revision.pdf

# Introduction to public speaking This section delves into the fundamental principles of public speaking, distinguishing it from conversation, addressing common anxieties, and outlining the core communication process. ### 1.1 The power and purpose of public speaking Public speaking is defined as a method of making one's ideas public, sharing them with others, and influencing them. It holds importance for both career advancement and civic engagement [2](#page=2). ### 1.2 Public speaking versus conversation Public speaking shares several similarities with ordinary conversation, requiring the same fundamental communication skills. These shared skills include [2](#page=2): * Organizing thoughts logically [2](#page=2). * Tailoring the message to the audience [2](#page=2). * Telling stories for maximum impact [2](#page=2). * Adapting to listener feedback, such as verbal, facial, and physical reactions [2](#page=2). Effective communication in daily talk can be transferred to public speaking, and training in public speaking can enhance communication in various other situations like conversations, classroom discussions, business meetings, and interviews [2](#page=2). However, public speaking also differs from conversation in key aspects: * **More highly structured:** Public speaking typically involves strict time limitations and demands significantly more detailed planning and preparation than informal conversation [2](#page=2). * **Requires more formal language:** Slang, jargon, and poor grammar are generally inappropriate in public speeches, as listeners tend to react negatively to speakers who do not elevate their language for an audience. A speech is expected to be a "special" form of communication [2](#page=2). * **Different method of delivery:** While informal conversation often involves quiet speech, casual posture, and vocalized pauses (like "uh," "er," "um"), effective public speakers adjust their voices to be clearly heard by the entire audience, adopt a more erect posture, and avoid distracting mannerisms and verbal habits [2](#page=2). ### 1.3 Stage fright Stage fright, or anxiety over the prospect of speaking in front of an audience, is a common experience. Rather than attempting to eliminate all nervousness, speakers should aim to transform it into "positive nervousness". Positive nervousness is controlled nervousness that energizes the speaker for their presentation [3](#page=3). Several strategies can help manage nervousness: 1. **Acquire speaking experience:** As familiarity grows, the situation becomes less threatening. Increased knowledge and practice in public speaking reduce the fear of the unknown [3](#page=3). 2. **Prepare thoroughly:** Gaining confidence is linked to selecting speech topics of genuine interest and preparing speeches comprehensively to ensure success [3](#page=3). 3. **Think positively:** Cultivating a positive mindset is crucial for managing stage fright [3](#page=3). 4. **Use the power of visualization:** This involves mentally picturing oneself delivering a successful presentation vividly. Visualization is closely tied to positive thinking, creating a mental blueprint of success [3](#page=3). 5. **Know that most nervousness is not visible:** Novice speakers often worry about appearing nervous, but audiences are usually unaware of internal tension, especially if the speaker acts confident externally [3](#page=3). 6. **Don't expect perfection:** Striving for flawless delivery can increase anxiety; accepting that perfection is not attainable can be liberating [3](#page=3). > **Tip:** Focus on transforming nervousness into a positive force that can energize your presentation, rather than trying to eliminate it entirely. ### 1.4 Public speaking and critical thinking Critical thinking is defined as focused, organized thought about aspects such as the logical connections between ideas, the validity of evidence, and the distinction between fact and opinion. It is an integral component of effective public speaking [3](#page=3). ### 1.5 The speech communication process The speech communication process comprises seven essential elements, regardless of the specific type of communication involved [4](#page=4): 1. **Speaker:** The individual presenting an oral message to a listener [4](#page=4). 2. **Message:** The entirety of what a speaker communicates to another person [4](#page=4). 3. **Channel:** The medium or method through which a message is transmitted [4](#page=4). 4. **Listener:** The recipient of the speaker's message [4](#page=4). 5. **Feedback:** The messages, typically nonverbal, communicated from a listener back to a speaker [4](#page=4). 6. **Interference:** Anything that obstructs the communication of a message. Interference can be external, such as classroom distractions like traffic noise, radiators, conversations in hallways, or uncomfortable room temperatures. It can also be internal, stemming from within the listener, such as a toothache, worry about a future test, or preoccupation with personal issues [4](#page=4). 