens, often through systems like education. As culture was increasingly seen as an apparatus within larger systems of domination rather than merely an expression of local lives, cultural studies began critiquing its hegemonic effects. ### 2.3 Semiotics and ideology in cultural analysis Initial critiques of culture's hegemonic effects relied heavily on semiotic analysis, which involved breaking down culture into discrete messages or "discourses" disseminated by institutions and media. #### 2.3.1 Semiotics in practice A semiotic analysis might examine practices not as mere ways of life but as signifiers that carry meaning. For instance, smoking could be analyzed not just as a habit but as a signifier associated with masculinity, freedom, or transcendence, often produced through media imagery. #### 2.3.2 Ideology According to thinkers like Louis Althusser and Jacques Lacan, individuals are constructs of ideology. Ideology, in this context, refers not to beliefs that are disapproved of but to the widespread knowledge and values that form "common sense." It is essential for the reproduction of the state and capitalism by masking exploitative "relations of production" and class differences. Dominant ideology can transform political, partial, and changeable aspects of society into something that appears "natural," universal, and eternal. ### 2.4 Cultural diversity and its implications Culture is intrinsically linked to identity. The increasing diversity of cultures within societies presents both opportunities and challenges. #### 2.4.1 Defining diversity Diversity refers to "a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system." It encompasses not only culture and ethnicity but also differences in physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. > **Tip:** While "difference" focuses on distinguishing traits, "diversity" emphasizes multiplicity, overlapping, and crossing between sources of human variation. #### 2.4.2 Challenges and opportunities of diversity The coexistence of diverse cultures can lead to mutual enrichment, allowing for the exchange of languages, customs, histories, and beliefs. However, fundamental cultural differences can also result in stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Difficulties arise when different identities are incompatible and compete, especially when underlying prejudices exist, hindering cooperation and coexistence. #### 2.4.3 Recognition and equity Recognizing different cultures and their associated identities is seen as a crucial first step towards addressing past injustices and rectifying the denial of contributions from certain groups. This recognition is a fundamental human need for dignity, fostering a sense of belonging. > **Example:** In multicultural states, recognizing and accommodating the histories, languages, and cultures of non-dominant groups alongside the dominant group is essential for fostering equity and inclusion. ##### 2.4.3.1 Forms of recognition Recognition can manifest in various forms: * **Political recognition:** Acknowledgment of cultures in legal and political spheres, including citizenship and voting rights, emphasizing equal participation in public life. * **Social recognition:** Mutual recognition and respect for cultures and identities in the public sphere by different societal groups. * **Curricular recognition:** Inclusion of diverse cultures and identities in educational curricula to promote an inclusive national narrative and bond people together. * **Personal recognition:** Individual and psychological acknowledgment and respect for different identities. #### 2.4.4 Multiculturalism and state policy The concept of multiculturalism has evolved to address the complexities of diverse societies, influencing policies related to state reforms, nation-building, and the accommodation of minority and non-dominant groups. A multicultural state generally embraces the idea that the state belongs equally to all citizens and repudiates assimilationist or exclusionary nation-building policies. It also acknowledges historic injustices and demonstrates a willingness to offer remedies. ##### 2.4.4.1 Trends in multiculturalism Three general trends in multiculturalism have emerged, primarily observed in Western democracies: 1. **Indigenous Peoples:** A shift from policies aimed at the disappearance of indigenous communities to recognizing their right to exist as distinct societies with land claims, cultural rights, and self-government. 2. **Substate/Minority Nationalisms:** A move from suppressing regionally concentrated groups with a sense of nationhood to accommodating their aspirations through regional autonomy and official language rights. This often involves forms of "multination and multilingual federalism." 