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# Introduction to motivation and leadership This section introduces motivation as a psychological construct influencing goal-oriented behavior and defines leadership as the ability to influence others towards goal attainment. ## 1. Introduction to motivation and leadership ### 1.1 Motivation in psychology Motivation is defined as a set of internal (enjoyment) and external (rewards) factors that initiate, guide, and sustain goal-oriented behaviors. It addresses what goals are pursued, how much effort is exerted, and how long that effort is maintained in the face of obstacles [2](#page=2). ### 1.2 Core aspects of motivation * **Intensity**: This refers to how hard a person tries [4](#page=4). * **Direction**: This concerns whether the effort is consistent with organizational goals [4](#page=4). * **Persistence**: This describes how long an individual can maintain their effort [4](#page=4). ### 1.3 The 'problem' of motivation A significant challenge in understanding motivation is that different people respond to different motivators. Some individuals are driven by external factors like rewards and punishments, while others are intrinsically motivated. Furthermore, individual needs may differ from group needs, and humans tend to protect their autonomy, which can impact collaborative efforts requiring cooperation and communication [3](#page=3). ### 1.4 Motivation in organizations In an organizational context, motivation is the process that accounts for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards achieving a goal. Employees require motives to behave in ways that align with organizational objectives [13](#page=13) [4](#page=4). > **Tip:** Understanding the diverse nature of motivators is crucial for effective management and leadership within any organization. ### 1.5 Etymological roots of motive The term 'motive' etymologically means "that which moves". A motive can be viewed as an energetic force or tendency, whether learned or innate, that operates within an individual to inspire action for the satisfaction of a basic need or the attainment of a specific purpose [13](#page=13). > **Example:** A motive for an individual to exercise might be to achieve better health and weight loss. In criminology, a motive is the reason behind committing a crime or offense [13](#page=13). ### 1.6 Definition of leadership Leadership is defined as the ability to influence people towards the attainment of a goal [8](#page=8). ### 1.7 Leadership versus Management While not elaborated upon in this section, the distinction between leadership and management is a recognized concept in the study of organizational behavior [8](#page=8). --- # Biological and psychological aspects of motivation Motivation encompasses both the biological underpinnings of our drives and the complex psychological motives that shape our behavior. ### 2.1 Biological motives Biological motives, also referred to as physiological motives, are fundamental drives triggered by internal bodily imbalances. The body strives to maintain a stable internal environment, a state known as homeostasis, by regulating factors such as nutrition, temperature, and fluid levels. When these levels deviate from their optimum, individuals are motivated to take actions that restore equilibrium [14](#page=14). #### 2.1.1 Neurotransmitters and motivation Key neurotransmitters play a significant role in motivation by influencing our perception of reward and the effort required to achieve goals [5](#page=5). * **Dopamine:** Often dubbed a "feel-good" neurotransmitter, dopamine encourages the repetition of rewarding behaviors [5](#page=5). * **Serotonin:** Another "feel-good" neurotransmitter, serotonin influences the perception of the effort needed to attain a goal [5](#page=5). #### 2.1.2 Specific biological drives * **Hunger:** This drive is signaled by stomach cramps and involves the interplay of hormones such as glucose, leptin (a satiety signal), and ghrelin (an appetite stimulant). These hormones are processed in the hypothalamus, which then activates the desire to eat [15](#page=15). * **Sleep:** The hypothalamus also regulates circadian rhythms and sleep cycles. In response to darkness, the pineal gland releases melatonin to signal the body to sleep [15](#page=15). * **Temperature Regulation:** Receptors in the skin and internal organs detect temperature variations and transmit this information to the hypothalamic thermostat. This thermostat then signals processes like sweating to cool the body or shivering and goosebumps to generate or trap warmth [15](#page=15). * **Thirst:** Signals of thirst are identified in brain areas that monitor blood concentration and fluid volume, regulating the drive to drink [15](#page=15). ### 2.2 Psychological motives Psychological motives are more complex drives that are influenced by cognitive and social factors. #### 2.2.1 Key psychological motives * **Achievement motive:** This is the drive to accomplish something significant, such