Translating Interpreting

# Translation process with a CAT system This section outlines the systematic approach to translation when employing a Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) system. ### 1.1 Overview of the translation process with a CAT system Using a CAT system involves a structured workflow to achieve the final translated output. Following a defined routine and set of steps is recommended for efficient and accurate translation [49](#page=49). ### 1.2 Key stages in the CAT translation process The translation process within a CAT system is typically broken down into several distinct stages: #### 1.2.1 File format check The initial step involves verifying the format of the source file to ensure compatibility with the CAT system [50](#page=50). #### 1.2.2 Resource assignment Following the format check, the necessary resources are assigned. This may include style guides, glossaries, or previous translation memories, depending on the project requirements [50](#page=50). #### 1.2.3 Segmentation The source text is then segmented into smaller, manageable units, typically sentences or phrases. This segmentation allows the CAT tool to process the text efficiently and leverage translation memory data [50](#page=50). #### 1.2.4 Translation This is the core stage where the actual translation takes place. The CAT system assists the human translator by providing suggestions from translation memories, termbases, and machine translation engines, while the translator actively works on producing the final translation [50](#page=50). > **Tip:** Establishing a clear routine and adhering to established steps is crucial for a successful translation project utilizing a CAT system [49](#page=49). --- # Understanding translation memory files A translation memory (TM) file is a structured text file, typically in XML format, that stores translation and linguistic data [66](#page=66). ### 2.1 What is a translation memory file? A translation memory file is essentially a structured text file, not a proprietary or inaccessible format. While file extensions like *.tmx or *.xliff might suggest specialized software is required, these files can be opened and understood using standard text editors. The primary characteristic of a TM file is its well-defined structure, which allows for the representation of complex data structures, making it functional and straightforward [66](#page=66). ### 2.2 Information stored in translation memory files TM files store a variety of linguistic and metadata. The core information includes: * **Segments:** Both the original source text and its corresponding translation (target text) [67](#page=67). * **Language:** The source and target languages of the translation [67](#page=67). In addition to these essential components, TM files may also store supplementary data, such as: * Author of the translation [67](#page=67). * Usage count (how many times a segment has been used) [67](#page=67). * Creation and modification dates and times [67](#page=67). * The tool used for creation [67](#page=67). * Domain or field of the text [67](#page=67). * Alternate translations [67](#page=67). * Notes or comments related to the translation [67](#page=67). ### 2.3 Typical formats of translation memory files The two most prevalent formats for translation memory files in the industry are XLIFF (XML Localisation Interchange File Format) and TMX (Translation Memory eXchange). Both of these are based on the XML (Extensible Markup Language) format [68](#page=68). While XML-based formats are common, translation memory data can also be stored in simpler spreadsheet formats like Microsoft Excel (XLS) or comma-separated value (CSV) text files. However, these spreadsheet formats often have a limitation: they typically store less detailed information about each translation unit, usually only the source segment and its target language [68](#page=68). #### 2.3.1 Advantages of using XML for TM files The widespread adoption of XML for XLIFF and TMX formats is due to several key advantages it offers over plain text files: * **Ease of parsing:** XML's well-defined structure makes it simple for software to read and interpret [68](#page=68). * **Semantic meaning:** The use of tags (e.g., ``, ``) in XML clearly indicates the meaning and purpose of the data contained within them [68](#page=68). * **Software ecosystem:** A robust set of software tools is available that is built around the XML format for tasks like validation, importing, parsing, and searching [68](#page=68). * **Interoperability:** The well-defined structure of XML files facilitates seamless data exchange and interaction between different applications and systems [68](#page=68). > **Tip:** Understanding that TM files are structured text files, often XML, demystifies them and highlights their accessibility with standard text editors. --- # Comprehensive localization involves adapting various elements beyond text Comprehensive localization extends far beyond simple text translation, encompassing a wide array of elements to ensure a product or website resonates with diverse global audiences and overcomes cultural barriers. Effective localization aims to make content appealing and usable for various user groups by adapting visual, numerical, and regulatory aspects . ### 3.1 Adaptation of non-textual elements To provide a superior user experience, numerous changes beyond translation are necessary . #### 3.1.1 Colors The interpretation of colors varies significantly across cultures. For instance, red might signify danger in one region, while white could represent death, and orange might convey mourning. Thorough research into color symbolism within the target market is crucial before commencing localization efforts . #### 3.1.2 Layout Different languages require varying amounts of space to convey the same concepts. A flexible layout is essential to accommodate text of different lengths that results from translation . > **Tip:** Text expansion after translation can range from 30% to 100%, necessitating a design that can accommodate these variations . #### 3.1.3 Visuals Photographs and other visual elements must be adapted to align with local cultures. Images that are appealing in one culture, such as a blonde mother hugging her children, may not impress audiences in another country, such as China, and could even be offensive in regions like the Middle East . #### 3.1.4 Units of measurement Most countries adhere to the metric system. To enhance clarity and comprehension, units of measurement need to be converted to the standard used in the target locale . #### 3.1.5 Contracts and agreements When conducting business internationally, adherence to local regulations is paramount. Compliance with these rules is vital to prevent legal complications, potential penalties, or even the banning of a website . #### 3.1.6 Currency units Currency denominations also require localization. This involves not only displaying the correct currency symbol and name but also performing currency conversions to show equivalent amounts accurately. For example, one hundred dollars might need to be represented as one hundred pounds sterling, with an indication of the equivalent value, such as "one hundred dollars (sixty-five pounds)" . > **Example:** When localizing for the United Kingdom, one hundred dollars might be displayed as "one hundred pounds sterling," and an equivalent amount could be shown as "USD 100 (GBP 65)" . #### 3.1.7 Paper size Printed documents may be designed for specific paper sizes, such as European A4 (210 by 297 millimeters or 8.27 by 11.7 inches). This differs from American letter-size paper (8.5 by 11 inches). Minor discrepancies in paper size can affect document formatting and page breaks . #### 3.1.8 Date formats Understanding and adapting to different date formats is crucial. For instance, the sequence '4/5/15' could mean April 5th in the United States or May 4th in the United Kingdom. These variations can lead to significant misunderstandings if not correctly localized . --- # Language and cultural considerations in localization Language and cultural considerations are paramount in localization to ensure content is accurate, appropriate, and resonates with the target audience. ### 4.1 Core translation aspects The translation of text is a time-consuming but essential part of localization. This applies to various media : * **Video, audio, and film:** Translation is required for music lyrics and spoken words, implemented through subtitles or dubbing . * **Printed and digital media:** All text within documentation and error messages needs translation . * **Logos and images:** Text within logos and images may require alteration or replacement with generic icons . * **Layout and design:** The design of websites and written content might need adjustments to accommodate differences in character sizes and translation lengths . * **Audio materials:** Localization must account for variations in variety, register, and specific dialects . > **Tip:** Understanding the nuances of target languages, including their specific grammatical rules and stylistic conventions, is critical for effective translation. ### 4.2 Writing systems and conventions Different writing systems present unique challenges and require careful consideration during localization : * **Scripts and characters:** Writing systems utilize diverse scripts, which can be symbols, logograms, syllabograms, or letters . * **Writing direction:** The direction of text flow varies, including left-to-right (European languages), right-to-left (Arabic and Hebrew), boustrophedon (alternating directions), and vertical writing (some Asian languages) . * **Complex text layout:** Some languages feature complex text layouts where character shapes change based on context. Capitalization requirements can also differ significantly between languages . * **Sorting rules:** Different writing systems and languages have distinct rules for sorting text . * **Numeral systems:** Translators must be aware that some languages use a different set of numeral systems . * **Grammar and pluralization:** Variations in pluralization and other grammatical rules across languages necessitate meticulous attention to detail . * **Punctuation:** The usage of punctuation can differ; for instance, French uses guillemets in some publications, akin to English double quotes . ### 4.3 Formatting and data conventions Localization must adapt to local conventions for various data formats : * **Number formats:** Consideration is needed for grouping of digits and decimal separators . * **Time and date formats:** This includes adapting to different calendar systems and standard time formats . ### 4.4 Economic and logistical considerations Economic and logistical conventions vary globally and impact localization efforts : * **Physical and technical standards:** This includes variations in paper sizes, preferred storage media, broadcast TV systems, phone number formats, delivery services, postal codes, and postal address formats . * **Financial conventions:** Localization must account for currency symbols, their position, and the use of currency markers. It also encompasses measurement systems, battery sizes, and electric current and voltage standards . * **Service providers:** Variations may exist in third-party providers for payment services, weather reports, and online maps . * **Time zones:** Translators need to carefully consider variations in time zones . > **Example:** When localizing for Germany, one would need to use a comma for the decimal separator (e.g., 3,14) and a period for grouping digits (e.g., 1.234.567), unlike in the United States where a period is used for decimals and commas for grouping. ### 4.5 Legal and regulatory compliance Legal requirements necessitate product customization or changes to ensure compliance within specific countries : * **Privacy laws:** Adherence to local privacy legislation is crucial . * **Disclaimers and labeling:** There may be requirements for additional disclaimers on packaging or websites, and different consumer labeling regulations . * **Export and security regulations:** Compliance with regulations on encryption and export restrictions is necessary . * **Legal procedures:** Conformity with subpoena procedures or internet censorship regulations may be required . * **Accessibility:** Meeting local accessibility requirements is important . * **Taxation:** This includes understanding and complying with local tax collection rules, such as customs duties, value-added tax (VAT), and sales tax . --- # Principles of internationalization and localization for websites Internationalization and localization are fundamental concepts in adapting websites for global audiences, focusing on creating content that is easily adaptable to various languages and cultural contexts . ### 5.1 Internationalization principles Internationalization, often abbreviated as #i18n, is the process of designing and developing a website to facilitate its straightforward adaptation to different languages and cultural preferences. This involves building the website with future localization in mind, rather than as an afterthought . #### 5.1.1 Key principles for internationalization * **Unicode standard**: Employing the Unicode standard is essential for ensuring compatibility with a wide array of writing systems, thereby enabling the representation of diverse languages. Unicode provides a unique number for each character, regardless of the platform, program, or language . * **Separation of content and code**: Maintaining a clear distinction between website content and its underlying source code is crucial. This separation allows for easier translation of text without necessitating extensive modifications to the programming . * **Flexible user interface (UI)**: A flexible UI design is vital for accommodating texts of varying lengths, a common challenge when adapting to different languages. It also supports languages with different reading directions (e.g., right-to-left) . * **Locale-specific formats**: Adapting to the specific formats for dates, times, and numbers relevant to each locale is critical for cultural appropriateness and user comprehension . * **Culturally neutral images and icons**: Selecting images and icons that are universally understood or providing region-specific alternatives ensures inclusivity and avoids potential cultural misunderstandings . > **Tip:** Internationalization is about building the foundation for localization. A well-internationalized website significantly reduces the effort and cost of adapting it to new markets. --- # Understanding translation memory software and metadata This section delves into the functionality of translation memory (TM) software and the crucial role of metadata in managing translation resources and ensuring quality. ### 6.1 Overview of translation memory software Translation memory (TM) software divides source texts into segments. Each segment is associated with metadata that can identify the translator, the date, and the time of its creation. This allows translators to prioritize more recent translations or to discard segments containing outdated terminology. Language service providers also benefit from TM software, as it aids in the effective management of their TM resources [84](#page=84). A potential challenge arises when transferring TM data between different formats, as the loss of vital metadata can lead to interoperability issues and restrict users to specific software tools [84](#page=84). ### 6.2 The nature of metadata Metadata is fundamentally "data about data," providing supplementary information about digital content and underlying processes. As defined by Berners-Lee in the context of the World Wide Web, it is "machine understandable information about web resources or other things". There are three primary categories of metadata [85](#page=85): * **Descriptive metadata:** This type of metadata describes the content itself [85](#page=85). * **Structural metadata:** This category describes how objects or components are organized [85](#page=85). * **Administrative metadata:** This pertains to technical information, such as the file type of a resource [85](#page=85). ### 6.3 Metadata within Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tools In CAT tools, segments from the source language are aligned with their corresponding target language counterparts to facilitate reuse within the TM. The TM tool manages the translation workflow, presenting translators with both source and target texts through a user interface. Crucially, it automatically builds the TM by saving pairs of source and target segments as translation units [86](#page=86). When a previously translated segment reappears, the TM software will suggest the existing translation to the translator. The system can also propose partial or "fuzzy" matches, based on a similarity percentage between a new source segment and existing source segments in the memory, depending on the translator's pre-set parameters [86](#page=86). > **Tip:** Metadata plays a key role in filtering previous translations, ensuring that more recent or more reliable material is prioritized for reuse [87](#page=87). TM tools are now widely adopted for specialized translation and localization tasks due to their proven ability to reduce costs, save time, and enhance the consistency of translations [87](#page=87). --- # Translation file formats This section summarizes key file formats used in translation workflows for managing linguistic data and facilitating interoperability between tools. ### 7.1 TermBase eXchange (TBX) TermBase eXchange (TBX) is a standardized XML-based format designed for the exchange of terminology databases. It is also known by its acronym DXLT, which stands for Default XLT format, where XLT refers to XML representations of Lexicons and Terminologies. The primary purpose of TBX is to allow glossaries to be transferred between different translation tools [92](#page=92). The format is based on the international standard ISO 12200, specifically the Machine-Readable Terminology Interchange Format (MARTIF) [92](#page=92). #### 7.1.1 Standards-based Access service to multilingual Lexicons and Terminologies (SALT) SALT is an initiative from Brigham Young University (BYU) that supports the maintenance and organization of multilingual lexicons and terminologies, likely utilizing or promoting standards like TBX [92](#page=92). --- # Localization goes beyond translation to adapt content for local audiences Localization is a comprehensive process of adapting content for specific local audiences, extending far beyond simple linguistic translation. While translation focuses on accurately converting text from a source language to a target language, respecting grammar and syntax, localization involves a deeper cultural and contextual adaptation. This adaptation is crucial for effectively reaching and engaging local markets . ### 8.1 Understanding the distinction between translation and localization Translation is the foundational step of rewriting content into a different language while preserving the original meaning. It is essential for documents such as user manuals, medical texts, technical publications, and scientific journals, where accuracy is paramount . Localization, conversely, encompasses translation but also includes adapting the content to suit the cultural nuances, preferences, and legal requirements of a specific local audience. This is particularly relevant for digital content like websites, mobile applications, software, video games, and multimedia, as well as voiceovers . ### 8.2 The scope of localization Localization acknowledges that even within a single language, significant regional variations exist. For instance, Spanish spoken in Argentina, Mexico, and Spain will have distinct differences, much like English in the United States, Australia, and Canada. Therefore, a successful marketing strategy must account for these local versions and dialects . > **Tip:** Recognizing these linguistic and cultural variations is key to tailoring your message effectively for each target market. ### 8.3 Key components of successful localization Achieving effective localization requires more than just a skilled team of translators. It necessitates collaboration with local marketers and consultants to ensure that cultural sensitivities and local laws are respected within each market. Regular translation alone may not be sufficient for a client's business to thrive in local markets; localization is essential to build trust with the local public . Selling in a foreign country involves overcoming not only language barriers but also developing a customized message tailored to each local audience . ### 8.4 Localization in practice: The KitKat example Cultural barriers can significantly impede the understanding of an original message. A prime example of successful localization is Nestlé's KitKat campaign in Japan. Instead of a direct translation of the slogan "Have a break, have a KitKat," the company adapted it to "Kitto Katsu," which translates to "surely win" in Japanese. Furthermore, they introduced a range of exotic chocolate bar flavors to appeal to local tastes . > **Example:** This strategic adaptation not only resonated with the Japanese market but also demonstrated an understanding of how to leverage local expressions and preferences. This approach made the KitKat Japanese campaign a clear localization success . --- # Human roles in machine translation processes This section details the crucial roles humans play within machine translation (MT) workflows, focusing on pre-editing to optimize source content for better MT output . ### 9.1 The spectrum of human involvement in MT Humans can actively participate in the MT process in several key ways : * **Pre-editing:** Modifying the source text before it enters the MT engine to improve the quality of the machine-generated translation . * **Post-editing:** Reviewing and correcting the output produced by the MT engine after the translation has been generated . ### 9.2 Pre-editing explained Pre-editing involves the revision of technical documentation *before* it is processed by an MT system. The primary goal is to enhance the source material to achieve a superior raw translation output from the MT engine. Effective pre-editing can significantly decrease or even entirely eliminate the need for post-editing . #### 9.2.1 The role of the pre-editor Ideally, a specialized human editor undertakes pre-editing. This editor analyzes the text from the perspective of an MT engine, anticipating potential errors in the generated output. The pre-editor modifies the text to facilitate MT by : * Reducing sentence length . * Avoiding complex or ambiguous syntactic structures . * Ensuring consistency in terminology . * Using articles appropriately . #### 9.2.2 Tools and techniques in pre-editing Beyond structural edits, pre-editors utilize various tools and techniques: * **Automated Revision Tools:** These include spell-checking the source text against a project-specific glossary . * **Advanced Grammar-Checking Tools:** Deploying sophisticated tools to identify and correct grammatical issues . * **Tagging Untranslatable Elements:** Identifying and marking parts of the source document that should not be translated by the MT system . > **Tip:** Pre-editing techniques are not exclusive to MT workflows; many organizations incorporate similar processes into their localization best practices for human translation projects to improve downstream quality and productivity . --- # Controlled language rules for writing This section outlines specific rules for controlled language to ensure clarity, consistency, and ease of translation in technical writing. ### 10.1 Rule 7: Repeat nouns instead of using pronouns This rule advocates for explicitly repeating nouns rather than using pronouns to refer back to them. This approach enhances clarity, especially in technical documentation where precision is paramount, by avoiding potential ambiguity that pronouns can sometimes introduce. * **Write:** You must check the spelling of your text before you publish your text . * **Do not write:** You must check the spelling of your text before publishing it . > **Tip:** Repeating nouns, while seemingly redundant, significantly reduces the cognitive load on the reader by ensuring the subject of the sentence is always clear. ### 10.2 Rule 8: Use articles to identify nouns This rule emphasizes the importance of using articles (like "a," "an," or "the") before nouns when they are being referred to. This grammatical convention helps to clearly identify and specify the noun being discussed. * **Write:** Test the installation . * **Do not write:** Test installation . > **Example:** Using an article like "the" in "Test the installation" clearly indicates that a specific installation is being referred to, whereas omitting it in "Test installation" might be interpreted as a general command about the concept of testing installations. ### 10.3 Rule 9: Use words from a general dictionary This rule promotes the use of commonly understood words found in a general dictionary. It advises against using obscure, archaic, or highly specialized vocabulary that might not be familiar to a broad audience or easily translatable. * **Write:** Avoid ambiguity . * **Do not write:** Eschew obfuscation . > **Tip:** When in doubt about a word's commonality, consider if it's likely to be found in a standard English dictionary accessible to a wide range of users. ### 10.4 Rule 10: Use only words with correct spelling This rule is fundamental to maintaining professionalism and ensuring effective communication. Texts containing spelling errors can lead to confusion, mistrust, and significantly complicate the translation process, potentially altering the intended meaning. * **Write:** Texts that contain spelling errors complicate the translation process . * **Do not write:** Texts that contein speling misstakes complicate the translation procces . > **Tip:** Employing spell-check tools is essential, but a final human review is also crucial to catch errors that automated checkers might miss, especially in context. --- # Guidelines for achieving different quality levels in post-editing Post-editing guidelines are tailored based on the quality of the machine translation (MT) output and the desired end quality of the content. Two primary quality levels are considered: "good enough" (or "fit for purpose") and quality similar to human translation (or "publishable quality") . ### 11.1 "Good enough" quality (light post-editing) This quality level ensures the content is comprehensible and accurately conveys the meaning of the source text, even if it lacks stylistic polish. The text might sound computer-generated, with unusual syntax or imperfect grammar, but the core message remains accurate . #### 11.1.1 Key objectives for "good enough" quality: * **Semantic accuracy:** Prioritize translating the meaning correctly . * **Information integrity:** Ensure no information is added or omitted unintentionally . * **Cultural appropriateness:** Edit any offensive, inappropriate, or culturally unacceptable content . * **Minimal intervention:** Utilize as much of the raw MT output as possible . * **Basic error correction:** Apply fundamental rules for spelling . #### 11.1.2 Exclusions for "good enough" quality: * Stylistic corrections are not required . * Sentence restructuring solely for improved natural flow is unnecessary . > **Tip:** For "good enough" quality, focus on the message's accuracy and comprehensibility, minimizing edits that only affect style or flow. ### 11.2 Quality similar to human translation (full post-editing) This level aims for content that is not only comprehensible and accurate but also stylistically fine, with normal syntax, correct grammar, and proper punctuation. While the style might not reach the peak performance of a native-speaker human translator, it should be polished . #### 11.2.1 Key objectives for quality similar to human translation: * **Comprehensive correctness:** Achieve grammatically, syntactically, and semantically correct translation . * **Terminology management:** Ensure key terminology is translated accurately and that untranslated terms comply with the client's "Do Not Translate" list . * **Information integrity:** Verify that no information has been accidentally added or omitted . * **Cultural appropriateness:** Edit any offensive, inappropriate, or culturally unacceptable content . * **Extensive utilization of MT output:** Use as much of the raw MT output as possible . * **Thorough error correction:** Apply rules for spelling, punctuation, and hyphenation . * **Formatting adherence:** Ensure all formatting is correct . > **Example:** A user manual requiring a high degree of accuracy and clarity for a global audience would necessitate full post-editing to achieve publishable quality. In contrast, internal company notes that just need to convey basic information might only require light post-editing. --- # File formats for translation data exchange This section explores various file formats designed for exchanging translation-related data between different tools and stages of the localization process [88](#page=88) [89](#page=89) [90](#page=90) [91](#page=91) [92](#page=92). ### 12.1 Translation Memory eXchange (TMX) TMX is a file format that facilitates the transfer of translation memories between different translation tools. A translation memory (TM) itself is a database comprising source text segments and their corresponding translations in one or