3. **Immigrant Groups:** A transition from assimilationist approaches to a more "multicultural" conception of integration, where public institutions accommodate visible ethnic identities. This includes race-neutral admissions and naturalization policies. ##### 2.4.4.2 Metics Metics are migrants who are not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens, including undocumented individuals, asylum-seekers, or temporary workers who have overstayed their visas. Despite facing significant obstacles to integration, they often form settled communities. Their primary claim is to regularize their status and gain access to citizenship, seeking an "immigrant path" to mainstream society. Western democracies have responded to this demand with varying degrees of acceptance, offering amnesties or permanent residence, while others resist due to a lack of established integration processes or xenophobic tendencies. ### 2.5 Prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are significant global challenges, hindering human progress and causing immense suffering. #### 2.5.1 Nature of prejudice Prejudice, meaning "prejudgment," is typically understood as an attitude towards a social group. It is often characterized by three components: * **Cognitive:** Beliefs about the attitude object (the social group). * **Affective:** Strong feelings (usually negative) about the attitude object and its perceived qualities. * **Conative:** Intentions to behave in certain ways towards the attitude object. Some definitions also include discriminatory behavior as part of prejudice. Prejudice involves the dehumanization of an outgroup, making atrocities against them seem less significant. Despite being socially undesirable, prejudice pervades social life, often justified by sophisticated rationalizations. #### 2.5.2 Causes and consequences of prejudice Prejudice is deeply rooted in social psychology and intergroup relations. It can range from minor assumptions to severe bigotry and violence, affecting opportunities, narrowing horizons, and leading to physical harm or genocide. Researchers view prejudice as "doubly social" because it involves feelings and actions towards others, guided by group affiliations and historical contexts. > **Tip:** Understanding the paradoxical nature of prejudice—being socially undesirable yet pervasive—is key to analyzing its role in power dynamics and social structures. #### 2.5.3 Institutionalized prejudice Even in societies where prejudice is institutionalized, justifications are employed to deny its existence. The apartheid system in South Africa is a classic example, publicly presented as a recognition of cultural differences while actually being a system of institutionalized prejudice. --- # The concept and implications of diversity Diversity refers to a broad spectrum of human differences within the same social system, encompassing not only culture and ethnicity but also variations in physical abilities, class, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, sexual orientation, and gender identity. ### 3.1 Defining diversity Culture itself is broadly defined as behavior, encompassing language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, and ceremonies. More formally, culture can be understood as a complex whole of knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired by individuals as members of society. It is also defined as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings learned through socialization, fostering a group's unique identity. The concept of diversity has become increasingly prominent, particularly with the significant global migration. The presence of diverse cultures in societies and workplaces enriches human experience, creating a "beautiful tapestry of human experience." However, fundamental cultural differences can also lead to challenges. > **Tip:** Diversity is not merely about visible differences; it includes a wide range of characteristics and identities. ### 3.2 The presence and richness of diversity Diversity is a ubiquitous reality in all societies and workplaces. It is characterized by a "mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system." This includes: * Culture and ethnicity * Differences in physical abilities/qualities * Class * Religious beliefs * Traditions and customs * Sexual orientation * Gender identity The interaction of these diverse elements holds significant potential for personal and educational development. Mutual enrichment occurs through the exchange of languages, customs, historical memories, and beliefs. This exchange is often facilitated by shared values and norms that enable coexistence in everyday situations. > **Example:** In a classroom setting, students from various cultural backgrounds bring different perspectives and approaches to learning, enriching the educational experience for everyone. ### 3.3 Challenges presented by diversity While diversity is a source of richness, it also presents challenges. Fundamental differences in cultures can give rise to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. The division of people into various categories, often fueled by identity politics, can lead to feelings of being attacked, bullied, or discriminated against. Difficulties arise when different identities are not compatible or must compete with each other. Underlying prejudices and misconceptions about different cultures can hinder people with diverse identities from coexisting and cooperating effectively. This can be particularly disheartening for those who have fought against exclusion and for social justice and human rights. ### 3.4 The evolution of diversity as a concept The term "diversity" is often used ambiguously in discussions about multiculturalism, identity politics, anti-discrimination policies, and education. It can refer to any approach that recognizes differences, such as distinctions based on gender, immigration, or disability. However, an overemphasis on specific sources of difference can