as attaining high status, achieving success, or meeting a particular standard [16](#page=16). * **Power motive:** This motive centers on the desire to exert influence and have an impact on others [16](#page=16). * **Social approval:** This involves conforming to the norms set by one's social groups to avoid disapproval [16](#page=16). * **Aggression:** This motive arises when an individual faces frustration or obstruction in achieving a goal [16](#page=16). ### 2.3 The nature of motivation and behavior Motives are described as the immediate forces that energize, direct, sustain, or cease behavior [17](#page=17). #### 2.3.1 Behavioral approach The behavioral approach suggests that behavior is motivated by external factors. Behavior itself is defined as anything observable that a person does, which can be categorized as either positive (e.g., kindness, hard work) or negative (e.g., aggression, bullying) [17](#page=17). #### 2.3.2 Stages of motivated behavior (potentially related to addiction) While not explicitly stated as stages of all motivation, certain experiences are described in relation to driven behaviors: * **Arousal:** A sensation of intense feeling of vulnerability [18](#page=18). * **Satiation:** Experiencing pleasure while engaged in the behavior [18](#page=18). * **Fantasy:** Imagining the experience, sometimes leading to euphoric recall [18](#page=18). * **Remorse or guilt:** Feelings of regret after engaging in the behavior [18](#page=18). #### 2.3.3 Factors influencing motivated behaviors (potentially related to addiction) Several factors can influence the development or intensity of certain motivated behaviors, such as addiction: * **Genetics:** Genetics can account for a significant portion, ranging from 40% to 60%, of the risk for addiction [19](#page=19). * **Home/social environment:** An unstable home environment where security is threatened, or the influence of friends can play a role [19](#page=19). * **Stress:** Chronic stress can elevate the risk of addiction [19](#page=19). * **Physical numbing:** A potential consequence [19](#page=19). * **Psychological effects:** Emotional numbness can be a psychological outcome [19](#page=19). * **Social rewards:** These can also be a contributing factor [19](#page=19). #### 2.3.4 Cognitive approach to motivation Cognitive theories posit that behavior is guided by active processing and interpretation of information. In this view, motivation is not seen as a purely mechanical or innate set of processes, but rather as a purposive and persistent pattern of behaviors [20](#page=20). --- # Theories of motivation Major theories of motivation explain what drives human behavior by focusing on various factors, from innate needs to cognitive processes and external rewards. ### 3.1 Content theories of motivation Content theories focus on *what* motivates people, primarily by identifying internal needs that drive behavior. These theories suggest that individuals are motivated by a desire to fulfill certain unmet needs [26](#page=26). #### 3.1.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs Developed by Abraham Maslow in 1943, this theory proposes that human needs are arranged in a strict hierarchy of prepotency, meaning lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become active motivators. The theory is based on two principles [28](#page=28): * **Deficit Principle**: A satisfied need does not motivate behavior; individuals act to satisfy unmet needs [28](#page=28). * **Progression Principle**: Needs exist in a strict hierarchy, and individuals progress through them sequentially, moving to the next level only when the current one is substantially satisfied [28](#page=28). Maslow's hierarchy includes five levels: 1. **Physiological Needs**: Basic survival needs such as air, food, water, shelter, and sleep. 2. **Safety Needs**: Security and protection from physical and emotional harm, including job security, stability, and order. 3. **Belongingness and Love Needs**: Social needs for affiliation, affection, acceptance, and friendship. 4. **Esteem Needs**: Needs for self-respect, achievement, competence, independence, recognition, and approval. 5. **Self-Actualization Needs**: The need to realize one's full potential, to become everything one is capable of becoming. This hierarchy has broad applications in personality development, employee engagement, and employee satisfaction studies [28](#page=28). #### 3.1.2 Herzberg's two-factor theory This theory distinguishes between two sets of factors that affect job satisfaction and motivation: motivators and hygiene factors. * **Motivators (Satisfiers)**: These are intrinsic to the job and contribute to job satisfaction and higher motivation. Examples include achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. * **Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfiers)**: These are extrinsic to the job and, if absent or inadequate, cause dissatisfaction. However, their presence does not necessarily lead to satisfaction or motivation, only