7. **Situation:** The specific time and place in which speech communication takes place [4](#page=4). ### 1.6 Respecting listeners' cultural values An important aspect of public speaking is avoiding ethnocentrism, which is the belief that one's own culture or group is superior to others. Speakers should respect listeners' cultural values by adapting their messages to audience expectations, imagining themselves in the listeners' position, and being attentive to feedback. Listeners also have a responsibility to avoid ethnocentrism [4](#page=4). --- # Speech preparation and organization This section outlines the critical steps involved in preparing and structuring a compelling speech, from topic selection and audience analysis to the meticulous organization of its introduction, body, and conclusion [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). ### 2.1 Speech development and topic selection #### 2.1.1 Choosing a topic The process begins with selecting a suitable topic. Effective topics are often those the speaker already possesses significant knowledge about or those they are eager to explore further [9](#page=9). #### 2.1.2 Brainstorming your topic Brainstorming is a technique for generating speech topic ideas through free association of words and concepts. Methods include a personal inventory of interests and experiences, clustering ideas, and conducting internet searches [9](#page=9). #### 2.1.3 Determining purpose and central idea * **General purpose:** This is the broad goal of the speech, such as to inform or persuade [9](#page=9). * **Specific purpose:** This is a precise infinitive phrase that clearly states what the speaker aims to achieve with the audience. It must be a statement, not a question, avoid figurative language, and focus on a single, distinct idea, stated without vagueness. Key questions to ask when defining the specific purpose include whether it meets assignment requirements, is achievable within the allotted time, is relevant to the audience, and is neither too trivial nor too technical [10](#page=10) [9](#page=9). * **Central idea:** This is the core message the speaker wants to convey [10](#page=10). #### 2.1.4 Focusing the speech When developing a speech, it's crucial to focus it to fit the allocated time limit and to develop the topic creatively using colorful and descriptive language [7](#page=7). ### 2.2 Audience analysis Audience-centeredness is paramount, requiring speakers to consider who they are speaking to and what they want the audience to know, believe, or do [10](#page=10). #### 2.2.1 The psychology of audiences People generally want to hear about subjects that are meaningful to them because they are egocentric, meaning they are primarily concerned with their own values, beliefs, and well-being [10](#page=10). #### 2.2.2 Demographic audience analysis This involves analyzing audience characteristics such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background. It's essential to identify general demographic features and gauge their importance to the speaking situation while strictly avoiding stereotyping [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11). #### 2.2.3 Situational audience analysis This analysis focuses on traits unique to the specific speaking situation, including the audience size, the physical setting, and the audience's disposition toward the subject (their interest, knowledge, and attitude), the speaker, and the occasion [11](#page=11). #### 2.2.4 Getting information about the audience Information can be gathered through questionnaires using fixed-alternative questions (offering a fixed choice between alternatives), scale questions (requiring responses on a fixed interval scale), and open-ended questions (allowing free-form answers) [11](#page=11). #### 2.2.5 Adapting to the audience Audience adaptation occurs in two stages: before the speech (assessing likely responses and adjusting content for clarity, appropriateness, and persuasiveness) and during the speech (adjusting for unexpected circumstances and watching for feedback) [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). ### 2.3 Gathering materials Effective speeches are supported by well-gathered information [12](#page=12). #### 2.3.1 Using personal knowledge and experience Speakers can draw on their own knowledge and personal experiences as a source of supporting material [12](#page=12). #### 2.3.2 Doing library research Libraries offer numerous resources, including: * **Librarians:** Experts who can assist with research [12](#page=12). * **The catalogue:** Lists all library holdings [12](#page=12). * **Reference works:** Synthesize large amounts of information, such as encyclopedias and yearbooks [12](#page=12). * **Newspaper and periodical databases:** Index articles from magazines, journals, and newspapers. Abstracts are