create challenges in including other, less visible "sources of difference" and addressing their intersections. Consequently, the notion of "difference," which suggests clear distinctions, is gradually being replaced by "diversity," which emphasizes multiplicity, overlap, and the crossing of human variations. This concept is increasingly defined in relation to social and cultural variation, analogous to "biodiversity" in biological contexts. Culture is closely linked to identity, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities, which in turn bring both opportunities and challenges. Understanding different perspectives and learning about other cultures and identities are crucial for diminishing misunderstandings, stereotypes, biases, and discrimination. ### 3.5 Multiculturalism and recognition In sociology and everyday life, cultural diversity is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnic pluralism. However, in philosophy, politics, and education, it often functions as a theory, policy, and curriculum. The core themes in discussions of cultural diversity consistently revolve around equity and justice, with varying interpretations ranging from showing equal respect for all cultures to recognizing all identities associated with cultures and transforming social systems. Cultural diversity extends beyond the mere coexistence of diverse human characteristics; it also encompasses how people react to this reality and choose to live together. Movements advocating for cultural diversity, such as civil rights movements, highlight the importance of recognizing different cultures and identities as a means of acknowledging and rectifying past injustices where the contributions of certain groups were denied or ignored. > **Tip:** Recognition is considered a fundamental human need, crucial for fostering a sense of belonging, especially in diverse societies. The idea of recognition, while agreed upon as desirable, lacks a universal definition. It can encompass elementary recognition, respect, esteem, love, friendship, acknowledgment, and the allowance of coexistence and interplay. This multifaceted nature makes recognition a concept that is challenging to define and implement consistently. ### 3.6 Frameworks for understanding diversity Recognizing different cultures and identities is seen as a primary step in teaching about cultural diversity. This recognition can be approached through various levels: * **Political recognition:** This involves the acknowledgment of cultures in legal and political spheres, such as in citizenship and voting rights. It emphasizes combining recognition with redistribution to ensure equal participation in public life. * **Social recognition:** This requires different groups within society to recognize and respect each other's cultures and identities in the public sphere. * **Curricular recognition:** This is essential for fostering an inclusive national narrative in curricula, helping to unite people from diverse backgrounds. It advocates for fundamental diverse cultures and identities to be reflected in educational content. #### 3.6.1 Principles of a multicultural state Regardless of the specific context, struggles for multiculturalism generally share common principles: 1. **Repudiation of dominant group ownership:** The state is viewed as belonging equally to all citizens, rather than being the possession of a single national group. 2. **Rejection of assimilationist policies:** Nation-building policies that assimilate or exclude minority or non-dominant groups are rejected. Instead, individuals should have access to state institutions and be able to act as full and equal citizens without compromising their ethnocultural identity. The state has an obligation to accord the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups the same recognition and accommodation as the dominant group. 3. **Acknowledgment of historical injustice:** Past wrongs done to minority/non-dominant groups through assimilation and exclusion are acknowledged, with a willingness to offer remedies or rectification. #### 3.6.2 Trends in multiculturalism Several general trends emerge in how Western democracies deal with diversity: **Indigenous Peoples:** Historically, policies aimed to assimilate or eliminate indigenous peoples as distinct communities. However, there has been a significant reversal, with contemporary policies acknowledging the right of indigenous peoples to exist as distinct societies, including rights to land claims, cultural preservation, and self-government. **Substate/Minority Nationalisms:** Groups that perceive themselves as nations within larger states have historically faced suppression. Modern approaches have shifted towards accommodating these national identities through "multination and multilingual federalism," involving regional autonomy and official language rights. **Immigrant Groups:** Traditionally, immigrant countries (e.g., United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand) adopted assimilationist approaches. However, since the late 1960s, there has been a shift towards race-neutral admissions criteria and a more multicultural conception of integration, where public institutions are expected to accommodate ethnic identities. **Metics (Migrants without permanent residency rights):** This heterogeneous category includes individuals such as illegal