more target languages [89](#page=89). * **Purpose:** To enable the sharing and migration of translation memories, ensuring continuity and reusability of previously translated content across various localization software [89](#page=89). * **Maintaining Organization:** The OSCAR Special Interest Group at LISA (the Localization Industry Standards Association) is responsible for its organization [89](#page=89). ### 12.2 XML Localization Interchange File Format (XLIFF) XLIFF is a format designed for the transfer of localizable data extracted from original files. It supports moving data through different stages of the localization workflow, from extraction to the final reintegration of localized content into its source format [90](#page=90). * **Purpose:** To streamline the localization process by providing a standardized way to handle translatable content, separating it from the original file structure and enabling easier management by translators and tools [90](#page=90). * **Maintaining Organization:** The OLIF Consortium oversees XLIFF, collaborating closely with the SALT group [90](#page=90). ### 12.3 Open Lexicon Interchange Format (OLIF) OLIF focuses on the transfer of terminological and lexical data between translation tools. It is particularly suited for natural language processing (NLP) data, such as machine translation lexicons [91](#page=91). * **Purpose:** To facilitate the exchange of specialized terminology and linguistic resources, supporting advanced NLP applications [91](#page=91). * **Maintaining Organization:** The OLIF Consortium is responsible for OLIF [91](#page=91). ### 12.4 TermBase eXchange (TBX) TBX, also known as DXLT (Default XLT format), is used for the transfer of glossaries between translation tools. It is based on the ISO 12200 standard, also known as MARTIF (Machine-Readable Terminology Interchange Format) [92](#page=92). * **Purpose:** To enable the consistent sharing and application of approved terminology across different projects and translation environments, ensuring terminological accuracy [92](#page=92). * **Maintaining Organization:** The SALT (Standards-based Access service to multilingual Lexicons and Terminologies) group at BYU manages TBX [92](#page=92). > **Tip:** Understanding these formats is crucial for efficient translation workflow management, enabling seamless data transfer and integration between diverse localization tools and systems [88](#page=88) [89](#page=89) [90](#page=90) [91](#page=91) [92](#page=92). --- # Translation memory tools and their functionalities Translation memory (TM) tools store previously translated segments to facilitate efficient and consistent future translations [65](#page=65). ### 13.1 Core functionalities of translation memory tools Translation memory tools encompass both off-line and on-line functions that assist translators throughout the translation process [62](#page=62) [63](#page=63) [64](#page=64) [65](#page=65). #### 13.1.1 Off-line functions Off-line functions primarily deal with the management and retrieval of translation data. ##### 13.1.1.1 Import The import function allows for the transfer of text and its translation from external text files into the TM. This can be done from a "raw format" where a source text and its translation are imported, sometimes requiring reprocessing. Alternatively, a "native format" can be used, which is the TM's own file format for saving translation memories [62](#page=62). ##### 13.1.1.2 Analysis Analysis involves several steps to prepare text for translation and TM integration. * **Textual parsing:** This crucial step accurately recognizes punctuation to differentiate between sentence-ending periods and periods in abbreviations, effectively acting as a form of pre-editing. Marked-up texts, often found in documents processed by translator aid programs, benefit from this stage. Special text elements might be identified, with some not requiring translation (e.g., proper names, codes), while others may need conversion [62](#page=62). * **Linguistic parsing:** This involves reducing words to their base form to create lists for term bank retrieval. Syntactic parsing can also extract multi-word terms or phraseology by normalizing word order variations, identifying which words can form a phrase [62](#page=62). ##### 13.1.1.3 Retrieval TMs offer various types of matches for retrieving stored translations. * **Exact match:** Also known as "100% matches," these occur when the current source segment is identical character-by-character to a stored segment. This indicates the exact same sentence has been translated previously [64](#page=64). * **In-Context Exact (ICE) match or Guaranteed Match:** This is an exact match that occurs within the same context, meaning it is located in the identical position within a paragraph. Context can be defined by surrounding sentences and attributes like document file names, dates, and permissions [64](#page=64). * **Fuzzy match:** When a match is not exact, it is considered a "fuzzy" match. Some systems assign percentage scores to fuzzy matches (greater than 0% and less than 100%). These percentages are not directly comparable across different systems without specifying the scoring methodology [64](#page=64). * **Concordance:** This feature allows users to select one or more words within a source segment, and the system retrieves segment pairs that match the search criteria. It is particularly useful for finding translations of terms and idioms when a terminology database is unavailable [64](#page=64). ##### 13.1.1.4 Updating A TM is updated with a new translation once it has been accepted by the translator. When updating a database, considerations arise regarding previous contents. TMs can be modified by changing or deleting entries, and some systems permit storing multiple translations for the same source segment [64](#page=64). #### 13.1.2 On-line functions On-line functions are active during the translation process, providing immediate assistance. ##### 13.1.2.1 Segmentation Segmentation aims to identify the most useful translation units. It is a form of parsing performed monolingually using superficial parsing, and alignment is based on these segments. Manual correction of segmentations by translators can lead to the program repeating errors in future versions if not addressed properly. Translators typically work sentence by sentence, though sentence translation may depend on surrounding ones [63](#page=63). ##### 13.1.2.2 Alignment Alignment is the process of establishing translation correspondences between source and target texts. Effective alignment algorithms can provide feedback to segmentation and even correct initial segmentation [63](#page=63). ##### 13.1.2.3 Term extraction Term extraction can utilize a pre-existing dictionary as input. When identifying new terms, it can employ parsing based on text statistics. These statistics are valuable for estimating the workload of a translation job, aiding in planning and scheduling. Translation statistics typically count words and assess repetition within the text [63](#page=63). ##### 13.1.2.4 Export Export functionality transfers translated text from the TM into an external text file. Ideally, import and export functions should be inverse operations [63](#page=63). ##### 13.1.2.5 Automatic translation and substitution TM tools often offer automatic retrieval and substitution of translations. As a translator progresses through a document, TM systems are searched, and their results are displayed automatically. With automatic substitution, if an exact match is found for a segment in a new document version, the software will insert the old translation. This carries a risk of repeating previous translation errors if the translator doesn't verify the output against the source text [65](#page=65). ##### 13.1.2.6 Networking Networking allows a group of translators to collaborate on a text more efficiently than working individually, as translations made by one become available to others. Sharing TMs before the final translation offers an opportunity for team members to correct each other's mistakes [65](#page=65). ##### 13.1.2.7 Text memory "Text memory" is the foundational concept for standards like the proposed Lisa OSCAR xml:tm standard and comprises author memory and translation memory. In translation memory, unique identifiers are maintained during translation to ensure the target document is precisely aligned at the text unit level. If the source document is later modified, unchanged text units can be directly transferred to the new target version without translator intervention, embodying the concept of "exact" or "perfect" matching. The xml:tm standard also supports mechanisms for in-document leveraged and fuzzy matching [65](#page=65). > **Tip:** Understanding the distinction between exact matches, ICE matches, and fuzzy matches is crucial for accurately assessing the effort required for a translation task and for leveraging the TM effectively [64](#page=64). > > **Tip:** Be cautious with automatic substitution; always review translated segments, especially if they were exact matches from previous projects, to avoid propagating errors [65](#page=65). --- # Translation memory alignment process The translation memory (TM) alignment process is a method for creating new translation memories from existing source and translated documents that are not already in TM format [98](#page=98). ### 14.1 The need for alignment Translation memory systems are crucial in the translation and localization industry for reusing previously translated text, saving time and money while ensuring consistency. However, legacy translation materials may not be available in TM format for several reasons [97](#page=97): * Translations were performed by in-country offices without TM systems [98](#page=98). * Linguistic vendors did not deliver a TM as part of the handover [98](#page=98). * A TM was provided, but its quality was poor, and improvements were only made to the translated files, not the TM [98](#page=98). In such cases, the alignment process allows for the creation of TMs from this legacy text, preventing the loss of existing work and the need to start from scratch [98](#page=98). ### 14.2 What is alignment? Alignment is the process of taking a source file and its corresponding translation and matching segments to each other. This pairing of source and target segments builds a repository of translation units, which are then saved as a TM for use in future translation projects [99](#page=99). ### 14.3 The alignment process The alignment process typically begins with automated alignment tools available on the market [100](#page=100). 1. **Loading files:** A set of source and target files are loaded into the tool and linked, often based on their filenames [100](#page=100). 2. **Automatic alignment:** An automatic alignment process is then run for each source-target file pair [100](#page=100). 3. **Matching segments:** The alignment tools analyze the structure of both the source and target files, matching source text with probable translations on a sentence-by-sentence basis [100](#page=100). Over the years, alignment tools have become increasingly sophisticated, and the results of automated alignment are generally very good. Some tools can also generate a report indicating the quality of the alignment based on internal algorithms and a quality score. These reports provide an indication of how successful the alignment was [100](#page=100). --- # Translation for SEO and effective international web presence This topic explores the crucial role of skilled translators in enhancing a client's global online visibility through effective Search Engine Optimization (SEO) within the realm of website localization. It outlines key considerations for translators aiming to optimize content for international markets . ### 15.1 Key considerations for translators #### 15.1.1 Keyword research Thorough keyword research in the target language and region is essential to identify terms and phrases relevant to the local audience. This includes considering linguistic variations, synonyms, and colloquial expressions that users might employ in their search queries . #### 15.1.2 Cultural relevance Understanding cultural nuances and preferences is vital for choosing keywords that resonate with the target audience. Literal translations should be avoided if they do not capture the intended meaning or sound unnatural in the target language . #### 15.1.3 Localized content Translated content must be not only linguistically accurate but also culturally appropriate. Adapting content to align with local customs, traditions, and market trends enhances its relevance for the target audience . #### 15.1.4 Metadata optimization Translating and optimizing meta titles, meta descriptions, and URL slugs requires special attention. Crafting compelling and concise meta descriptions that incorporate relevant keywords is key to encouraging click-throughs . #### 15.1.5 Multilingual link building Collaboration with web developers and marketers is important for building a network of high-quality, multilingual backlinks. Identifying reputable local websites and influencers for potential collaborations can contribute to improved search engine rankings . #### 15.1.6 Content structure and formatting Ensuring that translated content maintains a user-friendly structure and formatting is crucial. Utilizing headers, bullet points, and other formatting elements enhances readability and SEO, as search engines value well-organized content . #### 15.1.7 Mobile optimization Recognizing the growing importance of mobile search necessitates ensuring that translated content is mobile-friendly. Optimizing images and other media for fast loading times on mobile devices positively impacts SEO rankings . #### 15.1.8 Regular updates Staying informed about changes in search engine algorithms and adapting SEO strategies accordingly is vital. Regularly updating translated content to reflect current trends ensures sustained visibility in international markets . #### 15.1.9 Analytics and reporting Working closely with clients to monitor website analytics and assess the performance of localized content is important. Providing insights and recommendations based on data analysis helps to continually refine SEO strategies . #### 15.1.10 Communication with clients Establishing clear communication channels with clients is essential to understand their business goals, target audience, and specific SEO objectives. Collaborating on a strategy that aligns translation efforts with broader marketing initiatives leads to a comprehensive international SEO approach . > **Tip:** Effective translation for SEO goes beyond linguistic accuracy; it involves deep cultural understanding and strategic keyword integration to connect with local audiences and improve search engine rankings. > **Example:** A German company selling software might find that directly translating their English product descriptions into German is insufficient. They should research German keywords related to their software's function and adapt the marketing copy to resonate with German business practices and terminology, rather than just a word-for-word translation. --- # The role of professional translators in website optimization for foreign markets Professional translators are indispensable in optimizing websites for foreign markets by ensuring that metadata is not only accurately translated but also culturally relevant and effectively positioned for search engines and users . ### 16.1 The significance of web page metadata Metadata, which includes elements like meta titles and meta descriptions embedded in a webpage's code, is critical for a website's visibility and search engine ranking . ### 16.2 The translator's crucial role in metadata optimization When translating metadata for foreign markets, professional translators become central figures in optimizing and positioning web pages. Their involvement addresses several key areas : #### 16.2.1 Search engine visibility Metadata helps search engine algorithms understand and index webpage content. Accurate translation of this metadata makes the content accessible to a global audience, thereby improving search engine visibility in foreign markets . #### 16.2.2 User click-through rates Well-crafted meta titles and descriptions, translated by skilled professionals, can significantly influence user click-through rates. Translators ensure that the translated content is linguistically accurate, compelling, and culturally relevant, which encourages users to click on the provided links . #### 16.2.3 Local relevance Professional translators possess an understanding of the cultural nuances and preferences of the target audience. By localizing metadata, translators ensure that the content aligns with local expectations, making it more appealing and relevant to users in foreign markets . #### 16.2.4 Keyword optimization Effective Search Engine Optimization (SEO) relies heavily on the use of relevant keywords. A translator, with expertise in keyword research for the target language, can optimize metadata by incorporating region-specific terms, which increases the probability of the webpage appearing in relevant search results . #### 16.2.5 Global brand consistency For businesses expanding into international markets, maintaining brand consistency is paramount. Professional translators ensure that the translated metadata aligns with the brand's tone and message, thereby presenting a cohesive global image . #### 16.2.6 Adherence to character limits Search engines typically impose character limits on meta titles and descriptions. A translator's skill in creating concise yet impactful translations ensures that the content fits within these limitations, preventing truncation in search engine results . #### 16.2.7 Credibility and trust Inaccurate or poorly translated metadata can undermine a website's credibility. Professional translators safeguard the integrity of the content, contributing to the establishment of trust with users in foreign markets . #### 16.2.8 Adaptation to market trends Markets and trends are constantly evolving. Translators who stay updated on linguistic and cultural shifts can revise and adapt translated metadata to reflect current market trends, thereby supporting sustained optimization . ### 16.3 Conclusion: The collaborative approach In essence, the collaboration between professional translators and web developers or marketers is crucial for a comprehensive approach to website optimization in foreign markets. Translators bridge linguistic and cultural divides, ensuring that metadata is not just translated but optimized for the specific nuances of each target audience, ultimately enhancing a website's global competitiveness . > **Tip:** Consider metadata translation as a critical component of international SEO strategy, not just a localization task. > > **Example:** A meta description for an electronics retailer in Spain should not simply translate "Shop the latest gadgets" but rather incorporate culturally relevant terms and perhaps mention shipping to Spanish-speaking regions if applicable, like "Descubre los últimos gadgets tecnológicos y envíos a toda España." --- # Managing glossaries in Wordfast Anywhere This section details how to effectively use, view, and add terms to glossaries within the Wordfast Anywhere (WFA) platform to enhance translation efficiency and consistency . ### 17.1 Using a glossary When WFA identifies a term from an active glossary within a source segment, it highlights this term with a blue background. These highlighted terms function as placeables, meaning they can be manipulated using navigation icons (Previous/Next) or keyboard shortcuts (Ctrl+Alt+Right/Ctrl+Alt+Left). They can also be selected with the mouse or by typing the initial letter followed by Tab . A key feature is that when using the Copy icon or the Ctrl+Alt+Down shortcut, the corresponding translation from the glossary is copied into the target segment. The auto-suggest feature, enabled by default, simplifies copying target terms by proposing them as you type the first letter of the target term or the first three letters of the source term . #### 17.1.1 Viewing glossary information You can preview the translation of highlighted terms by activating the glossary panel. This can be done via the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+Alt+H or by selecting the "Show/Hide Glossary" button from the "View" tab . To gain more insight into a term, such as additional information entered in comment fields or the F1, F2, and F3 fields, hover your mouse cursor over the source term in the segment. This action will display a tooltip with the available information . ### 17.2 Adding terms to the glossary WFA facilitates the dynamic addition of terms encountered in the source text, along with their corresponding translations derived during the translation process. This practice reinforces the translator's knowledge base and reduces the need for repeated research on the same terms . #### 17.2.1 The process of adding a new term 1. **Select the source term:** Click on the term in the source text or use the Tab key (or Shift+Tab) to navigate to it. The selected source term will be highlighted with a red border . 2. **Select the target term:** Click on the corresponding term in the target segment. This selected target term will then be highlighted with a blue background . 3. **Invoke the Glossary Dialog Box:** Press Ctrl+Alt+T or click the "Add Term" button . 4. **Populate the fields:** * If the term consists of a single word, it should automatically appear in the "Source" and "Target" fields . * For terms comprising multiple words, you may need to paste the text from your clipboard or enter it manually into the respective fields . 5. **Add supplementary information (optional):** * You can include a comment to record contextual details, such as the circumstances under which a specific translation was used . * The F1, F2, and F3 fields are available for storing information like word role, context, grammatical form, or other relevant textual data . 6. **Save the term:** Click "Save" to confirm and add the new term to the glossary . > **Tip:** Dynamically adding terms as you encounter them in the source text is an efficient method to build and maintain a project-specific or personal glossary, thereby improving future translation speed and consistency. --- # Controlled natural languages for technical documentation Controlled natural languages (CNLs) are subsets of natural languages that restrict grammar and vocabulary to reduce ambiguity and complexity. They primarily serve two purposes: enhancing readability for human users, such as non-native speakers, and enabling reliable automatic semantic analysis . ### 18.1 Types and applications of controlled languages The first type of controlled language, often termed "simplified" or "technical" languages, is used in industries to improve the quality of technical documentation and potentially simplify semi-automatic translation. Examples include Caterpillar Technical English, Simplified Technical English, and IBM's Easy English. These languages impose restrictions on writers through general rules like keeping sentences short, avoiding pronouns, using only approved words from a dictionary, and exclusively employing the active voice . #### 18.1.1 Caterpillar Fundamental English Caterpillar Inc., a global heavy equipment manufacturer, employs Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE) to ensure consistency and high quality in its extensive technical documentation. CFE restricts its vocabulary to approximately 850 words, facilitating both authoring and translation of documents covering complex subsystems like engines, hydraulics, and drive systems . #### 18.1.2 Examples of controlled natural languages Numerous controlled natural languages exist, including: * ASD Simplified Technical English . * Attempto Controlled English . * Aviation English . * Basic English . * ClearTalk . * Common Logic Controlled English . * Distributed Language Translation Esperanto . * E-Prime . * Français fondamental . * Gellish Formal English . * Interlingua-IL sive Latino sine flexione . * ModeLang . * Newspeak . * Processable English (PENG) . * Seaspeak . * Semantics of Business Vocabulary and Business Rules . * Special English . * PLAIN LANGUAGE MOVEMENT (Lenguaje claro) . #### 18.1.3 Companies utilizing controlled languages Many companies integrate controlled languages into their documentation processes: * Avaya: Avaya Controlled English (ACE) . * Boeing: Simplified Technical English (STE), ASD-STE100 . * Caterpillar: Caterpillar Technical English (CTE), Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE) . * Dassault Aerospace: Français Rationalisé . * European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS): Simplified Technical English (STE), ASD-STE100 . * Ericsson: Ericsson English . * General Motors (GM): Controlled Automotive Service Language (CASL) . * IBM: Easy English . * Kodak: International Service Language . * Nortel: Nortel Standard English (NSE) . * Océ: Controlled English . * Rolls-Royce: Simplified Technical English (STE), ASD-STE100 . * Saab Systems: Simplified Technical English (STE), ASD-STE100 . * Scania: Scania Swedish . * Sun Microsystems: Sun Controlled English . * Xerox: Xerox Multilingual Customized English . ### 18.2 Grammar rules for controlled languages Grammar rules for controlled languages are language-specific, meaning there are no universally optimal rules for all languages. However, implementing general rules can significantly reduce ambiguities in texts across many languages, making them more suitable for machine translation . > **Tip:** The primary goal of controlled languages in technical documentation is to achieve clarity and consistency, which directly benefits both human readers and automated processing systems. #### 18.2.1 CLOUT rule set The CLOUT™ rule set, an acronym for Controlled Language Optimized for Uniform Translation, was developed by Uwe Muegge. These rules exemplify the kind of restrictions applied to minimize ambiguities in written text . --- # Evolution of technology in the translation industry The evolution of technology in the translation industry has been driven by the increasing demand for translated content and the need for greater efficiency and consistency in the localization process [8](#page=8). ### 19.1 General overview The development of Translation Memory (TM) tools was significantly influenced by several key factors [8](#page=8): * **Increasing volume of documentation:** The rise in technical equipment and the economic growth of companies led to a surge in the amount of documentation requiring translation [8](#page=8). * **Repetitive and evolving content:** The growing need to translate similar documents, updated versions, and content with diverse communicative aims necessitated more efficient handling of repeated segments [8](#page=8). * **Electronic content reproduction:** The necessity to reproduce electronic content across various formats also contributed to the development of technologies that could manage and repurpose text efficiently [8](#page=8). ### 19.2 Historical context and development While the provided document content for pages 1-8 focuses on the background and general overview, it sets the stage for understanding the historical trajectory of translation technology. The outline suggests a deeper dive into the history of Translation Memory systems, from their first steps to the emergence of commercial developers, indicating a chronological progression of technological advancements in the field. The questions "Where do we come from?" and "Did we really improve?" further emphasize the retrospective nature of this topic, prompting an examination of past methods and current advancements [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [6](#page=6) [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). > **Tip:** Understanding the driving forces behind technological adoption, such as increased document volume and content repetition, is crucial for appreciating the value and impact of tools like Translation Memory. --- # Computer-assisted translation: definition and basic components Computer-assisted translation (CAT) is a set of specialized software applications designed to efficiently assist translators in their tasks. The primary goal of a CAT system is to automatically and quickly provide translators with all the resources they might need for their work [32](#page=32). ### 20.1 The difference between CAT and machine translation It is crucial to distinguish between machine translation (MT) and computer-assisted translation (CAT) [36](#page=36). * **Machine Translation (MT):** The translation is performed entirely by a machine, such as Google Translate [36](#page=36). * **Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT):** The translation is performed by a human who uses various translation tools [36](#page=36). MT can be integrated into CAT systems, as many CAT systems have access to MT engines [36](#page=36). > **Tip:** Using CAT tools can significantly increase a translator's productivity compared to not using them, as modern software simplifies many tasks. The ability to use CAT tools is a required skill in many agencies and institutions that hire translators [35](#page=35). ### 20.2 Core components of CAT tools Essential CAT tools, as identified by Berinstein and Mermaud include : #### 20.2.1 Translation project management software This software is vital for controlling