summaries but should not be cited alone [12](#page=12). * **Academic databases:** Catalog scholarly journal articles, ideal for academic research [12](#page=12). #### 2.3.3 Searching the internet This involves using search engines and specialized resources like virtual libraries, government resources, and Wikipedia. Evaluating internet documents requires attention to authorship, sponsorship, and recency [12](#page=12). #### 2.3.4 Research interviews Interviews are conducted to gather specific information. Preparation involves defining the purpose, identifying interviewees, arranging the interview, deciding on recording, and crafting clear questions that avoid being answerable without the interview, leading, hostile, or loaded. During the interview, professionalism and active listening are key, followed by prompt review and transcription of notes afterwards [13](#page=13). #### 2.3.5 Tips for doing research Start early, think about necessary materials, create a preliminary bibliography, and take notes efficiently. Efficient note-taking involves taking ample notes, using a consistent format, making separate entries, and distinguishing between direct quotations, paraphrases, and personal ideas [13](#page=13). ### 2.4 Organizing the speech Strategic organization is essential for achieving a specific result with a particular audience. A speech is typically structured into an introduction, body, and conclusion [15](#page=15) [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). #### 2.4.1 Introduction The introduction is the opening section designed to gain audience attention and interest. Methods include posing a question, telling a story, making a startling statement, or using a quotation. It should also orient listeners to the subject matter by providing a clear preview statement of the main points to be covered. Additionally, the introduction aims to establish the speaker's credibility (audience's perception of expertise) and goodwill (audience's perception of the speaker's best interests) [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17) [7](#page=7). * **Tips for introductions:** Be concise, look for materials during research, be creative, finalize the introduction after the body is complete, and work out content and delivery in detail. When presenting, ensure the audience is attentive before beginning, establish eye contact, and smile [17](#page=17). #### 2.4.2 Body The body is the main section of the speech where main points are developed [8](#page=8). * **Main points:** These are the major ideas presented in the body, typically ranging from two to five points [15](#page=15). * **Methods of organization for the body:** * **Chronological order:** Main points follow a time pattern [15](#page=15) [8](#page=8). * **Spatial order:** Main points follow a directional pattern (e.g., top to bottom, left to right) [15](#page=15). * **Causal order:** Main points illustrate a cause-effect relationship [15](#page=15). * **Problem-solution order:** The first main point addresses a problem, and the second presents a solution [15](#page=15). * **Topical order:** Main points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics [15](#page=15) [8](#page=8). * **Tips for preparing main points:** Keep main points distinct, use similar wording patterns for main points, and balance the time devoted to each [16](#page=16). * **Supporting materials:** These are the examples, statistics, and testimony used to support the speaker's ideas [16](#page=16). * **Connectives:** These words or phrases link ideas and indicate relationships. They include transitions (indicating movement to a new thought), internal previews (signaling what will be discussed next), internal summaries (recapping preceding points), and signposts (indicating location in the speech or highlighting key ideas) [16](#page=16). #### 2.4.3 Conclusion The conclusion is the final section of the speech. It should signal the end of the speech and reinforce the central idea. Methods include a crescendo ending (building to a peak of power) or a dissolve ending (fading to a dramatic final statement). The conclusion can involve summarizing the speech, ending with a quotation, making a dramatic statement, or referring back to the introduction [17](#page=17) [8](#page=8). * **Tips for conclusions:** Look for concluding materials during research, aim for a strong impact ("conclude with a bang"), be brief (5-10 percent of speech time), and work out content and delivery in detail [17](#page=17). ### 2.5 Supporting your ideas Supporting materials are crucial for substantiating claims made in a speech [14](#page=14). #### 2.5.1 Types of supporting materials 1. **Examples:** Specific cases used to illustrate or represent a group. Types include brief examples, extended examples (developed narratives or anecdotes), and hypothetical examples (describing fictitious situations) [14](#page=14). * **Tips for using examples:** Use them to clarify, reinforce, and personalize ideas. Make them vivid and practice delivery for extended examples [14](#page=14). 