the absence of dissatisfaction. Examples include company policy and administration, supervision, working conditions, salary, and relationships with peers. A common scenario illustrating this theory involves a company relocating to a new office with improved working conditions and parking. While these improvements address hygiene factors, if motivators like recognition or opportunities for advancement are lacking, employees might still leave [31](#page=31). #### 3.1.3 ERG theory Proposed by Clayton Alderfer, the ERG theory modifies Maslow's hierarchy by categorizing needs into three broader levels: * **Existence Needs**: Basic physiological and safety needs (similar to Maslow's physiological and safety levels). * **Relatedness Needs**: Social needs and needs for interpersonal relationships (similar to Maslow's belongingness needs). * **Growth Needs**: Needs for personal development and self-actualization (similar to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization needs). ERG theory refutes the strict progression principle of Maslow's hierarchy, suggesting that individuals can pursue multiple needs simultaneously. It also introduces the "frustration-regression" concept: if higher-level needs are unmet, individuals may regress and focus more intensely on lower-level needs [32](#page=32). #### 3.1.4 McClelland's theory of needs David McClelland's theory focuses on three acquired needs that are learned or developed through life experiences: * **Need for Achievement (nACH)**: The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive for success. Individuals with high nACH prefer moderately challenging tasks, seek feedback, and take personal responsibility for their actions. * **Need for Affiliation (nAFF)**: The desire to be liked and accepted by others, to maintain social relationships, and to avoid conflict. Individuals with high nAFF seek pleasant relationships and enjoy being part of a group. * **Need for Power (nPOW)**: The desire to influence or control others, to have an impact on behavior, and to be in charge. Individuals with high nPOW seek leadership positions and enjoy influencing people. People develop these needs to varying degrees, influenced by their cognitive patterns and environment, with one need often being more characteristic of an individual. Motivating individuals with high nACH involves providing challenging tasks with clear feedback and opportunities for advancement. Motivating those with low nAFF might involve structuring work to foster teamwork and positive social interactions, though overemphasis on affiliation can sometimes hinder performance if it conflicts with task achievement. Characteristics of high nACH include a strong desire for accomplishment and success, preference for challenging but achievable goals, and seeking constructive feedback. High nAFF individuals prioritize harmonious relationships and may avoid conflict. High nPOW individuals seek leadership roles and strive to influence others [34](#page=34). ### 3.2 Process theories of motivation Process theories explain *how* motivation works, focusing on the cognitive processes involved in decision-making and behavior selection. They explore the dynamics of motivation rather than just the underlying needs [26](#page=26). #### 3.2.1 Vroom's expectancy theory Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory posits that individuals are motivated to behave in ways they expect will lead to valued outcomes. Motivation is determined by an individual's belief that their effort will lead to performance, that performance will lead to outcomes, and that these outcomes are valued. The theory suggests people choose behaviors that maximize pleasure and minimize pain [36](#page=36). Three key variables must be present for an individual to be motivated: * **Expectancy (Effort-Performance Link)**: The belief that putting in a certain amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance. This is influenced by self-efficacy and past experiences. * **Instrumentality (Performance-Outcome Link)**: The belief that achieving a certain level of performance will lead to specific outcomes or rewards. * **Valence (Value of Outcome)**: The degree to which an individual values a particular outcome or reward. All three variables must be present and positive for motivation to occur. For example, an employee motivated by a bonus based on client interactions must believe that increasing their interaction speed (effort) will lead to seeing more clients (performance), that seeing more clients will result in a bonus (instrumentality), and that the bonus is valuable to them (valence). If any of these links are weak or absent, motivation will suffer. If therapists are fired because clients moved to another center, it suggests that the instrumentality of seeing more clients (leading to a bonus) was undermined by external factors, potentially leading to frustration and decreased motivation [36](#page=36) [37](#page=37). #### 3.2.2 Adam's equity theory Equity theory, developed