the workflow of translation projects and includes functionalities such as: * Information flow control [37](#page=37). * Translation assignment management [37](#page=37). * Quality control processes [37](#page=37). * Content analysis [37](#page=37). * Generation of reports, including those on full matches, fuzzy matches, and repetitions within and across files [37](#page=37). * Word count calculations [37](#page=37). * Final delivery to the client [37](#page=37). #### 20.2.2 Translation memory software Translation memory (TM) software is fundamental for storing past translations and ensuring consistency. Its key functions are: * Storing translations [38](#page=38). * Establishing terminological and phraseological consistency [38](#page=38). * Enabling the retrieval of translation units, which directly enhances productivity [38](#page=38). Common file extensions for translation memories include: * **`tmx` (Translation Memory eXchange):** This is the open, standard format that is compatible with almost all translation tools, such as Trados, MemoQ, and Wordfast [38](#page=38). * **`sdltm`:** This is a proprietary format used by SDL Trados Studio [38](#page=38). * **`.txt` / `.csv`:** These formats are sometimes used for exporting memories in plain text or for manipulation in spreadsheet software like Excel [38](#page=38). > **Tip:** For clients, the presence of repetitions in a text can influence the cost of translation, implying that translators using CAT tools might work more efficiently on such texts. CAT tools help identify these repetitions, which can be leveraged for cost savings and consistency [34](#page=34). --- # Understanding translation memory file formats This section explores the various file formats used for storing translation memories, focusing on their structure, the data they contain, and the advantages of XML-based formats like TMX and XLIFF [68](#page=68). ### 21.1 Core information stored in translation memories Translation memory files primarily store a collection of translation units, each comprising a source segment and its corresponding target translation. Beyond these core components, translation memories can also contain a wealth of additional metadata to enrich the translation process. This metadata can include [67](#page=67): * Language pairs [67](#page=67). * Creation and modification dates and times [67](#page=67). * Author information [67](#page=67). * Usage counts (how many times a segment has been used) [67](#page=67). * The tool used for creation or modification [67](#page=67). * Domain or field of expertise associated with the content [67](#page=67). * Alternate translations for a given source segment [67](#page=67). * Notes or comments related to the translation unit [67](#page=67). ### 21.2 Common translation memory file formats The landscape of translation memory file formats is dominated by a few key types, each with its own strengths and weaknesses [68](#page=68). #### 21.2.1 XML-based formats: TMX and XLIFF The two most prevalent formats in the industry are TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) and XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format). Both leverage the Extensible Markup Language (XML) format, offering significant advantages for data management and interoperability [68](#page=68). ##### 21.2.1.1 Advantages of XML for translation memory XML's widespread adoption in translation memory is due to several key benefits it provides over simpler text-based formats [68](#page=68): * **Structured Data:** XML files have a well-defined hierarchical structure, making them easy for software to parse and process [68](#page=68). * **Semantic Tagging:** XML uses semantic tags (e.g., ``, ``) that clearly indicate the meaning and purpose of the data they enclose, enhancing human readability [68](#page=68). * **Tool Support:** A vast ecosystem of software tools is built around XML for tasks such as validation, importing, parsing, and searching [68](#page=68). * **Interoperability:** The well-defined structure of XML files facilitates data exchange and interaction between different applications and systems [68](#page=68). ##### 21.2.1.2 Structure of TMX and XLIFF files Both TMX and XLIFF files follow a consistent structure, typically divided into two main parts: a header and a body [69](#page=69). * **Header:** This section contains metadata about the file itself and the localization process it represents. This includes information about the translation memory's origin, language pairs, creation dates, and any specific settings or configurations. The semantic naming of XML tags makes these headers largely human-readable [69](#page=69) [70](#page=70) [71](#page=71). * **Body:** This is the core of the file, housing the actual translation units. Each translation unit contains the source text and its corresponding target text, along with any associated metadata like notes or usage statistics [72](#page=72) [73](#page=73) [74](#page=74). #### 21.2.2 Spreadsheet formats: XLS and CSV While less common for robust translation memory management, translation memory data can also be stored in spreadsheet formats like Microsoft Excel (.XLS) or comma-separated value text files (.CSV) [68](#page=68). ##### 21.2.2.1 Limitations of spreadsheet formats The primary drawback of using XLS and CSV formats is their limited capacity to store detailed information about each translation unit. Typically, only the source and target segments, along with the language, are stored, omitting much of the rich metadata available in XML formats. While these files may be smaller in size, they sacrifice depth and detail [68](#page=68). > **Tip:** For professional translation workflows, XML-based formats like TMX and XLIFF are strongly recommended due to their comprehensive data storage capabilities and superior interoperability. Spreadsheet formats are best suited for simple data exchange or small, informal projects. --- # Sentence alignment process The sentence alignment process involves matching source language sentences with their corresponding target language translations to create a bilingual corpus suitable for translation memory (TM) systems. This process is crucial for leveraging existing translations and improving translation efficiency [100](#page=100) . ### 22.1 Automated alignment The initial alignment is typically performed using automated tools available on the market. These tools analyze the structure of both source and target files to sentence-by-sentence match source text with probable translations. Modern alignment tools have become highly sophisticated, often producing very good results. Some tools also provide a quality score based on internal algorithms to indicate the success of the alignment [100](#page=100). ### 22.2 Evaluation and development of alignment metrics Significant international efforts have been dedicated to developing metrics for evaluating sentence alignment due to its importance. Notable projects include : * **Project ARCADE (1995-1996):** Aimed to create a bilingual French-English corpus suitable for alignment tasks and evaluation . * **MULTEXT-East Project:** Aligned six translations of George Orwell's novel "1984" with the English original, with manual validation of the alignments . * **Egypt Statistical Machine Translation Toolkit:** Contributed to the development of alignment technologies . * **GIZA++:** Used for training statistical translation models, which relies on aligned data . ### 22.3 Linguistic verification After the automated alignment, a linguist performs linguistic verification to ensure accuracy. This involves reviewing each segment, approving correct matches, and correcting or deleting incorrect ones . > **Tip:** Incorrect matches can arise when the translation requires structural changes, such as combining two source sentences into one target sentence for better flow. In such cases, the alignment tool might misalign subsequent segments . Once a correction is made, the linguist can re-run the automatic alignment from that point onwards to update subsequent incorrect matches. After verification and correction, approved segments are exported in a TM format for use . ### 22.4 Factors influencing alignment results Several factors can significantly improve the quality of alignment results: #### 22.4.1 File format consistency Source and target files should be in the same format. Differences in file formats, such as InDesign and Word, can lead to variations in how formatting and variable information are converted into tags. While alignment tools can use these tags as guides, inconsistent tags can hinder accurate segment matching . #### 22.4.2 File version consistency It is essential that the source and target files are the same version. If a source file is updated after translation with additional information or deletions, and the translated file is not correspondingly updated, the alignment process becomes more complex . #### 22.4.3 Quality of translated files The alignment process generally does not include a linguistic review of the existing translations. Therefore, it is critical that the client is satisfied with the quality of the initial translations. While a linguist can review files during the alignment process, this will increase the overall time required for the task . ### 22.5 Alignment tools A variety of alignment tools are available for use: * WinAlign . * SDL Align . * FarkasAndras' open source aligner (free) . * AlignFactory light (built into MemoQ) . * Abbyy Aligner . * LF Aligner . * Hunalign . * Transit NXT aligner . * Plus Tools . * TextAlign . * Bligner . * bitext2tmx . --- # Understanding and using term bases and glossaries in translation This topic explores the functionality, benefits, and practical application of term bases and glossaries in professional translation workflows . ### 23.1 What is a term base or glossary? A term base, also known as a glossary, is a database designed to store individual words or phrases pertinent to a specific subject area. These entries are typically bilingual or even multilingual, providing equivalent terms across different languages . ### 23.2 How do term bases and glossaries work? Term bases are often integrated features within Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tools. They allow users to import pre-existing glossaries, add new terms, and update existing ones during the translation process. It is also possible to merge multiple bilingual glossaries into a single multilingual resource and to designate terms as "forbidden" to prevent their use . ### 23.3 How to create and use a term base #### 23.3.1 Content creation When establishing a term base, identifying key terminology is paramount. To ensure high quality, it is essential to utilize final source texts, approved translations, and thoroughly researched contextual information . #### 23.3.2 Project integration A term base can be created specifically for a new translation project or imported from previous translation endeavors . #### 23.3.3 Maintenance Once established, term bases require ongoing maintenance to incorporate changes in source texts, translations, or contextual information. Neglecting this maintenance can negatively impact translation quality . > **Tip:** Always use final source texts and approved translations when creating a term base to ensure accuracy and relevance. ### 23.4 Benefits of using term bases #### 23.4.1 Increased consistency Well-constructed term bases ensure consistency in core messaging, which is critical for organizations working on multiple projects or with several collaborators . #### 23.4.2 Improved translation quality By managing terminology and defining forbidden terms, term bases prevent the use of unwanted words or expressions, thereby enhancing overall translation quality . #### 23.4.3 Speeding up translation The terminology management features in CAT tools provide quick and easy access to essential language resources, accelerating the translation process . #### 23.4.4 Correct usage and spelling Term bases guarantee the correct spelling of product or company names, which may be case-sensitive. They also inform translators about terms that should remain in the source language and not be translated . ### 23.5 Terminology management in the translation process #### 23.5.1 Role of Language Service Providers (LSPs) LSPs should include term bases and specific instructions with translation assignments, directing translators to align their work with the glossary. LSPs can also request that translators contribute new terms to the glossary for review, potentially transforming the glossary into a valuable client asset. Providing translators with all necessary terminology leads to the application of client-preferred terms, saving time and money on proofreading and increasing client satisfaction through consistent output . #### 23.5.2 Verification for Project Managers (PMs) On large projects, a term base allows Project Managers to verify terminology consistency even if they do not speak the target language. Inconsistent translations can be returned to the translator for correction, further reducing proofreading time and costs . > **Example:** A Project Manager receives a translation for a technical manual. By cross-referencing the translation against the provided term base, they identify several instances where a specific product component name has been translated incorrectly. The PM can then send the translation back to the translator with a clear instruction to correct the terminology according to the glossary. ### 23.6 Case study: Wordfast Anywhere (WFA) #### 23.6.1 Imposing specific terminology The use of incorrect terminology can undermine an otherwise competent translation. Clients often possess well-defined jargon, compiled into glossaries, which they supply to translators to enforce a particular terminology. This approach, common in technical translation, aims to harmonize the translator's linguistic skills with the client's terminological requirements . #### 23.6.2 Translator-generated glossaries Clients may also request that translators create a glossary of terms encountered during their research or translation process. This glossary building can occur either before translation, during an initial research phase, or concurrently with the translation itself . #### 23.6.3 Utilizing client-provided glossaries Frequently, clients furnish a bilingual glossary already compiled from prior translations. The translator's responsibility is to adhere strictly to this glossary and, where appropriate, contribute their own additions . #### 23.6.4 Application in general translation For more general translation tasks, especially when a translator is still developing their fluency in a source language, WFA's glossary function can be used to catalog terminology discovered during the translation process . #### 23.6.5 WFA's glossary function Wordfast Anywhere is equipped with a glossary function designed to support translators in all these scenarios. This glossary is typically a simple tab-delimited text document that can be uploaded and downloaded from WFA, and shared with other CAT tools as needed . --- # Understanding and applying post-editing in translation Post-editing is the process of human translators amending machine-generated translations to achieve an acceptable final product . ### 24.1 The concept and purpose of post-editing Post-editing (or postediting) involves human translators amending machine-generated translation to achieve an acceptable final product. A person who post-edits is called a post-editor. This process is distinct from editing, which refers to the improvement of human-generated text, often known as revision in the translation field . Post-editing is employed when raw machine translation is insufficient and human translation is not strictly required. Industry recommendations suggest using post-editing when it can at least double the productivity of manual translation, and potentially quadruple it in cases of light post-editing . #### 24.1.1 Pre-editing vs. Post-editing considerations The decision between pre-editing and post-editing depends on the specific project's needs and resources. Pre-editing offers a greater Return on Investment (ROI) when a technical or user document is to be translated into more than three languages, and it becomes particularly worthwhile for dozens of languages. The rationale is to utilize one resource before Machine Translation (MT) rather than numerous resources after . However, pre-editing is not always the optimal or necessary approach. If the source quality is already high, verified by human review and automatic checks, and the MT engine is well-tuned with domain dictionaries and Translation Memories, then a light post-editing process might suffice to ensure the translations are comprehensible . > **Tip:** The "tipping point" where money is better spent on pre-editing versus post-editing is a crucial consideration for optimizing translation workflows. #### 24.1.2 Tools for source content creation and pre-editing Various tools can facilitate source content creation and pre-editing for MT . * **Source content memory:** This provides feedback to writers, identifying similar content produced by different individuals and highlighting variations, thus promoting consistency in writing style across writers and products over time . * **Generic pre-editing plugins or automated rules:** These can assist writers in reformulating source text before MT . * **Simplified Technical English (STE) or Controlled Language tools:** These tools automate the formalization of rules for writing for localization, including requirements for short sentences, active voice, and standard word order . * **Program or client-specific custom tools:** These identify spelling, grammar, and preferred terminology. An example tool mentioned is Grammarly . > **Example:** Controlled Language tools help ensure that source text is structured in a way that MT engines can process more effectively, leading to better raw output that requires less post-editing. ### 24.2 The post-editing process and quality levels Post-editing involves correcting machine translation output to meet a pre-negotiated quality level between the client and the post-editor. The extent of post-editing required varies by project, making it essential to define expectations early, considering time, quality, and cost as the primary factors influencing the post-editing strategy . #### 24.2.1 Light post-editing Light post-editing entails minimal intervention by the post-editor, just enough to enable the end-user to understand the text to some extent. The expectation is that the client will use this output for inbound purposes only, often when the text is needed urgently or has a short timeframe . #### 24.2.2 Full post-editing Full post-editing requires a greater level of intervention to achieve a quality degree negotiated between the client and the post-editor. The expectation is that the outcome will be a text that is not only understandable but also stylistically appropriate for assimilation and dissemination, suitable for both inbound and outbound purposes . #### 24.2.3 Quality expectations and evolving MT capabilities At the highest end of full post-editing, the expectation is for a quality level indistinguishable from human translation. Historically, it was assumed that translators spent less effort working directly from the source text than post-editing MT output. However, with advancements in MT and AI, this is changing. For certain language pairs, tasks, and with customized engines using high-quality domain-specific data, some clients are now requesting translators to post-edit instead of translating from scratch, anticipating similar quality at a reduced cost . > **Tip:** Always clarify the required quality level with the client before starting a post-editing task to manage expectations and ensure the final output meets their needs. ### 24.3 Efficiency and challenges in post-editing While studies suggest post-editing is generally faster than translating from scratch, regardless of language pairs or translator experience, there is no universal agreement on the exact time savings. Industry reports indicate time savings around 40%, whereas some academic studies suggest savings are more likely between 0%–20% under actual working conditions. Professionals have also reported negative productivity gains when the necessary corrections take more time than translating from scratch . > **Tip:** Be aware that post-editing efficiency can be difficult to predict, and actual time savings can vary significantly. --- # Controlled languages in companies and their rules Controlled languages are a crucial tool for companies aiming to improve clarity, consistency, and machine-translation readiness in their technical documentation and global communications. These languages employ a set of predefined rules to simplify and standardize writing, thereby reducing ambiguity and facilitating more accurate translations . ### 25.1 Examples of controlled languages in companies Several prominent companies have developed or adopted their own controlled languages to manage their technical documentation and international communication needs: * **Kodak:** International Service Language . * **Nortel:** Nortel Standard English (NSE) . * **Océ:** Controlled English . * **Rolls-Royce:** Simplified Technical English (STE), specifically conforming to ASD-STE100 . * **Saab Systems:** Simplified Technical English (STE), also aligning with ASD-STE100 . * **Scania:** Scania Swedish . * **Sun Microsystems:** Sun Controlled English . * **Xerox:** Xerox Multilingual Customized English . ### 25.2 General principles of controlled languages The rules for controlled languages are language-specific, acknowledging that no single set of rules can be universally optimal for all languages. However, a common goal is to minimize ambiguities in texts, making them more suitable for machine translation. The CLOUT™ rule set, developed by Uwe Muegge, exemplifies such rules, aiming for Controlled Language Optimized for Uniform Translation . > **Tip:** Texts written in a controlled language are ideal for machine translation because they are less ambiguous . ### 25.3 Core rules for controlled language (based on the CLOUT™ rule set) The following rules are examples of guidelines found in controlled language rule sets, designed to enhance clarity and prevent misinterpretation: #### 25.3.1 Sentence length * **Rule 1:** Write sentences that are shorter than 25 words . * **Write:** The author performs the following tasks: Collect the necessary information. Analyze and evaluate the information. Write a structured draft . * **Do not write:** Authors will approach any writing project by collecting the necessary information first, and after carefully analyzing and evaluating it, they will create a structured draft . #### 25.3.2 Single idea per sentence * **Rule 2:** Write sentences that express only one idea . * **Write:** Authors who optimize their texts for easy comprehension facilitate the translation process. These texts enable machine translation systems to produce better translation results . * **Do not write:** By optimizing their texts for easy comprehension, authors facilitate the translation process, and doing so enables machine translation systems to create better translation results . #### 25.3.3 Consistency in expression * **Rule 3:** Write the same sentence if you want to express the same content . * **Write:** Printer Installation. 1) Remove the printer from the carton. 2) Remove the plastic wrapping . * **Do not write:** Instructions for installing the printer. After unpacking the printer from the shipping carton, take the printer out of the plastic bag . #### 25.3.4 Grammatical completeness * **Rule 4:** Write sentences that are grammatically complete . * **Write:** Do you wish to continue the installation of the software ? * **Do not write:** Continue installing software ? #### 25.3.5 Simple grammatical structure * **Rule 5:** Write sentences that have a simple grammatical structure . * **Write:** Show that you can organize your thoughts by using a simple sentence structure in your texts . * **Do not write:** You, in your texts, to show that you can organize your thoughts, should use a simple sentence structure . #### 25.3.6 Active voice * **Rule 6:** Write sentences in the active form . * **Write:** The program manager will send a summary of all questions to the responsible coworkers . * **Do not write:** A summary of questions will be sent to the responsible individuals . #### 25.3.7 Noun repetition instead of pronouns * **Rule 7:** Write sentences that repeat the noun instead of using a pronoun . * **Write:** You must check the spelling of your text before you publish your text . * **Do not write:** You must check the spelling of your text before publishing it . #### 25.3.8 Use of articles * **Rule 8:** Write sentences that use articles to identify nouns . * **Write:** Test the installation . * **Do not write:** Test installation . --- # Translation memory files and their importance Translation memory (TM) files are crucial tools that enhance efficiency and ensure consistency in the translation process by leveraging previously translated content [75](#page=75). ### 26.1 The importance of translation memory files Translation memory files are primarily used within Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) or Translation Environment Tools (TEnT) to significantly improve a translator's efficiency. When a TM file is loaded into such software, it allows translators to utilize their past work. If a segment in the current translation has been previously translated, even partially, the tool will automatically flag this match or partial match, alerting the translator [75](#page=75). Beyond efficiency, TM files are vital for maintaining consistency. Throughout a translator's career, they work on numerous projects for diverse clients, some of which may demand specific terminology or phrasing. By employing "client-based" or "project-based" translation memories, translators can guarantee accuracy and maintain a consistent style across all their work [75](#page=75). > **Tip:** Leveraging prior translations through TM files not only saves time but also ensures that a consistent tone and terminology are used, especially important for ongoing projects or clients with specific style guides. #### 26.1.1 Metadata and TM files On a surface level, TM software segments texts, and associated metadata allows each segment to be traced back to the translator, the date, and the time of its creation. This metadata enables translators to opt for more recent material to leverage or to discard segments containing outdated terminology. Furthermore, language service providers can effectively manage their TM resources using this information. However, potential loss of crucial metadata during format transfers can restrict users to specific software tools due to interoperability issues [84](#page=84). Metadata, in essence, is data that describes other data, offering supplementary information about digital content and processes. In the context of the web, it's been defined as "data about data," or more precisely, "machine understandable information about web resources or other things". There are three primary types of metadata: descriptive metadata, which describes content; structural metadata, which outlines the organization of objects or components; and administrative metadata, which provides technical details like file type [85](#page=85). ### 26.2 Common translation memory file formats: TMX and XLIFF TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) and XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format) are both industry-standard, XML-based file types commonly used in translation. While they share similarities, including some inline markup elements, they possess distinct structures and features [76](#page=76). #### 26.2.1 Key differences between TMX and XLIFF * **Purpose:** XLIFF was designed to store extracted text and facilitate data transfer throughout the localization process, whereas TMX was created specifically for exchanging translation memory data between different tools [76](#page=76). * **Language Support:** TMX can accommodate an unlimited number of languages within a single document. In contrast, XLIFF is structured to work with only one source and one target language at a time [76](#page=76). * **Inline Code Handling:** TMX exclusively uses encapsulation methods for inline codes, embedding native codes within distinct elements. XLIFF supports both encapsulation (using elements similar to TMX) and the placeholder method, where native codes are removed to a separate "Skeleton" file and replaced by short, referencing elements akin to OpenTag [76](#page=76). * **File Structure:** In TMX files, a collection of `` (translation unit) elements lacks a specific order and has no inherent mechanism to reconstruct the original file [76](#page=76). * **Additional Data Types:** XLIFF incorporates additional data types and fields not present in TMX, such as pretranslation, history tracking, versioning, and support for binary objects [76](#page=76). * **Timestamping:** TMX files can store time and date information at the translation unit level, a capability that XLIFF files do not possess [76](#page=76). #### 26.2.2 Which format is better: TMX or XLIFF? Both TMX and XLIFF are robust and widely supported by most translation software tools, making them powerful choices. The selection often depends on the specific project requirements or the translation