2. **Statistics:** Numerical data, including mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value) [14](#page=14). * **Tips for using statistics:** Quantify ideas, use them sparingly and ensure they are easy to grasp, identify sources, explain them, round off complex figures, and use visual aids to clarify trends [14](#page=14). 3. **Testimony:** Quotations or paraphrases to support a point. This can be expert testimony (from recognized experts) or peer testimony (from ordinary people with firsthand experience) [14](#page=14). * **Quoting vs. paraphrasing:** Direct quotation presents text verbatim, while paraphrasing restates ideas in one's own words. Avoid out-of-context quotes that distort meaning [15](#page=15). * **Tips for testimony:** Quote or paraphrase accurately, use testimony from qualified and unbiased sources, and always identify the source (speaker's name, document, sponsoring organization) [15](#page=15). #### 2.5.2 Citing sources orally Oral citations do not follow a strict format but must provide enough information for the audience to understand the source's credibility. This typically includes the name of the document, author or sponsoring organization, qualifications, and date [15](#page=15). ### 2.6 Speaking extemporaneously An extemporaneous speech is carefully prepared and rehearsed but delivered from brief notes [8](#page=8). #### 2.6.1 Speech rehearsal Rehearse aloud, seek feedback from others, and time the speech during rehearsal [8](#page=8). #### 2.6.2 Speech presentation During presentation, plant feet, smile at the audience, use natural gestures, establish and maintain eye contact, speak expressively, and take steps to reduce nervousness [8](#page=8). --- # Language and delivery in public speaking Effective language and delivery are crucial for engaging an audience and conveying a message successfully in public speaking. This involves carefully selecting words, structuring sentences, and utilizing vocal and bodily cues to enhance clarity, vividness, and impact [18](#page=18) [19](#page=19) [20](#page=20). ### 3.1 Language in public speaking The choice of language significantly influences how a message is perceived by an audience. Understanding the nuances of word meaning and employing strategies for clear, vivid, and appropriate language are essential [19](#page=19). #### 3.1.1 Meaning of words Words possess different layers of meaning that speakers must consider [18](#page=18). * **Denotative meaning:** This refers to the literal, dictionary definition of a word [18](#page=18). * **Connotative meaning:** This encompasses the associations, emotions, and implications triggered by a word, extending beyond its literal definition [19](#page=19). #### 3.1.2 Using language effectively Effective language use involves several key principles: * **Accuracy:** Employing words that precisely convey the intended meaning [19](#page=19). * **Clarity:** Making the message easy to understand through simple and direct language [19](#page=19). * **Familiar words:** Using vocabulary that the audience is likely to understand [19](#page=19). * **Concrete words:** Opting for words that refer to tangible objects and sensory experiences, which are easier to grasp than abstract concepts [19](#page=19). * **Abstract words:** Words referring to ideas or concepts [19](#page=19). * **Eliminate clutter:** Avoiding unnecessary words or phrases that obscure the main point. Clutter refers to discourse that uses more words than needed to express an idea [19](#page=19). * **Vividness:** Making the speech engaging and memorable through descriptive language [19](#page=19). * **Imagery:** Using language to create mental pictures of objects, actions, or ideas [19](#page=19). * **Simile:** An explicit comparison between dissimilar things using "like" or "as" [19](#page=19). * **Metaphor:** An implicit comparison between dissimilar things without using "like" or "as" [19](#page=19). * **Rhythm:** Creating a pleasing sound pattern through word choice and arrangement [19](#page=19). * **Parallelism:** Using similar grammatical structures for related words, phrases, or sentences [19](#page=19). * **Repetition:** Repeating words or phrases at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences for emphasis [19](#page=19). * **Alliteration:** Repeating the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words [19](#page=19). * **Antithesis:** Presenting contrasting ideas, often in parallel structures, to highlight their differences [19](#page=19). * **Appropriateness:** Tailoring language to the specific context [19](#page=19). * **Occasion:** Considering the formality and purpose of the event [19](#page=19). * **Audience:** Adapting language to their background, knowledge, and expectations [19](#page=19). * **Topic:** Using language that is suitable for