by J. Stacy Adams, suggests that employees are motivated by their perception of fairness in the workplace, specifically the balance between their inputs (effort, skills, time) and outputs (salary, recognition, benefits) compared to those of others in similar roles [38](#page=38). * When individuals perceive equity (their input/output ratio is equal to that of a referent other), they feel satisfied and are motivated to maintain the status quo. * When individuals perceive inequity, they experience distress. * **Underpayment inequity** (perceived ratio is less than others) leads to feelings of distress, anger, and demotivation. * **Overpayment inequity** (perceived ratio is greater than others) can lead to feelings of guilt or unease, though individuals may also experience satisfaction. To restore equity, individuals might: * Change their inputs (reduce effort). * Change their outputs (seek a raise). * Distort their own perceptions (convince themselves they are less deserving). * Distort the perceptions of others. * Choose a different referent other. * Leave the situation. #### 3.2.3 Porter and Lawler model The Porter and Lawler model is an extension of Vroom's expectancy theory. It proposes a complex relationship between effort, performance, and satisfaction. Key aspects include: * **Effort**: Driven by expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. * **Performance**: A function of effort, ability, role perceptions, and situational factors. * **Satisfaction**: A result of the rewards received, not the primary driver of performance. If rewards are perceived as equitable and valuable, satisfaction will follow performance, which can then reinforce future effort. This model suggests that high performance leads to intrinsically rewarding outcomes (e.g., sense of accomplishment) and extrinsically rewarding outcomes (e.g., pay, promotion), which in turn lead to satisfaction and potentially increased motivation for future efforts. #### 3.2.4 Locke's Goal-Setting Theory Edwin Locke's Goal-Setting Theory, proposed in 1968, asserts that specific and challenging goals, when accepted by the individual, lead to higher performance than easy or vague goals, or no goals at all [21](#page=21). * **Goal Specificity**: Clear goals, such as "increase sales by 15%," are more effective than general goals like "do your best." * **Goal Difficulty**: Challenging goals, when attainable, motivate higher effort and persistence. A student aiming for an A grade is more likely to succeed than one aiming to "do well" [21](#page=21). * **Goal Acceptance**: Individuals must accept the goals for them to be effective motivators. * **Feedback**: Regular feedback on progress toward the goal is crucial for maintaining motivation and adjusting effort. > **Tip:** Goal-setting is most effective when goals are challenging, specific, accepted, and accompanied by feedback. #### 3.2.5 Skinner's Reinforcement Theory B.F. Skinner's reinforcement theory, also known as operant conditioning, suggests that behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, while behavior that is punished is less likely to be repeated. This theory emphasizes the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior. * **Positive Reinforcement**: Introducing a desirable stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior recurring (e.g., giving a bonus for exceeding targets). * **Negative Reinforcement**: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior recurring (e.g., stopping nagging an employee once they complete a task). * **Punishment**: Introducing an undesirable stimulus or removing a desirable stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior recurring (e.g., docking pay for lateness). * **Extinction**: Weakening a behavior by not reinforcing it. This theory implies that managers can motivate employees by carefully managing the consequences of their work behaviors. ### 3.3 Expectancy-Value Theory Victor Vroom's Expectancy-Value Theory, predating his more detailed Expectancy Theory, generally proposes that an individual's motivation to engage in a behavior is a function of their expectation that the behavior will lead to a certain outcome and the value they place on that outcome. This is a foundational concept that influences later process theories [21](#page=21). ### 3.4 Comparing Employees using Expectancy Theory To map the three variables of Expectancy Theory for different employees: * **Employee A: Takes initiative, volunteers for challenging projects.** * **Expectancy**: High. Believes their initiative and effort will lead to successful completion of challenging projects. They likely have high self-efficacy for tackling difficult tasks. * **Instrumentality**: High. Believes that successfully completing challenging projects will lead to valuable outcomes like recognition, career advancement, learning opportunities, or performance appraisals. * **Valence**: High. These outcomes (recognition, advancement, etc.) are highly valued by this employee. * **Employee B: Puts in required effort according to job description.