software being used. Frequently, translators may be provided with a TM file for a particular job, negating the need for a choice. Ultimately, both formats can effectively serve their purpose, and using translation memory in any format is vastly superior to not using it at all. Many tools also allow users to download their translation memory in either format [77](#page=77). However, when given the option for a new translation project, some authors favor TMX for two primary reasons [78](#page=78): * **Time-stamped Translation Units:** Translation units in TMX can be time-stamped, allowing for later productivity analysis of the work performed [78](#page=78). * **Multiple Target Languages:** TMX files can store multiple target languages within a single file [78](#page=78). Conversely, if the ability to reconstruct or rebuild the original file using the TM file is a significant requirement, XLIFF proves to be a much more capable format in this regard [78](#page=78). --- # The concept and process of localization Localization is the comprehensive process of adapting a product or content to a specific target locale, going beyond mere translation to encompass cultural, linguistic, and technical considerations to ensure it resonates with local users . ### 27.1 Understanding localization Companies expanding internationally must do more than ensure business success in new markets; they need to appear "local" to stand out and gain traction. Achieving this "local" feel requires strategic planning and a diverse skillset from both internal teams and external suppliers. The core objective of localization is to make a product feel as if it was specifically created for the target locale, irrespective of its actual geographical origin, culture, or language. This process is essential for increasing engagement and improving the chances of sales growth for clients in global markets . > **Tip:** Localization aims to ensure a product feels native to its target audience, fostering a sense of identification and understanding that can significantly impact user adoption and commercial success . ### 27.2 Key areas of localization Localization is applied to a wide range of products and content types, including but not limited to: * Websites . * Video games . * Movies . * Product information . * Mobile applications . * Software . * Whitepapers . * Tech support pages . * Help files . * Newsletters . ### 27.3 Linguistic considerations in localization Language adaptation is often the most time-consuming aspect of localization. This involves several critical elements : #### 27.3.1 Text and media translation * **Subtitles and Dubbing:** For video, audio, and film, translation of spoken words and music lyrics is typically handled through subtitles or dubbing . * **Printed and Digital Materials:** All text within printed materials and digital media, including documentation and error messages, requires translation . * **Logos and Images:** Graphics or logos that contain text may need to be altered or replaced with more generic icons if the text is not suitable for the target locale . #### 27.3.2 Design and layout adaptations * **Content Formatting:** Website design or written content might need adjustments to accommodate differences in character sizes and varying translation lengths . * **Writing Systems and Scripts:** Different languages utilize distinct scripts (symbols, logograms, syllograms, letters). The direction of writing can vary significantly, from left-to-right (common in European languages) to right-to-left (Arabic, Hebrew), or boustrophedon scripts. Some Asian languages also support vertical writing . * **Complex Text Layout:** Some languages have complex text layouts where character shapes change based on context . * **Capitalization:** Certain languages require capitalization, which may not be a feature in others . * **Text Sorting:** Different writing systems and languages have unique rules for sorting text alphabetically . #### 27.3.3 Grammatical and stylistic nuances * **Numeral Systems:** Translators must be aware that some languages use different numeral systems . * **Grammar Rules:** Attention to detail is crucial, as rules for pluralization and other grammatical aspects can differ considerably between languages . * **Punctuation:** The usage of punctuation can vary; for example, French publications sometimes use guillemets, which are similar to double quotation marks in English . * **Variety, Register, and Dialect:** For audio materials, localization must consider variations in dialect, register, and the specific variety of the language used . #### 27.3.4 Date, time, and number conventions * **Number Formats:** Consideration must be given to writing conventions for number formats, including digit grouping and the decimal separator . * **Time and Date Formats:** Localization requires adapting time and date formats, potentially including the use of different calendars . * **Standard Data:** Local data standards for the target audience must be considered . * **Time Zones:** Translators must carefully account for variations in time zones . ### 27.4 Technical and economic considerations in localization Beyond linguistic aspects, localization involves adapting to technical, economic, and legal standards of the target locale: #### 27.4.1 Economic and technical standards * **Economic Conventions:** These can vary widely, encompassing paper sizes, preferred storage media, broadcast television systems, phone number formats, delivery services, and postal address formats . * **Currency:** Localization requires adapting currency symbols, their positioning, and the use of currency markers . * **Measurement Systems:** Differences in measurement systems must be addressed . * **Electrical Standards:** Localization may involve adapting to different standards for battery sizes, electric current, and voltage . * **Third-Party Services:** Variations in payment service providers, weather report formats, and the presentation of online maps from third-party providers need to be considered . #### 27.4.2 Legal and regulatory compliance * **Varied Legal Requirements:** Different countries have unique legal frameworks, necessitating customization of the product or even complete changes to ensure compliance . * **Specific Compliance Areas:** This can include: * Compliance with privacy laws . * Additional disclaimers on packaging or websites . * Different consumer labeling regulations . * Regulations concerning encryption and export restrictions . * Conformity with subpoena procedures or internet censorship policies . * Accessibility requirements . * Tax collections (e.g., customs duties, value-added tax, sales tax) . > **Example:** Localizing a software product for Germany might require translating all user interfaces and documentation, adapting date and number formats to German conventions (e.g., using commas for decimal separators), ensuring compliance with strict data privacy laws like GDPR, and potentially modifying payment gateways to accommodate local preferences . --- # Challenges in the translation industry The translation industry faces significant challenges driven by globalization, technological advancements, and evolving market demands, necessitating adaptation and the adoption of new tools and workflows [21](#page=21). ### 28.1 Globalization and Market Demands Multinational companies increasingly develop products for global markets, aiming for simultaneous release across all local markets (simship). This trend is coupled with faster time-to-market schedules, requiring products to be designed for global adaptability without country-specific re-designs (internationalization or I18N). Consequently, products and documentation must be localized (L10N) to suit the language and cultural nuances of target markets [21](#page=21). ### 28.2 Technological Advancements and Software Localization The development and specialization of computer software, particularly general office applications and translation/localization software, present ongoing challenges. These translation tools encompass Translation Memory (TM), Alignment, Terminology Management, Terminology Extraction, Software Localization, Project Management, and Machine Translation. The integration of plug-ins and interfaces, an increasing number of features and variants, and the frequent speed of software updates create compatibility issues and necessitate continuous upgrading for both software and users [22](#page=22). ### 28.3 Evolution of Electronic File Formats The proliferation of diverse electronic file formats across various domains such as Office, Desktop Publishing (DTP), Markup, and Software presents a significant hurdle. The continuous development of new formats and modifications to existing ones in new software versions require translators to constantly update their technical know-how. File preparation and post-processing have emerged as new areas of activity for translators, demanding adaptation of old workflows and translation strategies due to new tools [23](#page=23). ### 28.4 Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tools Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) is defined as a series of computer applications designed to efficiently assist translators in their tasks. The primary goal of CAT systems is to provide translators with automatic and rapid access to all necessary resources for their work [32](#page=32). #### 28.4.1 Introduction and Objectives of CAT The objectives of studying CAT include understanding its definition and components, familiarizing oneself with the translation process using CAT systems, and gaining an initial understanding of the main CAT systems available [30](#page=30). #### 28.4.2 Definition and Basic Components of CAT CAT aims to increase translator productivity by facilitating tasks that would otherwise be redundant. Proficiency in CAT tools is a demanded competency by agencies and institutions. The European Commission highlights mastering CAT and terminology tools, alongside common office software, as crucial translation capabilities. It is important to distinguish between Machine Translation (MT), where a machine performs the translation (e.g., Google Translate), and CAT, where a human translates with the aid of various tools. MT can be integrated into CAT systems, as many systems offer access to MT engines [35](#page=35) [36](#page=36). #### 28.4.3 Essential CAT Tools Essential CAT tools, as identified by Berinstein and Mermaud include : 1. **Translation Project Management Software:** This software controls information flow, assignment of translations, quality control, content analysis, report generation (including full and fuzzy matches, intra- and cross-file repetitions), word counts, and final delivery to clients [37](#page=37). 2. **Translation Memory (TM) Software:** TM software stores previous translations to ensure terminological and phraseological consistency. It enables the retrieval of translation units, enhancing productivity. Typical TM file extensions include `.tmx` (Translation Memory eXchange, an open standard format compatible across tools like Trados, MemoQ, Wordfast), `.sdltm` (a proprietary format for SDL Trados Studio), and `.txt` / `.csv` for plain text or Excel manipulation [38](#page=38). > **Tip:** Using `.tmx` files ensures compatibility when working with different CAT tools. 3. **Terminology Management Software:** This tool is used for creating glossaries from ongoing translations. Examples include RWS Trados - MultiTerm, Wordfast, and MemSource. Standard formats for terminology exchange are `.tbx` (TermBase eXchange) and proprietary formats like `.sdltb` (MultiTerm's terminology databases) [41](#page=41). 4. **Alignment Software:** This software creates translation memories by matching original texts with their corresponding translations. It identifies concordances, and each segment requires manual confirmation. Alignment is particularly useful for creating a TM from existing translated documents (e.g., Word files) that were not previously managed in a CAT tool, allowing for their reuse in future projects [43](#page=43) [46](#page=46). 5. **Localization Tools:** These tools are specifically designed for translating software, video games, or websites [47](#page=47). #### 28.4.4 The Translation Process with a CAT System A recommended routine for translating with a CAT system involves several steps to achieve the final translation [49](#page=49): 1. **File Format Check:** Initial verification of the file format to ensure compatibility with the CAT tool [50](#page=50). 2. **Resource Assignment:** Allocation of relevant translation memories, term bases, and other linguistic resources to the project [50](#page=50). 3. **Segmentation:** The CAT tool breaks down the source text into smaller units called segments [50](#page=50) [51](#page=51). 4. **Translation:** The translator works on translating each segment, leveraging TM matches and term bases [50](#page=50). 5. **TM Update:** Upon completion or segment approval, the translated segments are used to update and expand the Translation Memory [52](#page=52). 6. **Review:** A post-translation review phase to check for errors and ensure quality [52](#page=52). 7. **Final Revision:** A final quality assurance step before delivery [52](#page=52). #### 28.4.5 CAT Systems Prominent CAT systems include: * **RWS TRADOS:** Widely considered the most used CAT system, Trados provides a comprehensive environment for managing translation projects from inception to final revision, including project creation, TM and term base development. It is frequently requested by clients [54](#page=54). * **WORDFAST:** Available in both online and desktop versions, Wordfast was historically a free CAT system. It integrates an MT engine for translation suggestions and includes alignment and glossary functions [55](#page=55). * **MemoQ:** Developed in 2004 to compete with Trados, MemoQ has gained significant popularity and is offered by Kilgray Translation Technologies with various products tailored to translator needs [56](#page=56). * **Déjà Vu X3:** Created by Atril, this program offers similar functionality to other CAT tools, allowing project managers to evaluate, prepare, and control projects from start to finish across different language pairs [57](#page=57). --- # Considerations for localization across different writing systems and languages This section delves into the intricacies of localization, focusing on the challenges and considerations arising from diverse writing systems and languages within computer-aided translation tools and workflows. ### 29.1 History and evolution of translation memory systems The development of translation memory (TM) systems has a rich history, evolving from early experimental approaches to sophisticated commercial software. #### 29.1.1 Early steps in translation memory * **1960-1965: Federal Armed Forces Translation Agency, Mannheim, Germany:** This period saw the development of a text-related glossary approach where translators underlined English words for which they needed German equivalents. These words were then processed by a computer after morphological reduction, and words found in the database were printed in text-related glossaries [9](#page=9). * **1960-1965: European Coal and Steel Community, Luxembourg:** This initiative focused on automatic dictionary look-up with context. Translators would indicate words needing assistance, the entire sentence was keypunched, and the computer searched for matching sentences in its database to provide the requested items with context. Newly generated translations were added back to the database [11](#page=11). * **1980-1990: Interactive Translation System (ITS), Alan Melby, Brigham Young University, USA:** This system introduced a three-level approach to Computer-Aided Translation (CAT). Level 1 involved editor and terminology management. Level 2 provided electronic source text, text analysis (dynamic concordance), automatic terminology look-up, and synchronized bilingual text files. Level 3 aimed for integration with machine translation systems [13](#page=13). #### 29.1.2 First commercial systems * **1984: TRADOS (TRAnslation & DOcumentation Software):** Established in Germany, TRADOS transitioned from a translation provider to a software developer. Key products included TED (Translation Editor including the first Translation Memory) in 1988, MultiTerm (terminology management) in 1990, and Translator's Workbench in 1992. They later migrated to the Windows platform in 1993 and were acquired by SDL International in 2005 [14](#page=14). * **1984: STAR (Software Translation Artwork Recording):** Based in Switzerland, STAR offered translation and documentation services alongside software development. Their first version of Transit (DOS) with TermStar (terminology management) was released in 1991, followed by a Windows version in 1994 [15](#page=15). * **1993: ATRIL:** This Spanish company launched its first translation memory tool for Windows 3.1 in 1993, featuring an interface for MS Word. A system redesign in 1996 resulted in a 32-bit Windows software integrated translation environment [16](#page=16). * **1992: IBM Germany:** IBM released Translation Manager/2 (TM/2) in 1992, later developing a Windows version. This system was notable for including linguistic resources for 19 languages, such as lemmatizers and morphological data [17](#page=17). #### 29.1.3 Current market situation Prominent CAT tools in the current market include Across, DéjàVu, MemoQ, MultiTrans, SDL Trados, SDLX, and Wordfast [18](#page=18). ### 29.2 Translation workflow with CAT tools The translation process using a CAT tool involves several key stages, from initial setup to final output. #### 29.2.1 Initial setup and segmentation * The first translation using a TM system begins with an empty memory [19](#page=19). * When the source text is opened or imported, it is segmented into "translation units" based on predefined rules, typically using punctuation as a primary delimiter, with user-defined exceptions for elements like abbreviations [19](#page=19). #### 29.2.2 Translation and memory interaction * The currently active segment is automatically searched in the Translation Memory [20](#page=20). * If an identical or similar segment is found, the associated translation is displayed and can be selected, modified, and inserted into the target text [20](#page=20). * If no match is found, the translator enters a new translation, which is then stored in the TM along with the source segment, becoming available for future identical or similar segments [20](#page=20). * The TM is populated incrementally during the translation process [20](#page=20). #### 29.2.3 Post-translation processes After the initial translation, the workflow continues with updating resources, revision, TM generation, and a final review [52](#page=52). ### 29.3 Challenges in the translation industry related to localization The globalization of markets and the speed of product development present significant challenges for the translation industry, necessitating efficient localization practices. #### 29.3.1 Globalization and time-to-market * Multinational companies target global markets with products intended for simultaneous release (simship) [21](#page=21). * The time-to-market pressure demands faster product introduction schedules [21](#page=21). * Products must be designed for internationalization (I18N), meaning they require minimal re-design for each local market [21](#page=21). * Localization (L10N) involves adapting products and documentation to the specific language and culture of target markets [21](#page=21). #### 29.3.2 Software development and CAT tools * The development and specialization of computer software, particularly general office applications and specialized translation/localization software, have increased [22](#page=22). * CAT tools encompass a range of functionalities, including TM, alignment, terminology management, terminology extraction, software localization, project management, and machine translation integration [22](#page=22). * The proliferation of plug-ins, interfaces, and features, coupled with frequent updates and variations, leads to compatibility problems and a continuous need for upgrading both software and user skills [22](#page=22). #### 29.3.3 Electronic file formats * The diversity of electronic file formats (Office, DTP, Markup, Software, etc.) and their continuous evolution pose a significant challenge [23](#page=23). * New software versions often modify existing formats, requiring translators to engage in file preparation and post-processing [23](#page=23). * This necessitates continuous updating of technical know-how and adaptation of translation strategies and workflows [23](#page=23). ### 29.4 Definition and components of Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) is defined as a suite of specialized computer applications designed to efficiently assist translators in their work. The primary goal of a CAT system is to provide translators with rapid access to all necessary resources [32](#page=32). > **Tip:** It is important to distinguish between Machine Translation (MT) and CAT. MT involves translation performed by a machine, such as Google Translate, while CAT involves a human translator using various tools. MT can be integrated into CAT systems [36](#page=36). #### 29.4.1 Essential CAT tools Essential CAT tools, as identified by Berinstein and Mermaud include : 1. **Project Management Software:** Manages information flow, assigns tasks, controls quality, analyzes content, generates reports (e.g., for full/fuzzy matches, repetitions), counts words, and handles final delivery [37](#page=37). 2. **Translation Memory Software:** Stores translations to ensure terminological and phraseological consistency and facilitates the retrieval of translation units for increased productivity [38](#page=38). * **Typical extensions:** TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) is the standard open format compatible across most tools. SDLXTM is a proprietary format for SDL Trados Studio. TXT/.CSV are sometimes used for plain text or Excel manipulation [38](#page=38). 3. **Terminology Management Software:** Facilitates the creation of glossaries from ongoing translations, with examples like RWS Trados Multiterm and Wordfast. * **Formats:** TBX (TermBase eXchange) is the standard open format for glossary exchange. SDLTB is a proprietary format for SDL Trados Studio [41](#page=41). 4. **Alignment Software:** Creates translation memories from original texts and their translations by identifying correspondences between segments, requiring manual confirmation of each segment. This is useful for converting existing documents (e.g., Word files) into a TM format [43](#page=43) [46](#page=46). 5. **Localization Tools:** Specifically designed for translating software, video games, and websites [47](#page=47). ### 29.5 The translation process with a CAT system A recommended routine for using a CAT system involves a structured approach to achieve the final translation [49](#page=49). #### 29.5.1 Workflow stages The typical workflow includes: * File format check [50](#page=50). * Resource assignment [50](#page=50). * Segmentation [50](#page=50). * Translation [50](#page=50). * Resource updating [52](#page=52). * Revision [52](#page=52). * TM generation [52](#page=52). * Final review [52](#page=52). ### 29.6 Major CAT systems Several CAT tools are prevalent in the industry: * **RWS TRADOS:** Considered the most widely used system, it provides a comprehensive environment for translation projects from creation to finalization, including TM and terminology databases. Clients frequently request its use [54](#page=54). * **WORDFAST:** Initially a free CAT system, it offers online and desktop versions. It includes an integrated machine translation engine and features for alignment and glossary management [55](#page=55). * **MemoQ:** Developed in 2004 to compete with Trados, MemoQ has gained significant popularity. Kilgray Translation Technologies offers various products catering to different translator needs [56](#page=56). * **Déjà Vu X3:** Created by Atril, Déjà Vu X3 is a CAT program for project evaluation, preparation, and control across available language combinations [57](#page=57). ### 29.7 Structure and information within Translation Memory files Translation Memory (TM) files are essentially structured text files, often in XML format, containing translation and linguistic data. They are not "black boxes" and can be opened with standard text editors [66](#page=66). #### 29.7.1 Stored information TM files store: * **Main information:** Segments (source and target), language, creation dates, and times [67](#page=67). * **Additional data:** Author, usage count, change dates and times, creation tool, domain (field), alternate translations, and notes [67](#page=67). #### 29.7.2 Typical TM file formats The most common industry formats are XLIFF and TMX, both XML-based. Spreadsheet formats like Excel (.XLS) or comma-separated values (.CSV) are also used, though they store less data per translation unit [68](#page=68). XML's advantages for TM files include: * **Easy parsing:** Due to its well-defined structure [68](#page=68). * **Semantic tags:** Tags like `` and `` indicate data meaning [68](#page=68). * **Interoperability:** A well-defined structure facilitates data exchange between different applications and systems [68](#page=68). * **Tool support:** Numerous software tools are built around XML for validation, import, parsing, and searching [68](#page=68). #### 29.7.3 File structure (Header and Body) TMX and XLIFF files typically consist of: * **Header:** Contains metadata about the file and the localization process. Examples for TMX and XLIFF headers are provided [70-71](#page=70-71) [69](#page=69). * **Body:** Contains the core data, including translation units and segments. Examples for TMX and XLIFF bodies are illustrated [73-74](#page=73-74) [72](#page=72). ### 29.8 Importance and differences between TMX and XLIFF TM files are crucial for improving efficiency and ensuring consistency in translation. They allow translators to leverage prior work, benefit from exact or fuzzy matches, and maintain consistency through client- or project-based memories [75](#page=75). #### 29.8.1 Key differences between TMX and XLIFF Both TMX and XLIFF are XML-based industry standards with similarities, but they differ in purpose and structure [76](#page=76): * **Purpose:** XLIFF was designed to store extracted text and facilitate data transfer throughout the localization process, while TMX focuses on exchanging TM data between tools [76](#page=76). * **Language Support:** TMX can accommodate any number of languages in a single document, whereas XLIFF is designed for one source and one target language [76](#page=76). * **Inline Codes:** TMX uses encapsulation for inline codes, while XLIFF supports both encapsulation and a placeholder method where native codes are moved to a separate Skeleton file [76](#page=76). * **Order and Reconstruction:** A collection of `` elements in TMX has no specific order and lacks a mechanism to rebuild the original file. XLIFF is more powerful for reconstructing the original file (#page=76, 78) [76](#page=76) [78](#page=78). * **Additional Data:** XLIFF includes data types and fields not present in TMX, such as pretranslation, history, versioning, and binary objects [76](#page=76). * **Time/Date Data:** TMX files can store time and date data at the translation unit level, which XLIFF files cannot [76](#page=76). #### 29.8.2 Choosing between TMX and XLIFF Both formats are powerful and widely supported. The choice often depends on the specific project, tool, or provided TM files [77](#page=77). * **Preference for TMX:** Some authors prefer TMX for its ability to store time-stamped translation units (useful for productivity analysis) and its support for multiple target languages within a single file [78](#page=78). * **Preference for XLIFF:** If the ability to reconstruct or rebuild the original file is a priority, XLIFF is the preferred format [78](#page=78). Regardless of the format, using translation memory is significantly more beneficial than not using it [77](#page=77). ### 29.9 Metadata in CAT Tools Metadata, defined as "data about data," provides additional information about digital content and processes [85](#page=85). #### 29.9.1 Types of metadata Metadata can be categorized into: * **Descriptive metadata:** Describes content [85](#page=85). * **Structural metadata:** Describes the organization of objects or components [85](#page=85). * **Administrative metadata:** Describes technical information, such as file type [85](#page=85). #### 29.9.2 Metadata and TM In TM software, metadata associated with segments can trace them back to the translator, date, and time of creation. This allows for the selection of more recent or relevant material and the deletion of outdated terminology. Effective management of TM resources by language service providers relies on this metadata [84](#page=84). > **Caution:** The potential loss of important metadata during format transfers can restrict users to specific software tools due to interoperability issues [84](#page=84). --- Localization extends beyond simple translation to adapt content for specific target audiences, considering cultural nuances, local laws, and regional variations . ### 29.1 The scope of localization Localization is a comprehensive process that aims to give a product the feel and look of being specifically created for the target