the subject matter [19](#page=19). * **Speaker:** Ensuring the language aligns with the speaker's own style and credibility [19](#page=19). #### 3.1.3 Inclusive language Inclusive language is vital for avoiding stereotypes and respecting all audience members [19](#page=19). * **Definition:** Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize individuals based on gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other characteristics [19](#page=19). * **Avoid the generic "he":** Refraining from using "he" to refer to both men and women [19](#page=19). * **Avoid the use of "man" when referring to both men and women:** Using gender-neutral terms like "humankind" or "people" [19](#page=19). * **Avoid stereotyping jobs and social roles by gender:** Challenging traditional gender roles in language [19](#page=19). * **Use names that groups use to identify themselves:** Respecting the preferred terminology of various communities [19](#page=19). ### 3.2 Delivery in public speaking Delivery refers to the nonverbal aspects of a speech, encompassing how the speaker uses their voice and body to communicate [20](#page=20). #### 3.2.1 Methods of delivery There are four primary methods of delivering a speech [20](#page=20): * **Reading from a manuscript:** A speech that is written out word-for-word and read to the audience. This method can sometimes lead to a less engaging delivery [20](#page=20). * **Reciting from memory:** Memorizing the entire speech and delivering it without notes [20](#page=20). * **Speaking impromptu:** Delivering a speech with little to no immediate preparation [20](#page=20). * **Speaking extemporaneously:** Delivering a carefully prepared and rehearsed speech from a brief set of notes. This method often results in a natural, conversational quality [20](#page=20). * **Conversational quality:** Presenting a speech in a way that sounds spontaneous, regardless of how many times it has been rehearsed [20](#page=20). #### 3.2.2 The speaker’s voice Vocal elements play a significant role in effective delivery [20](#page=20). * **Volume:** The loudness or softness of the voice [20](#page=20). * **Pitch:** The highness or lowness of the voice. * **Inflections:** Variations in pitch that add expressiveness [20](#page=20). * **Monotone:** A constant, unchanging pitch [20](#page=20). * **Rate:** The speed at which the speaker talks [20](#page=20). * **Pauses:** Brief breaks in speech. * **Vocalized pause:** Filling silence with sounds like "uh" or "um" [20](#page=20). * **Vocal variety:** Changes in rate, pitch, and volume that make the voice dynamic and expressive [20](#page=20). * **Pronunciation:** Adhering to the accepted standard of sounds and rhythm for words in a language [21](#page=21). * **Articulation:** The physical production of specific speech sounds [21](#page=21). * **Dialect:** A variation of a language characterized by distinct accent, grammar, or vocabulary [21](#page=21). #### 3.2.3 The speaker’s body Nonverbal communication through body movements and expressions is crucial. Kinesics is the study of body motions as a form of communication [21](#page=21). * **Personal appearance:** The speaker's overall presentation [21](#page=21). * **Movement:** The speaker's physical motion during the speech [21](#page=21). * **Gestures:** Motions of the hands or arms used during a speech [21](#page=21). * **Eye contact:** Direct visual engagement with the audience [21](#page=21). #### 3.2.4 Practicing delivery Effective practice is key to a polished delivery [21](#page=21). * **Go through the preparation outline aloud:** Practicing with the detailed outline [21](#page=21). * **Prepare a speaking outline:** Creating a concise version of the outline for use during practice and delivery [21](#page=21). * **Practice speech aloud:** Rehearsing the speech multiple times [21](#page=21). * **Polish and refine delivery:** Making adjustments to voice and body language based on practice sessions [21](#page=21). * **Give a dress rehearsal:** A final full practice run, simulating the actual speech [21](#page=21). #### 3.2.5 Answering audience questions Managing the question-and-answer (Q&A) session effectively is an important part of public speaking [21](#page=21). * **Preparing for Q&A:** * Formulate answers to anticipated questions [21](#page=21). * Practice delivering these answers [21](#page=21). * **Managing Q&A:** * Approach the Q&A with a positive attitude [21](#page=21). * Listen carefully to each question [21](#page=21). * Direct answers to the entire audience, not just the questioner [21](#page=21). * Be honest and straightforward in responses [21](#page=21). * Stay on track and avoid going off-topic [21](#page=21). #### 3.2.6 Presenting your speech online Delivering speeches online requires adapting to a different environment [21](#page=21). * **Understand the special nature of the online environment:** Recognizing the unique challenges and opportunities of