** * **Expectancy**: Moderate to High. Believes that performing their defined duties diligently will lead to acceptable performance levels. * **Instrumentality**: Moderate. Believes that meeting job description requirements will lead to expected outcomes like salary maintenance and avoiding negative consequences, but perhaps fewer opportunities for exceptional rewards or advancement compared to Employee A. * **Valence**: Moderate to High. The outcomes are valued, but the magnitude or desirability might be lower if they are primarily about maintaining the status quo rather than achieving significant growth. Comparing these two, Employee A likely exhibits higher motivation due to a stronger perceived link between effort, performance, and highly valued outcomes. Employee B is motivated to meet basic requirements, but may not be driven to exceed them unless the instrumentality and valence for higher performance are sufficiently appealing [41](#page=41). --- # Leadership roles and theories This section explores the nature of leadership, distinguishing it from management, and introduces various leadership theories such as Trait Theory and Personality Theory, as well as organizational leadership and its impact. ### 4.1 Defining leadership Leadership is fundamentally the process of influencing people and providing an environment conducive to achieving team or organizational objectives. A leader is characterized by having a vision, the drive and commitment to achieve it, and the necessary skills to bring it to fruition. Leaders act as motivators within organizations, aiming to set congruent individual goals that align with and translate into broader organizational goals. They establish a strategy, communicate it effectively to employees, and motivate individuals to perform at their best to achieve these goals [46](#page=46) [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** Recognize that leadership is distinct from management. While management often focuses on processes and tasks, leadership is about influencing people and inspiring them towards a shared vision. ### 4.2 Distinguishing leadership from management The provided text implicitly differentiates leadership from management by emphasizing the influence and vision aspects of leadership. While not explicitly defined as separate concepts in the provided pages, leadership is presented as a more inspirational and forward-looking function focused on achieving outcomes through people [46](#page=46) [7](#page=7). ### 4.3 Key leadership theories and concepts #### 4.3.1 Trait Theory and Personality Theory * **Trait Theory:** This theory posits that leaders possess certain inherent traits that distinguish them from non-leaders [9](#page=9). * **Personality Theory:** This perspective suggests that leaders develop specific personality traits, either through innate predispositions (nature) or through experiences (nurture), which set them apart [9](#page=9). #### 4.3.2 Organizational leadership Organizational leadership involves guiding an organization's people and teams to achieve its goals. Employees interact with various individuals in leadership roles, from middle to top management. Leadership styles can differ across hierarchical levels, each with its own impact on employees. Effective organizational leadership requires understanding employee needs and channeling these into organizational objectives. The systems model of leadership, for instance, focuses on how a leader can create the optimal conditions for an entire organization to achieve its goals, rather than solely concentrating on an individual leader's style. This approach has a holistic focus rather than an individual one [10](#page=10) [72](#page=72) [81](#page=81). > **Tip:** Consider how different leadership styles at various organizational levels might influence employee behavior and motivation. #### 4.3.3 Assumptions underlying leadership and motivation Several core assumptions underpin the understanding of leadership's impact on motivation and organizational outcomes: * **Assumption 1:** Behaviors are driven by needs [74](#page=74) [78](#page=78). * **Assumption 2:** Motivation is goal-directed [75](#page=75) [78](#page=78). * **Assumption 3:** Motivation is a factor in performance [76](#page=76) [78](#page=78). * **Assumption 4:** Leaders have a significant impact on subordinate motivation and organizational outcomes [77](#page=77) [78](#page=78). Leaders work to comprehend employee needs, develop intrinsic and extrinsic reward systems, and influence employees to collaborate and perform to attain desired outcomes [78](#page=78). #### 4.3.4 Desired organizational outcomes Desired organizational outcomes are best described as the goals and results an organization aims to achieve by aligning employee behavior, motivation, and performance with its strategic objectives [79](#page=79). > **Example:** An organization aiming for sustainable growth would define desired outcomes that include not just