locale, regardless of its location, culture, or language. While translation is a core component, localization encompasses much more to ensure a product or content resonates with local audiences and meets their expectations . #### 29.1.1 Applications of localization Localization is widely applied to various types of content and products, including: * Websites . * Mobile apps . * Software . * Video games . * Multimedia content . * Voiceovers . * Product information . * Whitepapers . * Tech support pages . * Help files . * Newsletters . * User manuals . * Medical documents . * Technical publications . * Scientific journals . * Literature . #### 29.1.2 Localization vs. Translation While translation focuses on converting content from a source language to a target language while respecting grammar and syntax, localization goes further by adapting the message to local audiences. Translation is considered a step within the broader localization process. Companies need to localize to gain the trust of local publics and create a customized message for each local audience, which is crucial for success in foreign markets . ### 29.2 Key considerations in localization Localization requires careful attention to a multitude of factors beyond just linguistic accuracy to effectively meet cultural expectations and local regulations . #### 29.2.1 Cultural adaptation Localization involves adapting content to respect cultural aspects, local laws, and regional variations, even within the same language. This includes understanding local beliefs, traditions, and the connotations of various elements like animals, food, gestures, and colors. Companies must maintain a unique brand voice globally while adapting campaigns to local markets . > **Tip:** Successful localization often involves working with local marketers and consultants to ensure cultural sensitivity and compliance with local laws . ##### 29.2.1.1 Examples of cultural adaptation * **KitKat's Slogan in Japan:** The slogan "Have a break, have a KitKat" was changed to "Kitto Katsu," meaning "surely win," and a variety of exotic chocolate bars were introduced to cater to local tastes, leading to a successful localization campaign . * **Coca-Cola in China:** The brand name "Coca-Cola" was adapted to "kekou kele," which translates to "delicious happiness," to resonate with the local market. This involved collaborating with local experts and specialists to develop a new name and a localized marketing strategy . * **Visuals:** Photos need to be adapted to local cultures, as elements like "blond moms hugging their kids" may not impress a Chinese audience or could offend customers in the Middle East . * **Colors:** Colors have different meanings across cultures; for instance, red can signify danger, white can mean death, and orange can express mourning and loss in some countries . * **Political Issues:** Localization requires sensitivity to political matters such as disputed borders and geographical naming disputes . * **Aesthetics and Social Factors:** Translators should consider local customs, superstitions, religions, social taboos, aesthetics, the appropriateness of colors and images, local architecture, socioeconomic status, clothing, and ethnicity . #### 29.2.2 Linguistic and writing system considerations Adapting to different writing systems and languages involves more than just translating words; it requires understanding unique conventions . * **Writing Systems and Scripts:** Different writing systems use distinct scripts, which can be symbols, logograms, syllograms, or letters . * **Writing Direction:** Languages can have varied writing directions, including left-to-right (European languages), right-to-left (Arabic, Hebrew), or boustrophedon (alternating directions). Some Asian languages can be written vertically . * **Complex Text Layout:** Some languages require complex text layouts where characters change shape based on context . * **Capitalization:** The need for capitalization varies; some languages require it, while others do not . * **Sorting Rules:** Different writing systems and languages have distinct rules for text sorting . * **Numeral Systems:** Some languages employ different numeral systems . * **Grammar and Pluralization:** Grammar rules, including pluralization, vary significantly across languages, requiring close attention to detail . * **Punctuation:** The usage of punctuation can differ; for example, French uses guillemets ($\ll \dots \gg$) in some publications, similar to English double quotes . #### 29.2.3 Technical and formatting considerations Beyond language, various technical and formatting aspects need localization for user-friendliness and accuracy . * **Layout and Text Length:** Different languages require varying amounts of space to express the same concepts. A flexible layout is necessary to accommodate text expansion, which can range from 30% to 100% when translating from English into other languages . * **Units of Measurement:** Most countries use the metric system, requiring conversion of measurements to ensure content is easy to follow . * **Currency Units:** Currency amounts must be localized, including conversion and indicating equivalent amounts in different currencies . * **Date and Time Formats:** Differences in date formats (e.g., MM/DD/YY vs. DD/MM/YY) are crucial. Time zones also need careful consideration . * **Paper Size:** Document design might be based on specific paper sizes (e.g., A4 vs. US Letter), impacting formatting and page breaks . * **Number Formats:** Writing conventions for number formats, including digit grouping and decimal separators, need to be considered . * **Logos and Images:** Logos and images containing text may require alteration or replacement with more generic icons . * **Audio and Video:** For video, audio, and film localization, the translation of lyrics or spoken words is done through subtitles or dubbing, requiring precise timing and synchronization . #### 29.2.4 Legal and regulatory considerations Compliance with local regulations is a critical aspect of localization to avoid legal issues and penalties . * **Contracts and Agreements:** Businesses operating in foreign countries must adhere to local regulations regarding contracts and agreements . * **Privacy Laws:** Compliance with privacy laws is essential . * **Disclaimers:** Different requirements may exist for disclaimers on packaging or websites . * **Consumer Labeling:** Regulations on consumer labeling can vary . * **Encryption and Export Restrictions:** Compliance with regulations on encryption and export restrictions is necessary . * **Subpoena Procedures and Censorship:** Localization may involve changes to conform with subpoena procedures or internet censorship requirements . * **Accessibility:** Accessibility requirements must be met . * **Tax Collections:** Tax considerations, including customs duties, value-added tax, and sales tax, need to be addressed . * **Identification Numbers:** Consideration should be given to numbers assigned by governments, such as national identification numbers, Social Security Numbers, and passport numbers . #### 29.2.5 Economic and service provider variations Economic conventions and service providers can also differ significantly by country . * **Economic Conventions:** These include variations in paper sizes, preferred storage media, broadcast TV systems, phone number formats, delivery services, postal codes, and postal address formats . * **Payment Services:** Providers of payment services may vary . * **Weather Reports and Maps:** The presentation of weather reports and online maps from third-party providers can differ . * **Electric Current and Voltage:** Standards for electric current and voltage need to be considered . ### 29.3 Localization process for specific media #### 29.3.1 Video game localization Localizing video games aims to provide players with content they can fully understand. The process typically involves : 1. **Audit of materials:** Reviewing all localization materials, including text files, documentation, instructions, and artwork. Playing the game in the source language helps translators understand the story, dialogues, and menus . 2. **Localization:** The actual translation and adaptation of content, which can take weeks or months depending on the team size and material volume . 3. **Programming:** Integrating the translated and localized texts into the game by editors or developers . 4. **Quality Control:** Verifying the localized game for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, wayward text, inconsistencies, and system issues like graphics and sound problems . 5. **Manufacturer’s approval:** Representatives confirm that the localized content meets the original game's requirements . #### 29.3.2 Movie localization Movie localization is a cost-effective method for distributing films to global audiences. The primary methods are : * **Dubbing:** Voice actors replace original dialogue in different languages. Timing is critical to match character movements and speech . * **Subtitling:** Spoken lines are translated and displayed at the bottom of the screen. Precision is required due to character and time limitations on screen, and subtitles must be synchronized with actions and dialogue . Localizers must understand the target audience's cultural perceptions and the connotations of various elements to ensure effective adaptation . #### 29.3.3 Website localization Localizing a brand's or product's website is crucial for entering new markets with different cultures, languages, and socioeconomic conditions. The goal is to appear local rather than foreign by adapting the website to the local market's needs . #### 29.3.4 Mobile app and software localization Mobile apps and software require localization to gain traction in other markets and attract more users. This ensures users can easily follow instructions, navigate, and use the program effectively . --- Localization is the process of adapting a product or content to a specific locale or market, which involves more than just linguistic translation. This section explores the multifaceted considerations required for effective localization, particularly focusing on differences across writing systems and languages, and the evolving role of human translators in machine translation workflows. ### 29.1 Internationalization and Localization Principles for Websites Internationalization (#i18n) is the design and development of a website to allow for easy adaptation to different languages and cultural preferences. Key principles include : * **Unicode Standard:** Essential for ensuring compatibility with diverse writing systems and languages . * **Separation of Content and Code:** Keeping content distinct from source code facilitates translation without extensive coding alterations . * **Flexible User Interface (UI):** Designing a UI that can accommodate varying text lengths and different reading directions (e.g., right-to-left scripts) . * **Date, Time, and Number Formats:** Adapting these to locale-specific conventions is crucial for cultural relevance . * **Images and Icons:** Selecting culturally neutral visuals or providing region-specific alternatives promotes inclusivity . The localization (#L10n) process for websites involves: * **Translation of Content:** Converting text and multimedia elements while considering linguistic nuances and cultural sensitivities . * **Adaptation of Graphics and Multimedia:** Ensuring visuals are culturally appropriate for the target audience . * **Adjustment of Layout and Design:** Modifying the visual arrangement to accommodate language-specific text lengths and font styles . * **Integration of Local Regulations:** Complying with legal requirements concerning content, privacy, and accessibility . * **Testing and Quality Assurance:** Rigorous testing for functionality, linguistic accuracy, and cultural appropriateness . Websites present unique localization challenges compared to other audiovisual products due to dynamic content, SEO considerations, the need for extreme cultural sensitivity as public-facing platforms, and the requirement for continuous updates . ### 29.2 Translation for SEO and Metadata Optimization Effective localization is critical for global online visibility, with translators playing a vital role in Search Engine Optimization (SEO). Key considerations for translators aiming to optimize content for international markets include : * **Keyword Research:** Identifying relevant terms and phrases in the target language and region, including variations, synonyms, and colloquial expressions . * **Cultural Relevance:** Understanding cultural nuances to select keywords that resonate with the target audience and avoid unnatural literal translations . * **Localized Content:** Ensuring translations are not only linguistically accurate but also culturally appropriate, aligning with local customs and market trends . * **Metadata Optimization:** Translating and optimizing meta titles, meta descriptions, and URL slugs, crafting compelling descriptions with relevant keywords to encourage click-throughs . * **Multilingual Link Building:** Collaborating to build high-quality, multilingual backlinks from reputable local websites and influencers . * **Content Structure and Formatting:** Maintaining a user-friendly structure with elements like headers and bullet points to enhance readability and SEO value . * **Mobile Optimization:** Ensuring translated content is mobile-friendly and media loads quickly on mobile devices . * **Regular Updates:** Adapting SEO strategies to search engine algorithm changes and regularly updating translated content . * **Analytics and Reporting:** Monitoring website analytics and providing data-driven insights to refine SEO strategies . * **Communication with Clients:** Understanding business goals, target audiences, and SEO objectives to align translation efforts with marketing initiatives . Metadata (meta titles, meta descriptions, tags) is crucial for search engine algorithms to understand and index webpage content, directly impacting visibility and ranking in foreign markets. Professional translators enhance user click-through rates by ensuring translated metadata is linguistically accurate, compelling, and culturally relevant. They ensure local relevance by understanding cultural nuances optimize metadata with region-specific keywords maintain global brand consistency adhere to character limits build credibility and trust by safeguarding content integrity and adapt metadata to current market trends. Collaboration between translators and web developers/marketers is essential for optimizing web pages in foreign markets, bridging linguistic and cultural gaps . ### 29.3 Human Roles in Machine Translation: Pre-editing and Post-editing The integration of Machine Translation (MT) introduces new workflows where human intervention remains crucial. Humans play key roles in pre-editing and post-editing . #### 29.3.1 Pre-editing Pre-editing involves revising technical documentation *before* it undergoes MT to improve the quality of the raw MT output. This process aims to reduce or eliminate the post-editing workload . * **Purpose:** To facilitate MT by minimizing potential output errors . * **Techniques:** * Reducing sentence length . * Avoiding complex or ambiguous syntactic structures . * Ensuring term consistency . * Using articles . * Running automated revision tools (spell-check, grammar-check) . * Tagging elements not to be translated . * **Controlled Natural Language (CNLs):** Subsets of natural languages with restricted grammar and vocabulary to reduce ambiguity and complexity. CNLs improve readability for humans and enable reliable automatic semantic analysis. Examples include Caterpillar Technical English and Simplified Technical English . * **Caterpillar Fundamental English:** Uses a restricted vocabulary of approximately 850 words to support consistent, high-quality authoring and translation . * Various companies utilize CNLs, such as Avaya Controlled English (ACE) by Avaya and Simplified Technical English (STE) by Boeing . * **Controlled Language Rules (Examples):** The CLOUT™ rule set, developed by Uwe Muegge, provides rules to reduce ambiguity for MT. These include : 1. Write sentences shorter than 25 words . 2. Express only one idea per sentence . 3. Repeat the same sentence structure for the same content . 4. Write grammatically complete sentences . 5. Use a simple grammatical structure . 6. Write in the active form . 7. Repeat nouns instead of using pronouns . 8. Use articles to identify nouns . 9. Use words from a general dictionary (avoid obscure vocabulary) . 10. Use only words with correct spelling . * **When to Consider Pre-editing:** Pre-editing ROI is typically achieved when a document is translated into more than three languages. It is also beneficial when source quality is already high and MT engines are finely tuned . * **Tools for Pre-editing:** Content memory, generic pre-editing plugins, automated rules from CNLs, and program/client-specific custom tools can aid writers . #### 29.3.2 Post-editing Post-editing (or postediting) is the process of amending machine-generated translation to achieve an acceptable final product. A post-editor is the person performing this task. It is distinct from editing human-generated text (revision) . * **Purpose:** To correct raw MT output when it's not sufficient but full human translation isn't required . * **Productivity:** Post-editing can at least double, and potentially quadruple (with light post-editing), the productivity of manual translation. However, efficiency is hard to predict, with studies showing varying time savings . * **Post-editing Strategies:** Strategies depend on project-specific expectations regarding time, quality, and cost . * **Light Post-editing:** Minimal intervention to make the text understandable for inbound purposes, often when text is needed urgently or has a short lifespan. The focus is on comprehensibility, accuracy, but not stylistic perfection . * **Full Post-editing:** Greater intervention to achieve a negotiated level of quality, resulting in a text that is understandable and stylistically appropriate for assimilation and dissemination (inbound and outbound). This aims for quality indistinguishable from human translation . * **Guidelines for Achieving Quality:** * **"Good Enough" Quality (Light Post-editing):** Comprehensible, accurate (same meaning as source), but not necessarily stylistically compelling. May have unusual syntax or imperfect grammar. Key guidelines include aiming for semantically correct translation, ensuring no information is added or omitted, editing offensive content, using as much raw MT output as possible, basic spelling rules, and avoiding stylistic-only corrections or sentence restructuring for flow . * **Quality Similar/Equal to Human Translation (Full Post-editing):** Comprehensible, accurate, stylistically fine (though maybe not native-speaker level), with normal syntax, correct grammar, and punctuation. Key guidelines include aiming for grammatically, syntactically, and semantically correct translation, ensuring key terminology is correctly translated, no information is added/omitted, editing offensive content, using raw MT output where possible, applying correct spelling/punctuation/hyphenation, and ensuring correct formatting . * **Key to Successful Post-editing: Quick Decision Making:** Linguists must quickly decide whether to post-edit MT suggestions or translate from scratch, opting for translation from scratch if post-editing would take longer. Some providers ask linguists to move on if they can't find errors within seconds to ensure efficiency . * **Over-editing:** Avoid making purely preferential or unnecessary amendments, like replacing a word with a synonym when both are viable . * **Under-editing:** Avoid leaving errors like mistranslations, punctuation errors, robotic-sounding text, or unapproved terminology . * **Post-editing and the Language Industry:** Post-editing is a developing profession. While it offers efficiency gains, it is often paid at lower rates than conventional translation. The market size is growing, with advances in MT (partly driven by feedback from post-edited text) leading to improved MT quality and increased use of post-editing. Crowdsourcing platforms and translation management systems facilitate post-editing (#page=227, 228) . ### 29.4 Examples of Localization Failures Failures in localization can lead to significant financial losses and damage brand reputation (#page=164, 165). Notable examples include : * **HSBC's "Assume Nothing" Tagline:** Mistranslated as "Do Nothing" in various countries, costing USD 10 million for correction . * **Pepsi's Chinese Slogan:** "Pepsi Brings You Back to Life" was translated as "Pepsi Brings Your Ancestors Back from the Grave," causing backlash . * **NASA's Mars Orbiter:** A metric-imperial unit mix-up led to the loss of the spacecraft and a USD 125 million loss . * **Canadian Maple Leaf Coin:** An inscription error on coins worth approximately 30 million Canadian dollars required recalls . * **London Olympics Ticket Website:** A mistranslation in Welsh directed users to the wrong website . * **Siri's Gender Bias:** Virtual assistant responses reinforced gender stereotypes in certain languages, implying men exclusively held certain job positions in Chinese . --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) System | A translation tool that assists human translators by providing features such as translation memory, terminology management, and quality assurance checks, thereby streamlining the translation workflow. | | Translation Process | The systematic series of steps undertaken by a translator to convert text from a source language into a target language, often involving pre-translation checks, the actual translation, and post-translation review. | | File Format Check | An initial step in the translation process that verifies the compatibility and integrity of the source file format to ensure it can be processed correctly by the CAT system and other translation tools. | | Resource Allocation | The process of assigning necessary resources, such as translators, project managers, and specialized software, to a translation project to ensure efficient and timely completion. | | Segmentation | The division of a source text into smaller, manageable units, typically sentences or phrases, which are then processed individually within a CAT system for translation and storage in translation memory. | | Translation | The core activity of converting text from a source language to a target language, performed by a human translator, often with the aid of a CAT system. | | Translation Memory (TM) File | A structured text file, typically in XML format, that stores translation and linguistic data, including source and target segments, language information, and creation dates. | | XML (Extensible Markup Language) | A text-based markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable, providing a well-defined structure for representing complex data. | | Segment | A unit of text within a translation memory file, typically consisting of a source segment (the original text) and its corresponding target segment (the translated text). | | XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format) | A popular XML-based file format used for storing translation memory data, designed to facilitate the exchange of localized content between different translation tools and workflows. | | TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) | Another widely adopted XML-based file format for translation memory, enabling the storage and exchange of bilingual text segments and associated metadata between various translation software applications. | | Spreadsheet Files (XLS, CSV) | File formats like Excel (XLS) or comma-separated values (CSV) that can also store translation memory data, though they generally store less detailed information per translation unit compared to XML-based formats. | | Semantic Tags | Tags within an XML file, such as `` or ``, that provide meaning and context to the data they enclose, making the file easier to understand and process. | | Localization | The process of adapting content and elements beyond mere text translation to make it appealing and usable for diverse local markets and audiences. | | Cultural Barriers | Obstacles arising from differences in cultural norms, values, and perceptions that can hinder effective communication and user experience in a localized product or service. | | User Experience (UX) | The overall experience a person has when interacting with a product, system, or service, which can be significantly improved by adapting various elements beyond text during localization. | | Currency Conversion | The process of exchanging one currency for another, often necessary in localization to display equivalent monetary values in the target market's currency, such as converting $100 to £65. | | Date Formats | The various ways dates are written and understood in different regions, requiring adaptation in localization to avoid misinterpretation, for example, distinguishing between April 5th and May 4th. | | Text Expansion | The phenomenon where translated text can increase in length compared to the source text, often ranging from 30% to 100%, necessitating flexible layout and design in localized documents and software. | | Units of Measurement | Systems used to quantify physical quantities, such as length, weight, and volume, which must be converted to local standards (e.g., metric system) for clarity and ease of understanding in localization. | | Subtitling | The process of displaying translated text on screen to accompany audio in a video, film, or other media, often used for localization when dubbing is not feasible or desired. | | Dubbing | The process of replacing the original audio track of a video, film, or other media with a translated version, requiring synchronization with lip movements and cultural appropriateness. | | Writing Systems | The diverse methods used to represent language visually, encompassing different scripts, characters (symbols, logograms, syllograms, letters), and writing directions (left-to-right, right-to-left, boustrophedon, vertical). | | Text Layout | The arrangement and presentation of text, which can be complex and vary significantly between languages, affecting character shapes, capitalization rules, and sorting orders. | | Numeral Systems | The distinct sets of symbols and rules used to represent numbers, which can differ across languages and require adaptation during localization. | | Pluralization Rules | The grammatical variations in forming the plural of nouns and other word forms, which differ significantly between languages and must be accurately translated. | | Punctuation | The use of symbols to structure and clarify written text, with conventions varying across languages, such as the use of guillemets in French instead of double quotes. | | Economic Conventions | Localized practices and standards related to commerce and daily life, including paper sizes, storage media, broadcast systems, phone number formats, postal codes, currency symbols, and measurement systems. | | Time Zones | Geographical regions that observe a uniform standard time, necessitating careful consideration during localization to ensure accurate scheduling and communication. | | Regulatory Compliance | Adherence to the laws and regulations of a specific country or region, which may require product customization or significant changes to meet legal requirements like privacy laws, labeling standards, and export restrictions. | | Internationalization (i18n) | The process of designing and developing a website in a manner that facilitates its straightforward adaptation to various languages and cultural preferences, ensuring broad accessibility. | | Unicode Standard | A universal character encoding standard that ensures compatibility with a wide array of writing systems, enabling the accurate representation of diverse languages and symbols. | | Separation of Content and Code | A development principle where textual content is kept distinct from the underlying source code, simplifying the translation process by minimizing the need for extensive modifications to the programming. | | Flexible User Interface (UI) | A user interface design that can accommodate variations in text length and adapt to different reading directions, such as right-to-left languages, ensuring usability across diverse linguistic contexts. | | Locale-Specific Formats | The practice of adjusting the presentation of dates, times, and numbers to align with the conventions and expectations of a particular geographical or cultural region, enhancing user relevance. | | Translation Memory (TM) Software | Software that divides texts into segments and uses metadata to trace each segment back to its translator, date, and time of creation, allowing for the reuse of previously translated content. | | Metadata | Data that describes other data, providing additional information about digital content and processes. It can include details like the translator, date, time, file type, and organizational structure. | | Translation Unit | A pair of aligned segments, one in the source language and one in the target language, saved together within a translation memory database. | | Fuzzy Match | A suggestion provided by translation memory software for a segment that is not an exact match but shares a significant percentage of similarity with a previously translated segment. | | Descriptive