digital presentations [21](#page=21). * **Know your technology:** Familiarizing yourself with the platform and equipment [21](#page=21). * **Control your visual environment:** Ensuring a professional and clear background and framing [21](#page=21). * **Effective framing:** Positioning yourself appropriately within the camera's view [21](#page=21). * **Adapt nonverbal communication:** Modifying gestures and expressions for the camera [21](#page=21). * **Adjust pacing for online delivery:** Considering how to maintain engagement at a digital pace [21](#page=21). * **Manage Q&A for online presentations:** Adapting Q&A strategies for a virtual format [21](#page=21). * **Rehearse for online delivery:** Practicing the speech specifically for the online setting [21](#page=21). * **Have a backup plan:** Preparing for potential technical issues [21](#page=21). --- # Ethics in public speaking Ethical public speaking involves making responsible and honest choices to foster trust and respect between speakers and their audiences [5](#page=5). ### 4.1 The importance of ethics Ethics, as a branch of philosophy, examines issues of right and wrong in human interactions. Making sound ethical decisions requires weighing potential actions against established ethical standards or guidelines. Ethical speaking is guided by specific principles [5](#page=5): * **Make ethically sound goals** [5](#page=5). * **Be fully prepared**. This encompasses audience analysis, visual aid creation, idea organization, delivery rehearsal, and, crucially, being fully informed about the subject matter [5](#page=5). * **Be honest**. Honesty is paramount in speechmaking, as public speaking relies on the fundamental assumption that "words can be trusted and people will be truthful". Without this trust, communication has no basis [5](#page=5). * **Avoid name-calling and abusive language**. Name-calling is defined as using language to defame, demean, or degrade individuals or groups [5](#page=5). * **Put principles into practice** [5](#page=5). ### 4.2 Plagiarism Plagiarism is the act of presenting another person's language or ideas as one's own. There are three main types of plagiarism [5](#page=5): * **Global plagiarism**: This occurs when a speech is entirely taken from a single source and presented as original work [5](#page=5). * **Patchwork plagiarism**: This involves borrowing language or ideas from two or three sources and combining them to appear as one's own original work [5](#page=5). * **Incremental plagiarism**: This happens when credit is not given for specific borrowed portions of a speech, most notably direct quotations and paraphrases [5](#page=5). * A **quotation** requires direct attribution of the spoken words to the original speaker [5](#page=5). * A **paraphrase**, which is restating or summarizing someone else's ideas in your own words, still necessitates giving credit to the original author [5](#page=5). #### 4.2.1 Plagiarism and the internet When utilizing materials from the internet, it is essential to cite sources properly. Careful note-taking is also crucial to avoid unintentional plagiarism [6](#page=6). ### 4.3 Ethical listening Speechmaking is a reciprocal process, and listeners also have ethical obligations. These obligations include [6](#page=6): * **Being courteous, polite, and attentive** [6](#page=6). * **Avoiding prejudging the speaker** [6](#page=6). * **Maintaining the free expression of ideas** [6](#page=6). > **Tip:** Understanding the distinction between hearing and listening is fundamental to developing strong listening skills, which are ethically important in public speaking. Hearing is a physiological process, while listening involves active attention and comprehension [6](#page=6). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Public speaking | A method of making one's ideas public, sharing them with others, and influencing them. | | Stage fright | Anxiety experienced by an individual over the prospect of giving a speech in front of an audience. | | Positive nervousness | A form of controlled nervousness that helps energize a speaker for their presentation. | | Visualization | A mental imaging technique where a speaker vividly pictures themselves successfully delivering a presentation. | | Critical thinking | Focused, organized thinking that involves analyzing logical relationships among ideas, the soundness of evidence, and distinguishing between fact and opinion. | | Speaker | The individual who is presenting an oral message to a listener. | | Message | The content communicated by a speaker to another person. | | Channel | The medium or means through which a message is communicated. | | Listener | The person who receives the speaker’s message. | | Feedback | Messages, typically nonverbal, sent from a listener back to a speaker. | | Interference | Anything that impedes the communication of a message, which can be external or internal to listeners. | | Situation | The