immigrants, asylum-seekers, and overstaying guest-workers. They often face significant obstacles to integration. Their primary claim is often to regularize their status and gain access to citizenship, seeking the same integration path as immigrants. Responses vary across countries, with some offering amnesties and permanent residency, while others resist these demands due to a lack of integration infrastructure or xenophobic attitudes. ### 3.7 Prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are significant global problems. Prejudice involves the dehumanization of an outgroup, making atrocities against them seem less severe. It is a pervasive aspect of social life, even in societies where it is institutionalized. #### 3.7.1 Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behavior Prejudice, literally meaning "prejudgment," is typically considered an attitude towards a social group. A traditional view suggests prejudice has three components: * **Cognitive:** Beliefs about the attitude object (social group). * **Affective:** Strong, usually negative, feelings towards the attitude object. * **Conative:** Intentions to behave in certain ways towards the attitude object. However, other definitions incorporate discriminatory behavior, defining prejudice as holding derogatory social attitudes or beliefs, expressing negative affect, or displaying hostile or discriminatory behavior towards members of a group due to their group membership. > **Example:** Assuming all individuals of a certain age lack technological proficiency is a cognitive component of prejudice, potentially leading to affective negative feelings and conative intentions to avoid interacting with them in tech-related contexts. --- # Multiculturalism and its contemporary forms Multiculturalism represents a significant shift from assimilationist policies towards the recognition and accommodation of diverse cultural groups, including indigenous peoples, substate nationalisms, and immigrant communities. ### 4.1 The evolution of multiculturalism The concept of multiculturalism emerged as a response to the limitations and injustices of earlier policies that prioritized assimilation. This evolution is characterized by a repudiation of the idea that the state is solely the possession of a single national group and a move towards recognizing the equal belonging of all citizens. #### 4.1.1 Repudiation of assimilationist policies Historically, nation-building efforts often involved assimilationist policies aimed at integrating minority or non-dominant groups into the prevailing culture. These policies frequently led to the suppression of distinct identities, languages, and customs. Contemporary multiculturalism fundamentally rejects this approach, advocating instead for policies that allow individuals to access state institutions and participate in political life without having to conceal their ethnocultural identity. #### 4.1.2 Recognition and accommodation of diverse groups A core tenet of modern multiculturalism is the state's obligation to accord the history, language, and culture of non-dominant groups the same recognition and accommodation given to the dominant group. This also involves acknowledging and rectifying past injustices resulting from assimilationist and exclusionary policies. ### 4.2 Contemporary forms of multiculturalism While abstract principles of multiculturalism are common, their practical application manifests in various forms depending on the specific context of a country and its minority groups. The document highlights three primary trends in Western democracies: #### 4.2.1 Indigenous peoples Historically, countries with indigenous populations (e.g., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States) pursued policies aimed at their eventual disappearance as distinct communities through assimilation, land dispossession, and suppression of cultural practices. However, since the early 1970s, there has been a reversal. Contemporary approaches, in principle, recognize the enduring existence of indigenous peoples as distinct societies. This includes acknowledging their land claims, cultural rights (including customary law), and self-government rights necessary for their sustenance. > **Tip:** The shift in policy towards indigenous peoples signifies a move from aiming for their assimilation to recognizing their right to exist as distinct cultural entities within the larger nation-state. #### 4.2.2 Substate/minority nationalisms This trend concerns regionally concentrated groups that identify as nations within larger states, often seeking independence or territorial autonomy. Examples include the Québécois in Canada, the Scots and Welsh in Britain, and the Catalans and Basques in Spain. Previously, states suppressed these nationalisms, viewing them as threats to state unity, by restricting language rights and regional self-government. The contemporary approach involves accommodating these national identities through measures like: * **Multination and multilingual federalism:** Creating federal or quasi-federal subunits where minority groups can exercise meaningful self-government. * **Official language rights:** Recognizing the minority group's language as an official state language, at least within their region. > **Example:** France is noted as an exception to this trend, having historically resisted granting