Metadata | A type of metadata that describes the content of digital information. | | Structural Metadata | A type of metadata that describes the organization of digital objects or components. | | Administrative Metadata | A type of metadata that describes technical information about digital content, such as its file type or creation date. | | Interoperability | The ability of different software tools or systems to exchange and use information effectively, which can be a challenge when transferring translation memory data between formats. | | TBX | TermBase eXchange format, also known as DXLT (Default XLT format), is a file format designed for transferring glossaries between different translation tools. It is based on the ISO 12200 standard, which is the Machine-Readable Terminology Interchange Format (MARTIF). | | DXLT | Default XLT format, which is an XML representation of Lexicons and Terminologies. It is an alternative designation for the TBX (TermBase eXchange) format, used for transferring glossaries between translation tools. | | ISO 12200 | The international standard for Machine-Readable Terminology Interchange Format (MARTIF). This standard forms the basis for file formats like TBX, enabling the exchange of terminology data between different systems. | | MARTIF | Machine-Readable Terminology Interchange Format, specified by ISO 12200. It provides a standardized way to represent and exchange terminology information, facilitating interoperability between translation and terminology management tools. | | SALT | Standards-based Access service to multilingual Lexicons and Terminologies. This service, provided by BYU, is related to the organization and maintenance of multilingual terminology resources. | | Source Language | The original language of the content that is being translated or localized. | | Target Language | The language into which the content is being translated or localized. | | Local Versions and Dialects | Variations of a language spoken in specific regions or by particular groups, which may differ in vocabulary, pronunciation, and idiomatic expressions. | | Pre-editing | The process of revising technical documentation before it undergoes machine translation (MT) to improve the quality of the raw output. This involves making the source text easier for an MT engine to process, thereby reducing the need for post-editing. | | Post-editing | The process of revising the output generated by a machine translation (MT) system. The goal is to correct errors and improve the fluency and accuracy of the translated text to meet quality standards. | | Machine Translation (MT) | An automated process that uses computer software to translate text or speech from one language to another without direct human intervention during the translation itself. | | Source Text | The original text that is to be translated into another language. In the context of pre-editing, this is the text that is revised to improve its suitability for machine translation. | | Raw Output | The initial translation produced by a machine translation system before any human revision or post-editing has been performed. | | Specialized Human Editor | An individual with expertise in translation and an understanding of how machine translation engines process text. This professional can anticipate potential errors and optimize the source text for better MT results. | | Sentence Length Reduction | A pre-editing technique where long and complex sentences in the source text are broken down into shorter, simpler ones to facilitate machine translation. | | Ambiguous Syntactic Structures | Grammatical constructions in the source text that can be interpreted in multiple ways, potentially leading to errors in machine translation. Pre-editing aims to simplify these structures. | | Term Consistency | The practice of using the same translation for specific terms throughout a document or project. Ensuring term consistency in the source text is crucial for accurate machine translation. | | Automated Revision Tools | Software applications used to check and improve text quality, such as spell checkers and grammar checkers. These tools are often employed during the pre-editing process. | | Project-Specific Glossary | A curated list of terms and their approved translations relevant to a particular project. This glossary is used by automated revision tools to ensure consistent terminology. | | Localization Best Practices | Established methods and procedures followed by organizations to adapt products, services, and content for specific international markets, often including pre-editing and other quality assurance steps. | | Pronoun Substitution Rule | A controlled language rule that mandates the repetition of a noun instead of using a pronoun to enhance clarity and avoid potential ambiguity in written text. | | Article Usage Rule | A controlled language rule that requires the use of articles (e.g., "a," "an," "the") to clearly identify nouns, thereby improving the precision and understandability of sentences. | | General Dictionary Rule | A controlled language rule that promotes the use of common, widely understood words found in a general dictionary, discouraging the use of obscure or specialized vocabulary that might hinder comprehension. | | Spelling Accuracy Rule | A controlled language rule that emphasizes the importance of using only words with correct spelling to ensure that written content is easily understood and does not introduce complications, particularly in translation processes. | | Raw MT output | The initial, unedited text generated by a machine translation system before any human intervention or revision. | | Publishable quality | A high standard of translation quality, equivalent to that produced by a human translator and subsequently revised, suitable for public dissemination or publication. | | Good enough quality | A lower standard of translation quality that ensures the message is comprehensible and accurate, but may not be stylistically perfect or sound entirely natural. | | Fit for purpose | A quality level where the translated content effectively serves its intended use, even if it does not meet the highest stylistic or linguistic standards. | | Light post-editing | A type of post-editing focused on making minimal corrections to machine-translated text, typically addressing errors that impede comprehension or accuracy, without extensive stylistic refinement. | | Full post-editing | A comprehensive post-editing process aimed at achieving a quality level comparable to human translation, involving extensive revisions to grammar, syntax, style, and terminology. | | Semantically correct translation | A translation where the meaning of the source text is accurately conveyed in the target language, ensuring no information is lost or misrepresented. | | Stylistically compelling | Refers to text that is not only accurate and comprehensible but also possesses a natural flow, engaging tone, and appropriate linguistic nuances, akin to high-quality human writing. | | Do Not Translate terms | A specific list provided by a client that designates certain terms or phrases that should not be translated and should remain in their original language in the translated output. | | TMX | Translation Memory eXchange. This format facilitates the transfer of translation memories between different translation tools, enabling the reuse of previously translated segments. A translation memory itself is a database storing source text segments and their corresponding translations in various target languages. | | XLIFF | XML Localisation Interchange File Format. This standard is designed for the transfer of localizable data extracted from original files. It supports the movement of content through different stages of the localization process, including the final merging of translated data back into the source format. | | OLIF | Open Lexicon Interchange Format. This format is specifically designed for the exchange of terminological and lexical data between translation tools. It is particularly suited for Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications, such as machine translation lexicons, and serves a similar purpose to TBX but with a stronger focus on NLP data. | | Translation Memory (TM) | A structured collection of source text segments and their corresponding translations in one or more target languages. TMs are used by translation tools to suggest previously translated content, ensuring consistency and improving efficiency in the translation process. | | Glossary | A collection of terms and their definitions, often specific to a particular domain or project. In the context of translation, glossaries are crucial for maintaining terminological consistency across documents and ensuring accurate translation of specialized vocabulary. | | CAT Tool | Computer-Assisted Translation tool, a software application that assists human translators in the translation process by providing features such as translation memory, terminology management, and quality assurance checks. | | Import | The function within a CAT tool used to transfer text and its corresponding translation from an external file into the translation memory database. This can be done from various formats, including raw and native formats. | | Analysis | A process within CAT tools that involves parsing and analyzing source texts to identify elements like punctuation, proper names, and specialized text, which aids in pre-editing and preparing the text for translation. | | Textual Parsing | The initial stage of analysis that focuses on correctly recognizing punctuation and other textual elements to distinguish between different uses, such as sentence endings and abbreviations, often involving markup. | | Linguistic Parsing | A more advanced stage of analysis that involves reducing words to their base forms for term retrieval from a term bank and syntactically analyzing phrases to normalize word order and identify multi-word expressions. | | Alignment | The task of establishing correspondences between segments in a source text and their corresponding translations in a target text, ensuring that the translation memory accurately links source and target units. | | Term Extraction | The process of identifying and collecting specific terms or phrases from a source text, often with the aid of dictionaries or text statistics, to build or augment terminology databases. | | Export | The function within a CAT tool used to transfer translated text from the translation memory database into an external text file, typically as the inverse operation of importing. | | Exact Match | A type of retrieval from a translation memory where the current source segment is identical, character by character, to a segment already stored in the TM, often referred to as a "100% match". | | In-Context Exact (ICE) Match | An exact match that not only involves identical source and target segments but also occurs in the same contextual environment, such as the same location within a paragraph or with similar surrounding attributes. | | Automated Alignment Tool | Software used in the alignment process that analyzes source and target files to automatically match sentences and build a preliminary Translation Memory. | | Legacy Material | Previous translations that are not already in a Translation Memory format and need to be processed through alignment to be leveraged in future projects. | | Linguistic Vendor | A company or individual that provides translation services, which may or may not deliver Translation Memories as part of their project deliverables. | | Search Engine Optimization (SEO) | The practice of enhancing a website's visibility in search engine results pages to attract more organic traffic. This involves optimizing content, technical aspects, and building authority. | | Keyword Research | The process of identifying relevant terms and phrases that potential customers use when searching for products or services online. This is crucial for tailoring content to local search behavior. | | Cultural Relevance | The degree to which content aligns with the customs, traditions, and preferences of a specific target audience, ensuring that translations are not only linguistically accurate but also culturally appropriate and resonant. | | Localized Content | Website content that has been adapted to a specific target market, considering linguistic accuracy, cultural nuances, local customs, traditions, and market trends to enhance its relevance and appeal. | | Metadata Optimization | The process of translating and refining meta titles, meta descriptions, and URL slugs to be compelling, concise, and keyword-rich, encouraging click-throughs from search engine results pages. | | Multilingual Link Building | The strategic effort to acquire backlinks from reputable websites in various languages. This collaboration with local websites and influencers helps improve search engine rankings in international markets. | | Content Structure and Formatting | The organization and presentation of translated content using elements like headers, bullet points, and paragraphs. Well-structured content enhances readability and is valued by search engines for SEO. | | Mobile Optimization | Ensuring that translated web content is designed and formatted to function effectively and load quickly on mobile devices, which is increasingly important for search engine rankings due to the prevalence of mobile search. | | Analytics and Reporting | The process of monitoring website performance data, such as traffic sources and user engagement, to assess the effectiveness of localized content and SEO strategies, providing insights for continuous refinement. | | International Web Presence | The visibility and accessibility of a website across different countries and languages. This is achieved through effective localization and SEO strategies tailored for global audiences. | | Search Engine Visibility | The degree to which a webpage is discoverable and appears in relevant search engine results for a given query, significantly influenced by accurate and optimized metadata. | | User Click-Through Rates | The percentage of users who click on a specific link in search engine results after viewing it, which can be positively impacted by compelling and culturally relevant translated meta titles and descriptions. | | Local Relevance | The degree to which content, including metadata, aligns with the cultural nuances, preferences, and expectations of a specific target audience in a foreign market, making it more appealing. | | Keyword Optimization | The strategic incorporation of relevant and region-specific terms within metadata to improve a webpage's chances of appearing in targeted search results, a task requiring expertise in the target language. | | Global Brand Consistency | The maintenance of a unified brand tone, message, and identity across all international markets, ensuring that translated metadata accurately reflects the brand's core values and communication style. | | Character Limits | Restrictions imposed by search engines on the maximum length of meta titles and descriptions, requiring translators to craft concise yet impactful translations that avoid truncation in search results. | | Credibility and Trust | The perception of reliability and authenticity that a website conveys to users, which can be undermined by inaccurate translations and enhanced by professional, integrity-preserving localization efforts. | | Market Trends | Evolving linguistic and cultural shifts within specific markets that can influence user search behavior and content preferences, necessitating the adaptation of translated metadata for sustained optimization. | | Source Segment | The portion of the original text that is currently being translated. Terms recognized from the glossary within this segment are highlighted. | | Target Segment | The portion of the translated text where the translation of the source segment is entered. | | Placeables | Terms identified from the glossary within the source segment, highlighted in blue, which can be easily navigated and manipulated using specific shortcuts or mouse actions. | | Auto-suggest Feature | A default setting in Wordfast Anywhere that proposes target terms as the user types the first few letters of either the source or target term, aiding in rapid translation entry. | | Glossary Panel | A dedicated panel within Wordfast Anywhere that displays glossary information, allowing users to preview translations and access additional details about terms. It can be activated via a keyboard shortcut or a menu option. | | Comment Field | A designated area within the Glossary Dialog Box where translators can add notes or contextual information about a specific term and its translation, serving as a reminder for future reference. | | F1, F2, F3 Fields | Additional fields available in the Glossary Dialog Box for storing specific types of information related to a term, such as its grammatical form, context, or word role, to enhance the glossary's utility. | | Glossary Dialog Box | A pop-up window invoked to add new terms to the glossary. It presents fields for the source term, target term, and optional comment or F1-F3 fields for additional data. | | Controlled Natural Language (CNL) | A subset of a natural language that restricts grammar and vocabulary to minimize ambiguity and complexity, often used to improve readability for humans or enable reliable automatic semantic analysis. | | Simplified Technical English | A type of controlled language designed to improve the quality of technical documentation and facilitate (semi-)automatic translation by imposing restrictions on writers, such as sentence length, pronoun usage, and approved vocabulary. | | Caterpillar Technical English (CTE) | A controlled language developed by Caterpillar Inc. to ensure consistency and high quality in technical documentation and translation, featuring a restricted vocabulary of approximately 850 words. | | Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE) | Another controlled language from Caterpillar Inc., likely similar in purpose to Caterpillar Technical English, aimed at supporting the authoring and translation of extensive technical documentation for complex machinery. | | ASD Simplified Technical English (ASD-STE) | A specific standard for controlled technical English, widely adopted in industries like aerospace, which provides a set of rules to ensure clarity and reduce ambiguity in technical documentation. | | CLOUT™ | An acronym for Controlled Language Optimized for Uniform Translation, representing a set of rules developed to reduce ambiguities in texts across many languages, thereby improving suitability for machine translation. | | Ambiguity | The quality of being open to more than one interpretation; uncertainty of meaning, which controlled natural languages aim to eliminate or significantly reduce in technical documentation. | | Semantic Analysis | The process of understanding the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a language, which controlled natural languages are designed to facilitate for reliable automatic processing. | | Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tools | Software applications designed to aid human translators in the translation process, often by leveraging features like translation memory and terminology management. These tools aim to increase efficiency and consistency. | | Technical Equipment Documentation | The written materials, manuals, guides, and specifications that accompany machinery, software, or other technological products, detailing their operation, maintenance, and features. The increasing volume of this documentation drove technological advancements in translation. | | Electronic Content | Information that exists in a digital format and can be reproduced or displayed across various media and platforms. The need to translate and manage electronic content in different formats spurred the development of specialized translation technologies. | | Communicative Functions | The specific purposes or intentions behind a piece of text, such as informing, persuading, instructing, or entertaining. Documents with diverse communicative functions require nuanced translation approaches, which technology has helped to streamline. | | Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) | A set of computer applications specifically designed to efficiently assist the translator in their task, aiming to automatically and rapidly provide all necessary resources for their work. | | Translation Memory eXchange (TMX) | An open, standard format for storing and exchanging translation memory data, ensuring compatibility between various CAT tools like Trados, MemoQ, and Wordfast. | | Project Management Software | Software used in CAT workflows to manage the translation process, including controlling information flow, assigning tasks, ensuring quality control, analyzing content, generating reports on matches and repetitions, performing word counts, and managing final delivery to the client. | | Full Matches | Occurrences within a document where a segment is an exact match to a segment already present in the translation memory, indicating that the entire segment has been translated before. | | Fuzzy Matches | Occurrences within a document where a segment is similar but not identical to a segment in the translation memory, requiring the translator to review and adapt the existing translation. | | Intra-file Repetitions | Identical or similar segments that appear multiple times within the same document, which can be leveraged by CAT tools for efficiency. | | Cross-file Repetitions | Identical or similar segments that appear across different documents, allowing for consistency and efficiency when translating related projects. | | Header | The section of a translation memory file that contains metadata about the file itself and the localization process, providing context and administrative information. | | Body | The main section of a translation memory file that contains the core translation data, specifically the translation units and their associated source and target segments. | | Sentence Alignment Process | The procedure of matching corresponding sentences between a source text and its translation, enabling the creation of translation memories or comparable corpora. | | Automated Alignment | The process of using software tools to automatically match sentences in a source document with their corresponding translations in a target document based on filename linkage and textual analysis. | | Linguistic Verification | The manual review and correction of automatically generated sentence alignments by a human linguist to ensure accuracy and fix any mismatches or synchronization issues. | | Source Files | The original documents or texts that serve as the basis for translation. | | Target Files | The documents or texts that contain the translations of the source files. | | Quality Score | A metric generated by alignment tools, often based on internal algorithms, to indicate the confidence level or success rate of the automated sentence alignment. | | Corpus | A collection of written or spoken texts, often used for linguistic research, analysis, or training machine translation models. | | Tags | Formatting or variable information within files that is converted during the translation process, which alignment tools can use as a guide for matching segments. | | Segments | Individual units of text, typically sentences or phrases, that are aligned between source and target documents. | | Term Base | A database that stores single words or expressions pertaining to a specific subject, often in a bilingual or multilingual format, used to ensure consistency and accuracy in translation projects. | | CAT Tools | Computer-Assisted Translation tools that integrate features like term bases and glossaries to assist translators in managing terminology and streamlining the translation process. | | Consistency | The state of maintaining uniformity in the core message and terminology across multiple translation projects, especially when several collaborators are involved, which is facilitated by the use of term bases. | | Forbidden Terms | Specific words or expressions that translators are instructed not to use in their translations, managed within term bases to prevent the use of unwanted terminology. | | Terminology Management | The systematic process of identifying, collecting, organizing, and standardizing terms and their definitions within a specific domain, crucial for effective translation and communication. | | Bilingual Glossary | A glossary containing terms and their translations in two languages, commonly used to ensure that specific terminology is translated accurately between those two languages. | | Multilingual Glossary | A glossary that includes terms and their translations in more than two languages, facilitating translation across multiple language pairs within a single resource. | | LSP | Language Service Provider, an organization that offers translation and localization services, often utilizing term bases and glossaries to manage client-specific terminology and ensure project consistency. | | Project Manager (PM) | The individual responsible for overseeing a translation project, who can use term bases to verify the consistency of terminology even if they do not speak the target language. | | Controlled Language | A subset of natural language that has been restricted in its grammar and vocabulary to simplify writing and improve the accuracy and consistency of machine translation and other automated processes. | | Return on Investment (ROI) | A performance measure used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment, in this context, assessing whether pre-editing or post-editing is more cost-effective. | | Revision | The process of improving human-generated text, distinct from post-editing which specifically addresses machine-generated output. | | International Service Language | A specific type of controlled language developed by Kodak, designed to facilitate communication across international service teams. | | Nortel Standard English (NSE) | A controlled language developed by Nortel, which imposes grammatical and stylistic rules on English text to ensure consistency and reduce misinterpretation. | | Simplified Technical English (STE) | A controlled language, notably used by Rolls-Royce and Saab Systems, that adheres to a strict set of rules to simplify technical writing and enhance comprehension. | | ASD-STE100 | The official specification document for Simplified Technical English, providing the detailed rules and guidelines for its implementation. | | CLOUT™ rule set | An acronym for Controlled Language Optimized for Uniform Translation, this is a set of rules developed by Uwe Muegge to minimize ambiguities in texts, making them more suitable for machine translation. | | Machine Translation | The use of computer software to translate text or speech from one language to another automatically. | | Grammatically Complete Sentence | A sentence that contains both a subject and a predicate and expresses a complete thought, adhering to the structural rules of a language. | | Active Form | A grammatical construction where the subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb, as opposed to the passive form where the subject receives the action. | | Pronoun | A word that can function as a noun substitute, such as "it," "he," "she," or "they." | | Article | A word, such as "a," "an," or "the," that precedes a noun and specifies its grammatical definiteness. | | Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tool | Software designed to assist human translators in the translation process. These tools often integrate features like translation memory, terminology management, and quality assurance checks to enhance productivity and accuracy. | | Translation Environment Tool (TEnT) | An alternative term for a Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tool, emphasizing its role in providing a comprehensive environment for translation workflows. | | Inline Markup Elements | Special codes or tags within a document that represent formatting, tags, or other non-translatable content. Both TMX and XLIFF handle these elements, though with different methods. | | Encapsulation Method | A technique used in file formats to enclose native codes (inline markup) within specific elements, ensuring they are preserved during translation. TMX primarily uses this method. | | Placeholder Method | A technique where native codes are removed from the main text and replaced with short elements that refer to them. This method is supported by XLIFF, often in conjunction with a "Skeleton file." | | Target Locale | The specific geographical region, country, or cultural group for which a product or service is being adapted and made available. | | Engagement | The degree to which a message or product captures the attention and interest of the target audience, often enhanced by tailoring content to local expectations and cultural relevance. | | Cultural Adaptation | The process of modifying content, design, and functionality to align with the customs, values, beliefs, and traditions of a specific culture or target audience. | | Legal Requirements | The set of laws and regulations that a product or service must comply with in a specific country or region, which may necessitate customization or changes to fit regulatory compliance, privacy laws, labeling, encryption, and tax collection. | | Simship | The simultaneous release of