specific time and place in which speech communication occurs. | | Ethnocentrism | The belief that one's own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures. | | Ethics | The branch of philosophy concerned with issues of right and wrong in human affairs. | | Ethical Speaking | Conducting a speech in a manner that adheres to moral principles and standards. | | Plagiarism | The act of presenting another person’s language or ideas as one’s own. | | Global plagiarism | The complete appropriation of an entire speech from a single source and presenting it as original work. | | Patchwork plagiarism | The act of borrowing ideas or language from multiple sources and presenting them as one's own without proper attribution. | | Incremental plagiarism | Failing to give credit for specific parts of a speech that are borrowed from others, such as quotations or paraphrases. | | Hearing | The physiological process involving the vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the transmission of electrochemical impulses to the brain. | | Listening | The active process of paying close attention to, and making sense of, what is heard. | | Appreciative listening | Listening primarily for pleasure and enjoyment, such as when listening to music or a comedy routine. | | Empathic listening | Listening with the intent to provide emotional support to a speaker, often employed when a friend is in distress. | | Comprehensive listening | Listening to fully understand the message being conveyed by a speaker, common in academic or instructional settings. | | Critical listening | Listening to evaluate a message for the purpose of accepting or rejecting it, such as when assessing a sales pitch or political speech. | | Spare brain time | The difference between the rate at which people talk and the significantly faster rate at which the brain can process language, which can lead to distractions. | | Introduction (speech) | The initial section of a speech designed to gain the audience's attention and interest, and to orient them to the subject matter. | | Body (speech) | The main section of a speech where the central ideas are developed and supported. | | Conclusion (speech) | The final section of a speech, intended to signal the end, reinforce the central idea, and leave a lasting impression. | | Chronological order | A method of speech organization where main points follow a time sequence. | | Spatial order | A method of speech organization where main points follow a directional pattern, such as from top to bottom or left to right. | | Causal order | A method of speech organization where main points demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship. | | Problem-solution order | A method of speech organization where the first main point addresses a problem and the second main point offers a solution. | | Topical order | A method of speech organization where main points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics. | | Extemporaneous speech | A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is delivered using a brief set of notes. | | Gestures | Motions of a speaker’s hands or arms used during a speech to emphasize points or convey meaning. | | Eye contact | Direct visual engagement between a speaker and members of the audience. | | Brainstorming | A technique for generating ideas for speech topics through free association of words and concepts. | | General purpose (speech) | The broad objective of a speech, such as to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. | | Specific purpose (speech) | A precise statement, usually in an infinitive phrase, outlining what a speaker aims to accomplish with their speech. | | Central idea (speech) | The core message or main theme that a speaker wants to convey to the audience. | | Audience-centeredness | The practice of keeping the audience as the primary focus throughout all stages of speech preparation and presentation. | | Egocentrism (audience) | The tendency for people to be primarily concerned with their own values, beliefs, and well-being. | | Demographic audience analysis | Audience analysis that focuses on observable characteristics of the audience, such as age, gender, religion, and ethnicity. | | Situational audience analysis | Audience analysis that focuses on traits of the audience specific to the speaking situation, such as their interest level and disposition towards the topic. | | Fixed-alternative questions | Survey questions that offer a limited choice between two or more predefined alternatives. | | Scale questions | Survey questions that require respondents to indicate their level of agreement or intensity on a fixed interval scale. | | Open-ended questions | Survey questions that allow respondents to provide answers in their own words, offering more detailed responses. | | Supporting materials | Evidence such as examples, statistics, and testimony used to reinforce a speaker’s ideas. | | Examples | Specific instances used to illustrate or represent a broader concept, idea, or group. | | Statistics | Numerical data used to quantify information and support claims. | | Testimony | Quotations or paraphrases from credible sources used to support a point. | | Expert testimony | Testimony provided by individuals recognized as authorities in a particular field. | | Peer testimony | Testimony from ordinary individuals who have firsthand experience or insight into a topic. | | Direct quotation | Testimony presented in the exact words of the original source. | | Paraphrase | To restate or summarize a source’s ideas in one’s own words, still requiring attribution. | | Connectives | Words or phrases that link ideas within a speech and show the relationships between them. | | Transition | A connective that signals the end of one thought and the beginning of another. | | Internal preview | A statement within the body of a speech that informs the audience about the next point to be discussed. | | Internal summary | A statement within the body of a speech that briefly recaps the preceding point or points. | | Signpost | A brief statement that indicates the speaker's current position in the speech or highlights key ideas. | | Credibility | The audience’s perception of a speaker’s expertise and trustworthiness on a given topic. | | Goodwill | The audience’s perception that the speaker has their best interests in mind. | | Preview statement | A statement in the introduction of a speech that outlines the main points that will be covered in the body. | | Crescendo ending | A conclusion where the speech builds to a peak of power and intensity. | | Dissolve ending | A conclusion that uses fading emotional appeal to reach a dramatic final statement. | | Preparation outline | A detailed outline created during speech preparation, including all components from title to bibliography. | | Speaking outline | A brief outline used by the speaker during the presentation to recall key points and delivery cues. | | Delivery cues | Instructions within a speaking outline to guide the speaker’s delivery, such as pauses or emphasis. | | Denotative meaning | The literal or dictionary definition of a word or phrase. | | Connotative meaning | The emotional or associative meaning suggested by a word or phrase, beyond its literal definition. | | Thesaurus | A reference book listing synonyms and sometimes antonyms. | | Concrete words | Words that refer to tangible objects or things that can be perceived by the senses. | | Abstract words | Words that refer to ideas, concepts, or qualities that are not tangible. | | Clutter | The use of more words than necessary to express an idea, making the speech wordy. | | Imagery | The use of vivid language to create mental pictures or sensory experiences for the audience. | | Simile | An explicit comparison between two unlike things, introduced by “like” or “as.” | | Metaphor | An implicit comparison between two unlike things, not introduced by “like” or “as.” | | Parallelism | The similar grammatical structure of a series of words, phrases, or sentences. | | Repetition | The reiteration of the same word or phrase at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences. | | Alliteration | The repetition of the same initial consonant sound in closely connected words. | | Antithesis | The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in a parallel structure, for rhetorical effect. | | Inclusive language | Language that avoids stereotyping, demeaning, or patronizing individuals or groups based on characteristics like gender, race, or religion. | | Nonverbal communication | Communication conveyed through means other than words, such as body language and vocal tone. | | Manuscript speech | A speech that is written out in full and read directly to the audience. | | Impromptu speech | A speech delivered with little or no prior preparation. | | Conversational quality | A delivery style that makes a rehearsed speech sound spontaneous and natural. | | Volume | The loudness or softness of a speaker’s voice. | | Pitch | The highness or lowness of a speaker’s voice. | | Rate | The speed at which a person speaks. | | Pauses | Momentary breaks in vocal delivery used for emphasis or to allow the audience to process information. | | Vocal variety | Changes in a speaker’s rate, pitch, and volume to make their voice more engaging and expressive. | | Pronunciation | The accepted standard of sound and rhythm for words in a given language. | | Articulation | The physical production of distinct speech sounds. | | Dialect | A variety of a language characterized by distinct accent, grammar, or vocabulary. | | Kinesics | The study of body motions as a systematic mode of communication. | | Gestures | Motions of a speaker’s hands or arms during a speech. | | Visual aids | Materials used to supplement a speech, such as slides, charts, or props, to enhance understanding and engagement. |