short-term profits, but also employee satisfaction, continuous innovation, and market leadership, all achieved through aligned individual and team efforts. #### 4.3.5 Key components of leader impact * **Leader's Impact:** This refers to a leader’s ability to motivate, engage, and influence their team to achieve outstanding results [81](#page=81). * **Productivity:** This is an employee's efficiency in completing tasks to achieve organizational goals [81](#page=81). * **Employee Satisfaction:** This measures how content employees are with their jobs, influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic motivators [81](#page=81). #### 4.3.6 Mindset and influence * **Growth Mindset:** A leader's ability to embrace challenges, persist despite difficulties, seek feedback, and learn from the successes of others [84](#page=84). * **Fixed Mindset:** A leader's belief that intelligence is static, which can lead to resistance to change [84](#page=84). * **Influence:** A leader's capability to compel others to alter their behavior towards desired outcomes [84](#page=84). * **Ways of Influence:** Influence can be logical (based on reasoning), emotional (based on personal goals), or cooperative (based on collaborations) [84](#page=84). > **Tip:** Cultivating a growth mindset is crucial for leaders to adapt to change and foster continuous improvement within their teams. ### 4.4 Shared leadership Shared leadership involves a collaborative approach where leadership responsibilities are distributed among team members, fostering a collective benefit where no one is left behind. In this model, the leader often occupies an energy-intensive position, guiding the flock to work for the collective benefit [71](#page=71). ### 4.5 Contemporary influences on leadership The document raises pertinent questions about how modern influencers, such as those on social media, build trust and credibility. It also prompts consideration of whether traditional organizational leaders employ similar tactics to achieve their impact and if influencers and organizational leaders share the same ethical responsibilities. These questions highlight the evolving landscape of influence and leadership in the digital age [87](#page=87). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Motivation | A set of internal and external factors that initiate, guide, and sustain goal-oriented behaviors, encompassing what goals are pursued, the effort exerted, and the duration of effort despite obstacles. | | Intensity (of effort) | Refers to how hard a person tries in their pursuit of a goal within an organizational context. | | Direction (of effort) | Indicates whether an individual's effort is consistent with organizational goals. | | Persistence (of effort) | Measures how long an individual can maintain effort towards a goal, even when facing challenges. | | Dopamine | A neurotransmitter associated with reward, encouraging the repetition of rewarding behaviors. | | Serotonin | A neurotransmitter that influences the perception of the effort required to achieve a goal. | | Intrinsic Rewards | Motivators that stem from the internal enjoyment or personal satisfaction derived from performing a task or behavior. | | Extrinsic Rewards | Motivators that originate from external factors, such as rewards or punishments. | | Leadership | The ability to influence people towards the attainment of a goal; it involves providing direction and inspiring action. | | Management | Distinct from leadership, management typically involves planning, organizing, and controlling resources to achieve objectives. | | Trait Theory (of Leadership) | This theory posits that leaders possess certain inherent traits that distinguish them from non-leaders. | | Personality Theory (of Leadership) | Suggests that leaders develop specific personality traits, either through innate predispositions or environmental influences, that set them apart. | | Motive | Etymologically meaning "that which moves," a motive is an energetic force or tendency, learned or innate, that drives an individual to act for need satisfaction or purpose attainment. | | Biological Motives (Physiological Motives) | Motives triggered by an imbalance in the body, prompting actions to restore internal equilibrium (homeostasis), such as those related to nutrition, temperature, and fluid balance. | | Homeostasis | The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal physiological environment, despite external changes. | | Hypothalamus | A region of the brain involved in regulating biological drives such as hunger, thirst, and sleep-wake cycles, and it plays a role in motivation. | | Glucose | A simple sugar that is a primary energy source for the body and is involved in hunger regulation. | | Leptin | A hormone that signals satiety to the brain, reducing appetite. | | Ghrelin | A hormone that stimulates appetite and signals hunger to the brain. | | Melatonin | A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles in response to darkness. | | Achievement Motive (nAch) | The drive to achieve something significant, such as high status, success, or a high standard of performance. | | Power Motive (nPow) | The desire to have influence and impact on others, often through leadership or control. | | Social Approval Motive (nAFF) | The motivation to conform to the norms of social groups to avoid disapproval and gain acceptance. | | Aggression | A motive that can arise when an individual faces frustration or obstacles in achieving a goal, leading to hostile behavior. | | Behavior | Anything a person does that can be observed and measured. | | Behavioral Approach (to Motivation) | Assumes that behavior is primarily motivated by external factors and environmental stimuli. | | Cognitive Theories (of Motivation) | Propose that behavior is directed by active processing, interpretation, and understanding of information, viewing motivation as purposive rather than mechanical. | | Goal-Setting Theory | Developed by Edwin Locke, this theory suggests that specific and challenging goals, along with feedback, lead to higher performance. | | Expectancy-Value Theory | Proposed by Victor Vroom, this theory suggests that individuals are motivated to act based on their expectations of success and the value they place on the potential outcomes. | | Intrinsic Motivation | The inner drive to perform an activity for the personal satisfaction and enjoyment it provides, rather than for external rewards. | | Extrinsic Motivation | Motivation driven by external factors, such as rewards, punishments, or social pressures. | | Content Theories (of Motivation) | These theories focus on identifying the specific needs that motivate people, such as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, ERG theory, and McClelland's Theory of Needs. | | Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs | A theory that postulates that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization, and must be satisfied in order. | | Deficit Principle | A principle within Maslow's hierarchy stating that a satisfied need no longer acts as a motivator; people are driven by unmet needs. | | Progression Principle | A principle within Maslow's hierarchy suggesting that individuals move through the levels of needs in a strict order, with lower-level needs needing to be satisfied before higher-level needs become salient. | | Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory | This theory distinguishes between "hygiene factors" (which prevent dissatisfaction) and "motivators" (which promote satisfaction and motivation) in the workplace. | | ERG Theory | An extension of Maslow's theory, proposing three categories of needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth, which can be pursued simultaneously. | | Frustration-Regression | A concept within ERG theory where individuals may revert to pursuing lower-level needs if higher-level needs are unmet or frustrated. | | McClelland’s Theory of Needs | Focuses on three learned needs: achievement (nAch), affiliation (nAFF), and power (nPow), which drive behavior. | | Process Theories (of Motivation) | These theories explain the cognitive processes through which motivation occurs, such as goals, expectations, and perceived fairness. | | Vroom’s Expectancy Theory | Assumes individuals are motivated to behave in ways they expect will lead to desired outcomes, based on three key variables: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. | | Adam’s Equity Theory | States that employees are motivated by fairness in their workplace, comparing their input-output ratio to that of others and seeking equity. | | Porter & Lawler’s Model | A comprehensive model that links effort, performance, and rewards, suggesting that job satisfaction is an outcome of performance rather than a cause. | | Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory | See Goal-Setting Theory. | | Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory | Based on operant conditioning, this theory suggests that behavior is a function of its consequences, where reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior. | | Productivity | A measure of efficiency, often defined as the output of goods or services per unit of input, such as labor or capital. | | Employee Satisfaction | A measure of how content employees are with their jobs and work environment, influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. | | Growth Mindset | A leader's ability to embrace challenges, persist through difficulties, seek feedback, and learn from the successes of others. | | Fixed Mindset | A leader's belief that intelligence or abilities are static, leading to resistance to change and avoidance of challenges. | | Influence | A leader's ability to compel others to alter their behavior to achieve desired outcomes, which can be logical, emotional, or cooperative. | | Systems Model of Leadership | Focuses on how a leader can create conditions for an entire organization to achieve goals, taking a holistic rather than an individualistic approach. |