products across all local markets, aiming for a unified global launch. | | Time-to-market | The speed at which products are introduced to the market, with faster schedules becoming increasingly common in the industry. | | Internationalisation (I18N) | The process of designing and developing products in a way that avoids the need for re-design for each specific local market. | | Localisation (L10N) | The adaptation of products and their accompanying documentation to the specific language and cultural nuances of target markets. | | Terminology Extraction | The automated process of identifying and extracting key terms from source texts to build or enrich terminology databases. | | Software Localisation | The adaptation of software applications to a specific language and culture, including text, graphics, and user interface elements. | | Project Management (Translation) | The oversight and coordination of all aspects of a translation project, from initial assignment and resource allocation to quality control and final delivery. | | Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) | A system that uses software tools to assist human translators in the translation process, encompassing features like translation memory, terminology management, and project management. | | Translation Unit (TU) | A pair of source and target text segments that have been translated and stored together in a translation memory, representing a complete translation of a specific piece of text. | | Exact Match (100% Match) | A situation where a source segment in the current document exactly matches a segment already stored in the translation memory, allowing for direct reuse of the previous translation. | | Concordance | A feature in translation tools that allows a translator to search the translation memory for specific words or phrases within source segments, retrieving all occurrences and their corresponding translations. | | Term Base (Glossary) | A database containing single words or expressions related to a specific subject, often bilingual or multilingual, used to ensure consistent and correct terminology in translations. | | Localization (L10N) | The process of adapting a product or content to a specific local market, which goes beyond simple translation to include cultural, legal, and technical adaptations to meet the needs of local users. |

# Localization is essential for meeting cultural expectations and maintaining brand identity Localization is a crucial process in the translation industry, particularly for multinational companies developing products for global markets. It involves adapting products and documentation to the specific language and culture of target markets. This adaptation is essential not only for meeting the cultural expectations of users but also for maintaining a consistent and recognizable brand identity across different regions [21](#page=21). ### 1.1 The evolution and challenges of the language industry The increasing volume of documentation accompanying technical equipment and the economic development of companies have driven the need for efficient translation tools. This includes handling similar and updated documents, as well as those with diverse communicative functions. Furthermore, the rise of electronic content that needs reproduction in various formats has added complexity to the translation landscape [8](#page=8). The industry faces several challenges, including: * **Simultaneous product launches:** Multinational companies aim for "simship," meaning products must appear on all local markets simultaneously [21](#page=21). * **Faster time-to-market:** The pace of product introduction is accelerating, requiring quicker translation and localization processes [21](#page=21). * **Internationalization (I18N):** Products must be designed to avoid the need for re-design for each local market [21](#page=21). * **Localization (L10N):** Products and documentation require adaptation to the language and culture of target markets [21](#page=21). * **Technological advancements:** The development and specialization in computer software, including translation and localization software, are constant. This leads to a proliferation of tools like Translation Memory (TM), Alignment, Terminology Management, Terminology Extraction, Software Localization, Project Management, and Machine Translation. The industry also sees an increase in plug-ins, interfaces, features, options, and variants, alongside a high frequency and speed of updates. Compatibility issues and the necessity for continuous upgrading of both software and user skills are significant concerns [22](#page=22). * **Electronic file formats:** The proliferation of diverse electronic file formats (Office, DTP, Markup, Software) and their continuous development presents ongoing challenges. Modifications in formats with new software versions require file preparation and post-processing, creating new areas of activity for translators. Translators need to continuously update their technical know-how, adapt workflows, and modify translation strategies due to new tools [23](#page=23). ### 1.2 History and development of translation memory systems The origins of translation memory (TM) systems can be traced back to the early 1960s [9](#page=9). #### 1.2.1 Early steps in TM development * **1960-1965: Federal Armed Forces Translation Agency, Mannheim, Germany:** This initiative focused on a text-related glossary approach. Translators underlined English words for which they needed German equivalents. These words were then processed after morphological reduction and fed into a computer. Words found in the database were printed as text-related glossaries in the order they appeared in the text [9](#page=9). * **1960-1965: European Coal and Steel Community, Luxembourg:** This project explored automatic dictionary look-up with context. Underlining words prompted the system to keypunch the entire sentence and feed it into the computer. The computer then searched for sentences with the most lexical item matches to the input sentences, returning the desired items with their context. Data from each query was added to the database [11](#page=11). * **1980-1990: Interactive Translation System (ITS), Alan Melby, Brigham Young University, USA:** This system proposed a three-level approach to Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) [13](#page=13). * Level 1 included an editor, terminology management, and telecommunication [13](#page=13). * Level 2 supported source text in electronic form, text analysis (dynamic concordance), automatic terminology look-up, and synchronized bilingual text files created from completed translations [13](#page=13). * Level 3 aimed for integration with machine translation systems [13](#page=13). #### 1.2.2 First commercial systems Several companies emerged in the mid-1980s and early 1990s, developing and commercializing TM software: * **1984: TRADOS (TRAnslation & DOcumentation Software), Germany:** Established by Jochen Hummel and Iko zu Knyphausen, TRADOS transitioned from a translation provider to a software developer. Key product launches included TED (Translation Editor including TM) in 1988, MultiTerm (terminology management) in 1990, and Translator's Workbench (TM, editor, and MultiTerm) in 1992 for DOS. The company later moved to the Windows platform in 1993 and was acquired by SDL International in 2005 [14](#page=14). * **1984: STAR (Software Translation Artwork Recording), Switzerland:** STAR offered translation and documentation services alongside software development. Their first TM system, Transit (DOS), was launched in 1991, including TermStar terminology management software. They transitioned to Windows with Transit/TermStar 2.0 in 1994 [15](#page=15). * **1993: ATRIL, Spain:** ATRIL launched its first TM tool for Windows 3.1 in 1993, featuring an interface for MS Word for Windows. By 1996, the system was redesigned as 32-bit Windows software, creating an integrated translation environment with a proprietary two-column editor and terminology management module, dropping the Word interface entirely [16](#page=16). * **1992: IBM Germany:** IBM launched Translation Manager/2 (TM/2) in 1992 for the OS/2 operating system. A Windows version followed. This system was notable for including linguistic resources for 19 languages, such as lemmatizers, morphological data, and inflection rules [17](#page=17). #### 1.2.3 Current market situation The market for CAT tools includes various players such as Across, DéjàVu, MemoQ, MultiTrans, SDL Trados, SDLX, and Wordfast [18](#page=18). ### 1.3 Translation workflow with CAT tools The introduction of Translation Memory (TM) systems significantly impacts the translation workflow. When a new translation project begins using a TM system, the TM is initially empty [19](#page=19). #### 1.3.1 Segmentation and retrieval * The source language text is imported or opened in the editor and segmented into "translation units" based on predefined segmentation rules, typically punctuation, with user-defined exceptions for elements like abbreviations [19](#page=19). * The active segment is automatically looked up in the TM [20](#page=20). * If an identical or "similar" segment is found, the associated translation is displayed and can be selected or modified by the translator for insertion into the target text [20](#page=20). * If no matching segment is found, the translator enters a new translation. This new translation is then stored in the TM alongside its source segment, becoming immediately available for future identical or similar source segments [20](#page=20). * This process results in the TM being populated incrementally as the translation progresses [20](#page=20). #### 1.3.2 Post-translation steps Following the initial translation, the workflow typically includes: * Updating of resources (e.g., TM, terminology databases) [52](#page=52). * Revision of the translated text [52](#page=52). * Generation of the final translated document [52](#page=52). * A final review [52](#page=52). ### 1.4 Key components of Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) tools CAT tools are defined as a series of computer applications designed to efficiently assist translators. Their primary objective is to provide translators with rapid access to necessary resources. The use of CAT tools leads to increased productivity, as they streamline various tasks. Proficiency in CAT tools is a sought-after competency by agencies and institutions. The European Commission highlights the importance of mastering CAT tools and terminology management software, along with common office applications [32](#page=32) [35](#page=35). It's crucial to distinguish between Machine Translation (MT) and Computer-Aided Translation (CAT). MT is performed by a machine (e.g., Google Translate), whereas CAT involves a human translator using various assistance tools. MT can be integrated into CAT systems [36](#page=36). Essential CAT tools include [37-41, 43, 46, 47](#page=37, #page=38, #page=41, #page=43, #page=46, #page=47): 1. **Project Management Software:** Controls information flow, assigns tasks, manages quality control, analyzes content, generates reports (e.g., full/fuzzy matches, repetitions), counts words, and handles final delivery [37](#page=37). 2. **Translation Memory (TM) Software:** Stores previous translations, ensures terminological and phraseological consistency, and facilitates the retrieval of translation units for productivity. Typical file extensions for TM include `.tmx` (Translation Memory eXchange - standard, open format), `.sdltm` (proprietary format of SDL Trados Studio), and `.txt`/.`csv` (plain text or spreadsheet formats) [38](#page=38). 3. **Terminology Management Software:** Enables the creation and management of glossaries from ongoing translations. Popular examples include RWS Trados Multiterm, Wordfast, and MemSource. Standard formats are `.tbx` (TermBase eXchange - open standard) and `.sdltb` (proprietary format of SDL Trados Studio) [41](#page=41). 4. **Alignment Software:** Creates TM from an original text and its translation by identifying segment correspondences. This function is useful for building a TM from existing documents (e.g., Word files) that were previously translated without CAT tools [43](#page=43) [46](#page=46). 5. **Localization Tools:** Specifically designed for translating software, video games, or websites [47](#page=47). ### 1.5 Understanding Translation Memory Files A Translation Memory (TM) file is fundamentally a structured text file. While file extensions like `*.tmx` or `*.xliff` might suggest specialized software is needed, these files can be opened and understood using standard text editors. Most TM files are not "black boxes" but rather functional, structured text files, typically in XML (Extensible Markup Language) format [66](#page=66). #### 1.5.1 Information stored in TM files The primary information stored includes: * Segments (source and target) [67](#page=67). * Language information [67](#page=67). * Creation dates and times [67](#page=67). Additional data that may be stored: * Author [67](#page=67). * Usage count [67](#page=67). * Change dates and times [67](#page=67). * Creation tool [67](#page=67). * Domain (field of expertise) [67](#page=67). * Alternate translations [67](#page=67). * Notes [67](#page=67). #### 1.5.2 Typical TM file formats The two most prevalent industry-standard file types are XLIFF and TMX, both based on XML. Spreadsheet formats like Excel (`.xls`) or comma-separated value (`.csv`) can also be used, though they store less data per translation unit [68](#page=68). XML is favored for TM files due to several advantages: * **Parsability:** XML's well-defined structure makes it easy to parse [68](#page=68). * **Semantic tagging:** Tags like `` or `` provide meaning to the data [68](#page=68). * **Tool support:** Numerous software tools are built to validate, import, parse, and search XML files [68](#page=68). * **Interoperability:** A well-defined structure allows different applications and systems to exchange data effectively [68](#page=68). ##### 1.5.2.1 Header and Body structure TMX and XLIFF files typically consist of a header and a body (#page=69, #page=72) [69](#page=69) [72](#page=72). * **Header:** Contains metadata about the file and the localization process. The semantic naming of XML tags makes headers human-readable. Examples of TMX and XLIFF headers are provided (#page=70, #page=71) [69](#page=69) [70](#page=70) [71](#page=71). * **Body:** Contains the most critical data: translation units and segments. Examples of TMX and XLIFF bodies illustrate this structure (#page=73, #page=74) [72](#page=72) [73](#page=73) [74](#page=74). #### 1.5.3 Importance of TM files TM files are vital for translators using CAT tools for several reasons [75](#page=75): * **Efficiency:** Loading a TM file allows translators to leverage prior work. If a segment has been translated before, the tool alerts them to the match (or partial match), enabling faster translation [75](#page=75). * **Consistency:** TM files help maintain consistency across projects and clients. Using "client-based" or "project-based" TMs ensures accuracy and adherence to specific terminology or phrases [75](#page=75). ### 1.6 Differences between TMX and XLIFF formats Both TMX and XLIFF are industry-standard, XML-based file types with significant commonalities, including inline markup elements. However, they possess distinct structures and elements due to their slightly different origins and purposes [76](#page=76). Key differences include: * **Purpose:** XLIFF was developed to store extracted text and facilitate data transfer across localization process steps, while TMX was designed specifically for exchanging TM data between tools [76](#page=76). * **Language support:** TMX supports any number of languages within a single document, whereas XLIFF is designed for one source and one target language [76](#page=76). * **Inline codes:** TMX primarily uses encapsulation methods for inline codes, while XLIFF offers both encapsulation and a placeholder method (where native codes are removed and replaced by references) [76](#page=76). * **Order and Rebuilding:** A collection of `` elements in TMX has no specified order and lacks a mechanism for rebuilding the original file. XLIFF, however, is more powerful for reconstructing or rebuilding the original file [76](#page=76) [78](#page=78). * **Additional Data:** XLIFF includes data types and fields not present in TMX, such as pretranslation, history, versioning, and binary objects [76](#page=76). * **Time/Date Data:** TMX files can store time and date data at the translation unit level, a capability XLIFF lacks [76](#page=76). #### 1.6.1 Choosing between TMX and XLIFF Both TMX and XLIFF are robust and widely supported formats. The choice often depends on the specific project, the tools being used, or the format provided by a client. Regardless of the format, utilizing translation memory is vastly superior to not using it. Many tools allow exporting TM data in either format [77](#page=77). For new projects, some authors prefer TMX for two main reasons: * **Time-stamped translation units:** Allow for productivity analysis [78](#page=78). * **Multiple target languages:** Can be stored in a single file [78](#page=78). Conversely, XLIFF is a more powerful choice if reconstructing or rebuilding the original file is a priority [78](#page=78). --- Localization goes beyond simple translation by adapting content to the specific cultural nuances, expectations, and local norms of a target audience. This comprehensive adaptation is crucial for businesses aiming for international success, ensuring a product or message feels authentically created for the local market, regardless of location, culture, or language. It encompasses not just linguistic adaptation but also adjustments to visual elements, formatting, and adherence to local laws and customs . ### 1.1 The difference between translation and localization Translation focuses on converting content from a source language to a target language, adhering to grammar and syntax rules, and preserving the original meaning. It is a fundamental component but represents only one step within the broader localization process . Localization, in contrast, is a more extensive process that tailors a message to local audiences, considering distinct regional variations even within the same language. This involves adapting marketing strategies and ensuring a customized message for each local audience to build trust. Cultural barriers can hinder understanding, making localization essential for effective communication beyond mere linguistic conversion . ### 1.2 Meeting cultural expectations through localization Localization is vital for meeting the cultural expectations of local markets, allowing businesses to globalize effectively while maintaining a consistent brand identity worldwide. Companies like Coca-Cola demonstrate this by adapting campaigns to local markets, ensuring brand recognition through consistent elements like company colors, while adjusting marketing strategies to meet specific regional expectations . In China, for example, Coca-Cola adapted its product name to "kekou kele" (delicious happiness) and developed a local marketing strategy, involving local experts to respect the distinct culture. This approach involves more than just translating content; it's about integrating with the local culture through a cultural approach, making the local public feel the content was built specifically for them . ### 1.3 Elements requiring localization beyond text A successful localization process requires attention to numerous details beyond textual translation to bridge cultural barriers and enhance user experience. These include : * **Colors:** Meanings of colors vary significantly across cultures. For instance, red might signify danger, white death, and orange mourning in different regions. Thorough research is necessary before targeting new audiences . * **Layout:** Different languages have varying text expansion rates. A flexible layout is needed to accommodate text of different lengths that results from translation. English to other languages can cause text to expand by 30% to 100% . * **Visuals:** Images and photos must be adapted to local cultures. A Western depiction of a mother and child might not resonate with or could even offend audiences in other regions . * **Units of Measurement:** Most countries use the metric system. Conversion of measurement units is necessary for clarity . * **Contracts and Agreements:** Compliance with local regulations is essential when conducting business internationally to avoid legal issues, penalties, or website bans . * **Currency units:** Currency amounts and their symbols need localization. For example, converting from dollars to pounds sterling and showing equivalent amounts requires currency conversion . * **Paper size:** Document designs may need adjustment if they are formatted for a different paper standard, such as A4 versus American letter size, which can affect formatting and page breaks . * **Date formats:** Differences in date formats (e.g., MM/DD/YY vs. DD/MM/YY) are crucial and can lead to misinterpretation . * **Text length:** Localization must account for text expansion, necessitating flexible text length in products or documents . ### 1.4 Broader localization considerations Beyond the immediate content, localization requires consideration of various conventions and legal requirements specific to the target locale . * **Economic conventions:** This includes variations in paper sizes, preferred storage media, broadcast TV systems, phone number formats, delivery services, postal codes, postal address formats, currency symbols, measurement systems, and electrical standards . * **Third-party providers:** Variations in payment service providers, weather reports, and online map presentations need to be addressed . * **Time zones:** Translators must carefully consider differences in time zones . * **Legal requirements:** Products may need customization or complete changes to comply with specific country regulations, such as privacy laws, disclaimers, consumer labeling, encryption and export restrictions, subpoena procedures, Internet censorship, tax collections (customs duties, VAT, sales tax), and accessibility requirements . * **Political issues:** Sensitivity to political matters, including disputed borders and geographical naming disputes, is important . * **Government numbers:** Consideration for numbers assigned by governments, such as national identification numbers and Social Security Numbers, is necessary . * **Cultural appropriateness:** Local holidays, title conventions, personal name conventions, aesthetics, colors, images, local architecture, socioeconomic status, clothing, and ethnicity must be taken into account . * **Local customs and taboos:** Care must be given to local customs, superstitions, religions, and social taboos . ### 1.5 Specific localization examples Localization is applied across various media to ensure cultural relevance and user engagement. * **Video game localization:** This process aims to make video games fully understandable to consumers. It involves an audit of materials, the localization process itself (which can take weeks or months), programming translated texts into the game, rigorous quality control to check for errors and system issues, and finally, manufacturer's approval to ensure the localized content meets original requirements . * **Movie localization:** Given the high cost of reshooting entire movies in different languages, localization offers a more efficient and cost-effective solution for global distribution. The two primary methods are dubbing, where voice actors replace original dialogue and timing is critical to match character movements and speech, and subtitling, where translated spoken lines are displayed at the bottom of the screen with limited characters and display times, requiring precision and synchronization with dialogue and actions . > **Tip:** Localization is not merely a translation task; it is a strategic adaptation that requires a deep understanding of the target culture, market, and legal landscape. > **Tip:** Effective localization builds trust and rapport with local audiences, which is essential for a business's success in foreign markets. --- Localization is critical for businesses operating in global markets to ensure they resonate with diverse audiences and maintain a consistent brand image. This process goes beyond simple translation, involving the adaptation of products, services, and content to meet the specific cultural, linguistic, and market needs of a target region. Failure to localize effectively can lead to costly mistakes, misunderstandings, and damage to brand reputation . ### 1.1 The scope and importance of localization Localization encompasses a wide range of materials, including websites, mobile applications, and software, all of which need to be adapted to gain traction and user engagement in different markets. For global businesses, a localized brand or product website is paramount to appearing local and avoiding a "foreign" perception . ### 1.2 Costly localization blunders Several high-profile examples highlight the financial and reputational risks of inadequate localization: * **HSBC's rebranding campaign**: A mistranslation of the tagline "Assume Nothing" to "Do Nothing" in several countries cost the company USD 10 million USD to rectify . * **Pepsi's logo redesign in China**: The slogan "Pepsi Brings You Back to Life" was translated to mean "Pepsi Brings Your Ancestors Back from the Grave," leading to a cultural backlash . * **NASA's Mars Orbiter metric mix-up**: A failure to correctly convert between metric and imperial units resulted in the loss of the USD 125 million USD Mars Climate Orbiter mission . * **Canadian Maple Leaf Coin error**: A mistranslation of "Souvenir du Canada" to "Souverain du Canada" led to the recall and replacement of approximately 30 million Canadian dollars worth of coins . * **2012 London Olympics ticket website**: The Welsh version mistranslated "See Tickets" as "Gweld Tocynnau" instead of "Prynu Tocynnau," misdirecting users and causing financial losses . * **Siri's gender-biased responses**: Apple's virtual assistant faced criticism for perpetuating gender stereotypes in various languages, implying certain job positions were exclusive to men in Chinese . ### 1.3 Internationalization and localization principles for websites Internationalization (#i18n) is the foundation for effective localization. It involves designing and developing websites with the capacity for easy adaptation to different languages and cultures. Key principles include : * **Unicode Standard**: Ensures compatibility with diverse writing systems and languages . * **Separation of Content and Code**: Facilitates translation without extensive code modifications . * **Flexible User Interface (UI)**: Accommodates varying text lengths and reading directions . * **Locale-specific formats**: Adapting date, time, and number formats to regional conventions . * **Culturally Neutral Images and Icons**: Using neutral visuals or providing alternatives for different regions . The localization (#L10n) process for websites involves several stages: * **Translation of Content**: Adapting text and multimedia, considering linguistic and cultural nuances . * **Adaptation of Graphics and Multimedia**: Ensuring visuals are culturally appropriate . * **Adjustment of Layout and Design**: Modifying the presentation to suit language-specific needs . * **Integration of Local Regulations**: Complying with legal and regulatory requirements . * **Testing and Quality Assurance**: Rigorous validation of functionality, accuracy, and cultural appropriateness . ### 1.4 Web localization versus other audiovisual products Websites present unique localization challenges compared to static products like applications or games: * **Dynamic Content**: Requires real-time updates, complicating the localization process . * **SEO Considerations**: Effective localization of metadata, keywords, and tags is vital for search engine visibility . * **Cultural Sensitivity**: As public-facing platforms, websites demand meticulous attention to cultural nuances . * **Continuous Updates**: Frequent website updates necessitate ongoing localization efforts . ### 1.5 Translation for SEO: Enhancing international web presence Professional translators play a crucial role in optimizing website content for international markets and enhancing global online visibility through Search Engine Optimization (SEO). Key considerations include : * **Keyword Research**: Identifying relevant terms and phrases in the target language and region, including linguistic variations and colloquialisms . * **Cultural Relevance**: Choosing keywords that resonate with the target audience and avoiding literal translations that may sound unnatural . * **Localized Content**: Ensuring translated content is linguistically accurate and culturally appropriate, aligning with local customs and market trends . * **Metadata Optimization**: Translating and optimizing meta titles, meta descriptions, and URL slugs to be compelling and incorporate relevant keywords . * **Multilingual Link Building**: Collaborating to build high-quality, multilingual backlinks from reputable local websites . * **Content Structure and Formatting**: Maintaining a user-friendly structure with headers and bullet points for readability and SEO value . * **Mobile Optimization**: Ensuring translated