autonomy to its substate nationalist group in Corsica, although recent legislative efforts have aimed to address this. #### 4.2.3 Immigrant groups Immigrant groups are defined by individuals and families choosing to emigrate, with the right to become citizens after a period of time and meeting certain conditions (e.g., language proficiency, knowledge of civic institutions). This has been the traditional policy in countries of immigration like the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In the past, these countries pursued an **assimilationist approach**, expecting immigrants to adopt the prevailing culture. However, since the late 1960s, a significant change has occurred: * **Race-neutral admissions criteria:** Immigration policies have become colorblind, leading to increased immigration from non-European societies. * **Multicultural conception of integration:** Public institutions are now expected to accommodate the ethnic identities of immigrants, who are encouraged to express their heritage visibly and proudly. This marks a shift from discriminatory to race-neutral admissions and from assimilation to a more multicultural understanding of integration. #### 4.2.4 Metics (a fourth trend) Metics are migrants who are not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens. This diverse category includes individuals who enter a country illegally, asylum-seekers, or temporary visa holders (e.g., students, guest-workers) who have overstayed their permits. Despite not being conceived as future citizens, many have settled permanently. Key characteristics and challenges for metics include: * **Precarious status:** They often face the threat of deportation. * **Community formation:** They form sizeable communities and engage in employment, though sometimes illegally. * **Integration obstacles:** They encounter significant legal, political, economic, social, and psychological barriers to integration. * **Core demand:** Their primary claim is for regularization of their status as permanent residents and eventual access to citizenship, essentially seeking the same integration path as immigrants. Western democracies have responded differently to this demand, with some (particularly traditional immigration countries) grudgingly accepting these claims through amnesties or pathways to permanent residence. Others, especially those not identifying as immigration countries, have resisted, often due to a lack of integration infrastructure, legal complexities, or xenophobic tendencies. --- # Prejudice and discrimination: nature and dimensions Prejudice and discrimination are pervasive and profoundly problematic aspects of human social life, characterized by their dehumanizing effects and a paradox of social undesirability versus widespread occurrence. ### 5.1 The nature of prejudice and discrimination Prejudice and discrimination are identified as significant challenges facing humanity, contributing to immense pain and suffering globally. They range from limiting opportunities to instigating physical violence and genocide. #### 5.1.1 Dehumanization as a core aspect A particularly harmful element of prejudice is the dehumanization of an outgroup, which can make atrocities against them seem comparable to squishing an insect. Historical examples illustrate how different groups have been viewed as less than human, facilitating severe mistreatment. #### 5.1.2 The paradox of social undesirability and pervasiveness Despite being widely considered an unpalatable aspect of human behavior in many liberal democratic societies, with terms like "racist" and "bigot" used as severe insults, prejudice is experienced by almost everyone in some form. Assumptions about individuals based on group membership (e.g., age, ethnicity, race, sex) are common, both in terms of making such assumptions and automatically acting upon them. This creates a paradox where prejudice is socially undesirable yet permeates social life. Even in societies where prejudice is institutionalized, sophisticated justifications are often employed to deny its presence. #### 5.1.3 Prejudice as a prejudgment The term "prejudice" literally translates to "prejudgment," and it is typically understood as an attitude directed towards a social group. This attitude object can be broad, encompassing groups like "Americans," "politicians," or "musicians." ### 5.2 Components of prejudiced attitudes A traditional view posits that prejudiced attitudes comprise three core components: * **Cognitive:** This refers to the beliefs an individual holds about the attitude object (the social group). * **Affective:** This involves the strong feelings, usually negative, experienced towards the attitude object and its perceived qualities. * **Conative:** This component relates to the intentions to behave in specific ways towards the attitude object. It is crucial to note that this is an intention to act, not the action itself. > **Tip:** While the tripartite model is a traditional perspective, not all attitude theorists agree with its inclusion of the conative component as a defining element of prejudice. Some definitions also integrate discriminatory behavior. #### 5.2.1 Alternative definitions of prejudice Some definitions of prejudice encompass discriminatory behavior, such as the one proposed by Brown. According to this view, prejudice includes: * Holding derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs. * Expressing negative affect. * Displaying hostile or discriminatory behavior towards members of a group specifically because of their membership in that group. ### 5.3 Prejudice and discrimination in broader social contexts Prejudice is a subject of research in its own right and draws upon various areas of social psychology. It is considered "doubly social" as it involves individuals' feelings and actions toward others, guided and contextualized by the groups to which they belong and the historical circumstances of their intergroup relations. #### 5.3.1 Institutionalized prejudice Even when prejudice is institutionalized, as seen in historical systems like apartheid in South Africa, it has been publicly framed using justifications that deny its prejudiced nature, such as claims of recognizing and respecting cultural differences. > **Example:** The system of apartheid was presented as a recognition of and respect for cultural differences, a classic case of institutionalized prejudice, despite its inherent discriminatory practices. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Culture | Behavior that includes language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, and ceremonies, representing a complex whole acquired by an individual as a member of society. | | Subjectivity (in Cultural Studies) | A feature of cultural studies that examines culture in relation to individual lives and the changes that occur within them, impacting an individual's overall way of life. | | Engaged form of analysis (in Cultural Studies) | An analytical approach in cultural studies that acknowledges societal inequalities in access to resources like education and healthcare, and works in the interests of those with fewer resources. | | Hegemony | A term describing relations of domination that are not overtly apparent, involving both coercion and the consent of the dominated group, often used to explain the persistence of certain political systems. | | Governmentality | A concept suggesting that culture functions as a means to produce conforming or docile citizens, often through mechanisms like the educational system. | | Semiotic analysis | A method of analyzing culture by breaking it down into discrete messages or signifiers, examining how images and symbols convey meaning beyond their literal function. | | Ideology | In a broad sense, a set of discourses and images that constitute widespread knowledge and values, often referred to as 'common sense', which helps to reproduce social structures and institutions. | | Diversity | The presence of a mixture of people with different group identities within the same social system, encompassing variations in culture, ethnicity, physical abilities, class, religion, sexual orientation, and gender identity. | | Cultural diversity | The coexistence of diverse knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, religions, languages, abilities, disabilities, genders, ethnicities, races, and nationalities within a society, as well as people's reactions to this reality. | | Recognition (in multiculturalism) | The act of acknowledging and valuing different cultures and identities, seen as a fundamental human need and a crucial step towards fostering a sense of belonging and rectifying past injustices. | | Political recognition | The acknowledgment of cultures and identities within legal and political frameworks, such as citizenship rights and participation in public life, often linked with redistribution of resources. | | Social recognition | The mutual recognition and respect between different groups of people for each other's cultures and identities within the public sphere of a society. | | Curricular recognition | The inclusion of diverse cultures and identities within educational curricula to promote an inclusive national narrative and bond people with different backgrounds together. | | Multicultural state | A political entity that recognizes the equal belonging of all citizens, rejects assimilationist or exclusionary nation-building policies, and accords recognition and accommodation to non-dominant groups. | | Indigenous Peoples | Original inhabitants of a territory who are recognized as distinct societies within a larger country, often with rights to land claims, cultural practices, and self-government. | | Substate nationalisms | Nationalist movements originating from regionally concentrated groups within a larger state who identify as a nation and seek recognition of their nationhood, either through independence or autonomy. | | Metics | Long-term residents of a country who are not admitted as permanent residents or future citizens, often including individuals who entered illegally, as asylum-seekers, or as temporary workers who have overstayed their visas. | | Prejudice | The holding of prejudgments or preconceived opinions, often negative, about individuals based on their membership in a particular social group, involving cognitive beliefs, affective feelings, and conative intentions. | | Discrimination | The act of treating individuals or groups unfairly based on their membership in a particular social group, often stemming from prejudiced attitudes. | | Dehumanization | The process of perceiving members of an outgroup as less than human, which can facilitate atrocities and other forms of severe prejudice and violence. |