content is mobile-friendly and optimizing media for fast loading times . * **Regular Updates**: Staying informed about algorithm changes and updating content to reflect current trends . * **Analytics and Reporting**: Monitoring website analytics to assess content performance and refine SEO strategies . * **Communication with Clients**: Understanding business goals and collaborating on a strategy that aligns translation with marketing initiatives . ### 1.6 The significance of web page metadata and the role of professional translators Metadata, including meta titles and descriptions, is pivotal for a website's visibility and search engine ranking. Professional translators are essential for optimizing this metadata for foreign markets by : * **Improving Search Engine Visibility**: Ensuring content is indexed accurately by search engines for a global audience . * **Enhancing User Click-Through Rates**: Crafting compelling and culturally relevant meta titles and descriptions that encourage clicks . * **Ensuring Local Relevance**: Aligning metadata with local expectations and preferences to increase appeal . * **Optimizing Keywords**: Incorporating region-specific terms for better search result placement . * **Maintaining Global Brand Consistency**: Ensuring translated metadata aligns with the brand's tone and message . * **Adhering to Character Limits**: Crafting concise translations that fit within search engine display limits . * **Building Credibility and Trust**: Safeguarding content integrity to establish trust with international users . * **Adapting to Market Trends**: Updating metadata to reflect linguistic and cultural shifts . In essence, collaboration between professional translators and web developers/marketers is crucial for holistic web page optimization in foreign markets, bridging linguistic and cultural gaps to enhance global competitiveness . ### 1.7 Machine Translation (MT) and human roles: Pre-editing and Post-editing The integration of Machine Translation (MT) has introduced new roles for human linguists, primarily pre-editing and post-editing . #### 1.7.1 Pre-editing Pre-editing involves revising technical documentation *before* it undergoes MT to improve the source text and enhance the quality of the raw MT output. An ideal pre-editor is a specialized human editor who can analyze text from an MT engine's perspective to anticipate potential errors. Pre-editing techniques include : * Reducing sentence length. * Avoiding complex or ambiguous syntactic structures. * Ensuring term consistency. * Using articles. * Running automated revision tools like spell-checkers and grammar checkers. * Tagging elements not to be translated. These techniques are also valuable for human translation projects, promoting better downstream quality and productivity . ##### 1.7.1.1 Controlled Natural Language (CNL) Controlled Natural Languages (CNLs) are subsets of natural languages with restricted grammar and vocabulary to reduce ambiguity and complexity. CNLs aim to improve readability for human readers and enable reliable automatic semantic analysis. Examples of simplified or technical languages include Caterpillar Technical English and Simplified Technical English. Writers are restricted by general rules such as keeping sentences short, avoiding pronouns, using only dictionary-approved words, and employing the active voice . * **Examples of CNLs**: ASD Simplified Technical English, Attempto Controlled English, Aviation English, Basic English, E-Prime, and many others . * **CNLs in Companies**: Avaya (ACE), Boeing (STE), Caterpillar (CTE, CFE), Dassault Aerospace, Ericsson, General Motors (CASL), IBM (Easy English), Kodak, Rolls-Royce, Xerox, and others utilize controlled languages . ##### 1.7.1.2 Controlled Language Rules (Example: CLOUT™) Controlled language rules are designed to reduce ambiguity and are beneficial for machine translation. The CLOUT™ rule set, developed by Uwe Muegge, provides examples : * **Rule 1**: Write sentences shorter than 25 words . * **Rule 2**: Express only one idea per sentence . * **Rule 3**: Use the same sentence structure for the same content . * **Rule 4**: Write grammatically complete sentences . * **Rule 5**: Use simple grammatical structures . * **Rule 6**: Write in the active form . * **Rule 7**: Repeat nouns instead of using pronouns . * **Rule 8**: Use articles to identify nouns . * **Rule 9**: Use words from a general dictionary . * **Rule 10**: Use only words with correct spelling . ##### 1.7.1.3 When to consider pre-editing Pre-editing ROI (Return On Investment) is most beneficial when a technical document is to be translated into more than three languages, especially when translating into dozens of languages. However, if the source quality is already high and the MT engine is well-tuned, light post-editing might suffice . ##### 1.7.1.4 Tools for pre-editing Tools can facilitate source creation and pre-editing: * **Source content memory**: Provides feedback to writers on content similarity . * **Generic pre-editing plugins/rules**: Help reformulate source text before MT . * **Simplified Technical English/Controlled Language tools**: Automate writing rules for localization . * **Custom tools**: Identify spelling, grammar, and preferred terminology. Grammarly is cited as an example . #### 1.7.2 Post-editing Post-editing (or postediting) is the process of amending machine-generated translations to achieve an acceptable final product. It is distinct from editing human-generated text (revision). Post-editing aims to correct MT output to meet negotiated quality levels . * **Light post-editing**: Aims for basic understandability, often for inbound purposes or urgent needs . * **Full post-editing**: Aims for understandability and stylistic appropriateness, suitable for dissemination and outbound use. At its highest level, it strives for quality indistinguishable from human translation . ##### 1.7.2.1 Post-editing strategies The required level of post-editing varies, with key considerations being time, quality, and cost . ##### 1.7.2.2 Post-editing guidelines The effort in post-editing depends on the MT raw output quality and the expected end quality . * **For quality similar to human translation/revision ("publishable quality")**: Full post-editing is usually recommended. This involves aiming for grammatically, syntactically, and semantically correct translation, ensuring correct terminology, no added/omitted information, and proper formatting . * **For "good enough" or "fit for purpose" quality**: Light post-editing is recommended. This level means the text is comprehensible and accurate but may not be stylistically compelling, with potentially unusual syntax or minor grammatical imperfections. The focus is on semantic correctness, accuracy, and editing inappropriate content . ##### 1.7.2.3 Decision making in post-editing Quick decision-making is key for successful post-editing. Linguists must promptly decide whether it's more efficient to post-edit MT suggestions or translate from scratch. Over-editing (making purely preferential or unnecessary amendments) and under-editing (leaving errors) should both be avoided. The principle is to use as much of the MT output as possible . ##### 1.7.2.4 Post-editing and the language industry Post-editing is considered a "nascent profession". While it overlaps with translating and editing, its specific skills are still being defined. Many professional translators dislike post-editing due to lower pay rates compared to conventional translations. Efficiency gains are measured by tracking the time linguists spend correcting MT . While precise figures are scarce, a significant percentage of language service providers offer post-editing services, though it often accounts for a small portion of their throughput. Advances in MT, partly driven by feedback from post-edited text, suggest that post-editing will become more widespread as MT quality improves . --- # History of translation memory systems This section details the evolution of translation memory systems from their early conceptual stages to the emergence of commercial products and the current market landscape. ### 2.1 Early steps The foundational concepts for translation memory systems began to emerge in the mid-20th century, driven by the need to automate and streamline translation processes. #### 2.1.1 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) experiments Between 1960 and 1965, the European Coal and Steel Community in Luxembourg explored early forms of automated dictionary lookup with contextual information. This system involved translators underlining words for which they needed assistance. The entire sentence would then be keypunched and processed by a computer. The computer would search its database for sentences that most closely matched the input sentences based on their lexical items. The translator would then receive the requested terms along with their context. Crucially, the data generated from each query was added back to the database, creating a continuously growing repository of translation knowledge [11](#page=11). #### 2.1.2 Interactive Translation System (ITS) In the period between 1980 and 1990, Alan Melby at Brigham Young University in the USA developed the Interactive Translation System (ITS). This system represented a three-level approach to Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) [13](#page=13). * **Level 1:** Focused on the editor, terminology management, and telecommunications aspects of translation [13](#page=13). * **Level 2:** Involved having the source text in an electronic format, performing text analysis (using a dynamic concordance system), enabling automatic terminology lookup, and creating synchronized bilingual text files from completed translations [13](#page=13). * **Level 3:** Aimed at integrating the translator's workstation with a machine translation system [13](#page=13). ### 2.2 First commercial systems The development of commercially available translation memory systems began in the mid-1980s, with several key companies establishing themselves and launching influential products. #### 2.2.1 TRADOS (TRAnslation & DOcumentation Software) TRADOS was established in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1984 by Jochen Hummel and Iko zu Knyphausen. The company transitioned from being a translation service provider to a dedicated software developer [14](#page=14). * **1988:** Launched TED (Translation Editor including first Translation Memory) [14](#page=14). * **1990:** Introduced MultiTerm (DOS), a terminology management software [14](#page=14). * **1992:** Released Translator's Workbench for DOS, which integrated Translation Memory, an editor, and MultiTerm for DOS [14](#page=14). * **1993:** The company switched to the Windows platform (Win 3.1) [14](#page=14). * **2005:** TRADOS was acquired by SDL International [14](#page=14). #### 2.2.2 STAR (Software Translation Artwork Recording) STAR was established in Stein am Rhein, Switzerland, in 1984. This company also offered translation and documentation services alongside software development [15](#page=15). * **1991:** The first version of Transit (DOS) was launched, which included the TermStar terminology management software [15](#page=15). * **1994:** A switch to Windows occurred with Transit/TermStar 2.0 for Windows 3.1 [15](#page=15). #### 2.2.3 ATRIL ATRIL, based in Madrid, Spain, was founded in 1993 [16](#page=16). * **1993:** Launched its first translation memory tool for Windows 3.1, which featured an interface for Microsoft Word for Windows [16](#page=16). * **1996:** The system underwent a significant redesign, becoming 32-bit Windows software. This new version formed an integrated translation environment, including a proprietary two-column editor and a terminology management module, and the Word interface was discontinued [16](#page=16). #### 2.2.4 IBM Germany IBM Germany in Böblingen released the Translation Manager/2 (TM/2) in 1992, operating under IBM's OS/2 operating system [17](#page=17). * A Windows version (Windows 3.1) was launched subsequently [17](#page=17). * TM/2 was notable for being the first system to include linguistic resources for 19 languages, such as lemmatizers, morphological data, and inflection rules [17](#page=17). ### 2.3 Market situation By the time of this document's writing, several prominent translation memory systems were available in the market. These include [18](#page=18): * Across * DéjàVu * MemoQ * MultiTrans * SDL Trados * SDLX * Wordfast --- # Challenges in the translation industry The translation industry faces significant challenges driven by globalization, rapid technological advancements, and evolving market demands, necessitating continuous adaptation from professionals and tools alike. ### 3.1 Globalization and market demands Multinational companies are increasingly developing products for global markets, often aiming for simultaneous introduction across all local markets, a practice known as simship. This trend is compounded by a shrinking time-to-market, meaning product development cycles are becoming faster. To facilitate this, products must be designed in a way that avoids redesign for each local market, a process termed internationalization (I18N). Subsequently, these products and their accompanying documentation need to be adapted to the specific language and cultural nuances of the target markets, a crucial step known as localization (L10N) [21](#page=21). ### 3.2 Technological evolution in translation tools The development and specialization of computer software have profoundly impacted the translation industry. This includes general office applications and, more specifically, translation and localization software. The landscape of these specialized tools is vast and continually expanding, encompassing technologies such as translation memory (TM), alignment tools, terminology management systems, terminology extraction software, software localization tools, project management solutions, and machine translation (MT) [22](#page=22). The integration of these tools is further enhanced by plug-ins and interfaces, which can include filters and other utilities. The constant addition of new features, options, and variants to these software offerings, coupled with the frequency and speed of updates, presents a challenge. Users and software alike require continuous upgrading to maintain compatibility and functionality, a necessity that arises from potential compatibility problems between different versions or systems [22](#page=22). > **Tip:** Staying abreast of the latest software developments and understanding their compatibility requirements is crucial for translators to maintain efficiency and avoid workflow disruptions. ### 3.3 File formats and evolving workflows The proliferation of electronic file formats poses another significant challenge. The industry deals with a huge array of formats, including those from office suites, desktop publishing (DTP) software, markup languages, and software development environments. This ecosystem is dynamic, with continuous development of new file formats and modifications to existing ones in new software versions [23](#page=23). As a result, file preparation and post-processing have emerged as new, critical areas of activity for translators. This necessitates a continuous updating of technical know-how and an adaptation of old workflows to accommodate new tools and processes. Consequently, translation strategies may need to be modified to leverage the capabilities of these new tools effectively [23](#page=23). > **Example:** A translator might previously have worked with simple text files for a user manual. Now, with the advent of DTP software and complex markup languages, they must be proficient in preparing and post-processing files in formats like .indd or .xml, often requiring specialized software and techniques to ensure accurate translation and formatting. --- # Metadata in computer-assisted translation Metadata in computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools is crucial for managing, leveraging, and ensuring the quality of translation projects [85](#page=85). ### 4.1 Definition and purpose of metadata Metadata is defined as "data that describes data, providing additional information about digital content and processes". In the context of CAT tools, it offers machine-understandable information about translation resources and the translation process itself. The primary purpose of metadata in CAT is to facilitate the efficient management and reuse of translation data, thereby increasing productivity and consistency. It allows for the filtering of previous translations to reuse more recent or trustworthy material [85](#page=85) [86](#page=86) [87](#page=87). ### 4.2 Types of metadata There are three main types of metadata relevant to CAT tools: * **Descriptive metadata:** Describes the content itself [85](#page=85). * **Structural metadata:** Describes the organization of objects or components within the translation project [85](#page=85). * **Administrative metadata:** Describes technical information, such as file types, creation dates, and usage statistics [85](#page=85). ### 4.3 Metadata within translation memory files Translation Memory (TM) files, which are central to CAT tools, are essentially structured text files, often in XML format, that store translation and linguistic data. These files contain various types of information, including [66](#page=66): * **Main information:** * Segments (source and target) [67](#page=67). * Language [67](#page=67). * Creation dates and times [67](#page=67). * **Additional data (metadata):** * Author [67](#page=67). * Usage count [67](#page=67). * Change dates and times [67](#page=67). * Creation tool [67](#page=67). * Domain (field) [67](#page=67). * Alternate translations [67](#page=67). * Notes [67](#page=67). The header of TM files typically contains metadata about the file and the localization process, making the files human-readable due to the semantic naming of XML tags. The body of the file contains the crucial translation units and segments [69](#page=69) [72](#page=72). > **Tip:** Even though TM files might have specialized extensions like \*.tmx or \*.xliff, they can often be opened and inspected with standard text editors, revealing their structured nature [66](#page=66). ### 4.4 Metadata in CAT tool functions Metadata plays a role in various functions within CAT tools: #### 4.4.1 Analysis and Parsing * **Textual parsing:** Recognizes punctuation (e.g., differentiating between a full stop at the end of a sentence and in an abbreviation) and handles markup, which is a form of pre-editing. This is crucial for distinguishing translatable elements from untranslatable ones like proper names or codes [62](#page=62). * **Linguistic parsing:** Reduces words to their base form for term retrieval from term banks and uses syntactic parsing to extract multi-word terms or phraseology, helping to normalize word order variations [62](#page=62). #### 4.4.2 Segmentation Segmentation divides source texts into smaller, manageable units (segments) for translation. Metadata associated with segments, such as translator, date, and time, allows for tracing and managing these units effectively. This enables translators to leverage more recent material or avoid segments with outdated terminology. Incorrect manual segmentation can lead to errors being repeated in future translations if not corrected [63](#page=63) [84](#page=84). #### 4.4.3 Alignment Alignment establishes correspondences between source and target segments. This process is fundamental to creating translation memories from existing parallel texts [63](#page=63). #### 4.4.4 Retrieval and Matching * **Exact match (100% match):** Occurs when a source segment in the current document is identical character-by-character to a segment already stored in the TM [64](#page=64). * **In-Context Exact (ICE) match or Guaranteed Match:** An exact match occurring in the same context, such as the same location within a paragraph, considering surrounding sentences and file attributes [64](#page=64). * **Fuzzy match:** Occurs when a segment is not an exact match but shares a degree of similarity (e.g., 0% to less than 100%) with a TM entry. The percentage scoring is system-dependent and not universally comparable [64](#page=64). * **Concordance:** Allows searching for segment pairs based on specific words or phrases within a source segment, useful for finding translations of terms and idioms when a dedicated terminology database is not available [64](#page=64). Metadata helps filter previous translations, ensuring that more recent or trustworthy material is reused [87](#page=87). #### 4.4.5 Updating and Management TMs are updated with new translations once accepted by the translator. Metadata allows for modifications, deletions, or saving multiple translations for the same source segment. On-surface, CAT tools use metadata to trace segments back to translators, dates, and times, enabling effective TM resource management by language service providers. However, potential loss of important metadata during format transfers can lead to software interoperability issues and lock users into specific tools [64](#page=64) [84](#page=84). #### 4.4.6 Networking Networking features in CAT tools allow groups of translators to collaborate, sharing translated segments and TM data, which can accelerate the translation process and facilitate error correction among team members [65](#page=65). ### 4.5 Key TM file formats and metadata considerations Two prevalent industry-standard file types for TM data are TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) and XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format), both based on XML [68](#page=68). * **TMX:** * Designed for exchanging TM data between tools [76](#page=76). * Can accommodate any number of languages within a single document [76](#page=76). * Uses encapsulation methods for inline codes [76](#page=76). * A collection of \`\` elements has no specific order and lacks a mechanism to rebuild the original file [76](#page=76). * Can store time and date data at the translation unit level [76](#page=76). * Authors sometimes prefer TMX for its time-stamping capabilities (useful for productivity analysis) and support for multiple target languages [78](#page=78). * **XLIFF:** * Created as a format to store extracted text and facilitate data transfer through the localization process [76](#page=76). * Designed to work with one source and one target language at a time [76](#page=76). * Provides both encapsulation and placeholder methods for inline codes [76](#page=76). * Adds data types and fields not present in TMX, such as pre-translation, history, versioning, and binary objects [76](#page=76). * More powerful for reconstructing or rebuilding the original file [78](#page=78). While both formats are robust and widely supported, the choice often depends on the specific project, tool, or provided TM files. Regardless of the format, using translation memory is significantly more beneficial than not using it [77](#page=77). > **Example:** A TMX file might contain metadata like `creationdate="20230115T103000Z"` for a translation unit, indicating when it was first created, which can be vital for productivity analysis. An XLIFF file, conversely, might include fields for versioning or history tracking that TMX lacks [67](#page=67) [76](#page=76). ### 4.6 Metadata and productivity/consistency Metadata is fundamental to the efficiency and consistency gains provided by CAT tools. By storing and retrieving previously translated segments (exact matches) or similar segments (fuzzy matches), translators can significantly reduce the time and effort required for new translations. This also ensures terminology and phraseology remain consistent across projects and for different clients, especially when using project- or client-specific TMs. The ability to filter based on metadata (e.g., date, author) allows for the reuse of the most relevant and trustworthy translations [75](#page=75) [86](#page=86) [87](#page=87). > **Tip:** Understanding the metadata stored in your TM files can help you make informed decisions about which segments to leverage and how to manage your translation resources for optimal productivity and quality [84](#page=84) [87](#page=87). --- # Definition and basic components of computer-assisted translation Computer-assisted translation (CAT) is defined as a set of computer applications specifically designed to efficiently assist the translator in their task. The primary objective of a CAT system is to provide the translator with all the resources they might need for their work automatically and quickly. Using CAT tools significantly enhances translator productivity, as various software programs available today facilitate these tasks. Proficiency in CAT tools is a demanded skill in agencies and institutions that hire translators. The European Commission highlights mastering CAT and terminology tools, along with common office software, as the most important translation capabilities [32](#page=32) [35](#page=35). ### 5.1 Machine Translation vs. Computer-Assisted Translation It is important to distinguish between Machine Translation (MT) and Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) [36](#page=36). * **Machine Translation (MT):** The translation is performed by a machine, such as Google Translate [36](#page=36). * **Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT):** The translation is performed by a human with the assistance of various translation tools [36](#page=36). MT can be integrated into CAT systems, as many CAT systems have access to MT engines [36](#page=36). ### 5.2 Essential CAT Tools Essential CAT tools, as identified by Berinstein and Mermaud include : #### 5.2.1 Project Management Software This software allows for: * Control of information flow [37](#page=37). * Assignment of translation tasks [37](#page=37). * Quality control [37](#page=37). * Content analysis [37](#page=37). * Generation of reports, including full and fuzzy matches, and intra- and cross-file repetitions [37](#page=37). * Word counts [37](#page=37). * Final delivery to the client [37](#page=37). > **Tip:** The generation of reports on repetitions (full and fuzzy matches) is crucial for managing client expectations regarding pricing, especially when dealing with repeated segments in a document [33](#page=33) [34](#page=34). #### 5.2.2 Translation Memory Software Translation memory software is used to: * Store translations [38](#page=38). * Establish terminological and phraseological consistency [38](#page=38). * Retrieve translation units, thereby increasing productivity [38](#page=38). Typical file extensions for translation memories include: * `tmx` (Translation Memory eXchange): This is the standard open format compatible with most translation tools like Trados, MemoQ, and Wordfast [38](#page=38). * `sdltm`: This is the proprietary format of SDL Trados Studio [38](#page=38). * `.txt` / `.csv`: These formats are sometimes used to export memories in plain text or for manipulation in spreadsheet software like Excel [38](#page=38). --- # Process of translation with a CAT system This section outlines the structured process involved in translating content using a Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) system, emphasizing a systematic approach to achieve the final translation [49](#page=49). ### 6.1 Overview of the CAT translation process Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) systems are designed to streamline the translation workflow by breaking it down into manageable steps. Following a defined routine, as recommended by Oliver is crucial for reaching the final translated output. The process generally involves several key stages [49](#page=49) [50](#page=50). ### 6.2 Stages of CAT translation The process of translation with a CAT system typically includes the following steps: #### 6.2.1 File format checking Before any translation work begins, the format of the source file is meticulously checked to ensure compatibility with the CAT system and to identify any potential issues that might affect the translation process or the final output [50](#page=50). #### 6.2.2 Resource assignment In this phase, necessary resources are allocated for the translation project. This can include assigning translators, reviewers, project managers, and ensuring access to relevant translation memories, termbases, and style guides [50](#page=50). #### 6.2.3 Segmentation The source document is segmented into smaller, manageable units, typically sentences or phrases. The CAT tool automatically breaks down the text based on predefined rules or punctuation, presenting each segment to the translator for processing [50](#page=50). #### 6.2.4 Translation This is the core stage where the translator works on each segment. The CAT system aids the translator by: * **Displaying source segments:** The original text segment is presented to the translator [50](#page=50). * **Suggesting translations:** Based on the translation memory (TM) and termbases, the CAT system suggests previously translated segments or terminology. The translator can then either accept these suggestions, edit them, or input a new translation [49](#page=49). * **Maintaining consistency:** By leveraging TM and termbases, CAT systems help ensure consistency in terminology and phrasing across the entire document, which is vital for professional translation [49](#page=49). > **Tip:** The effectiveness of the translation stage heavily relies on the quality and comprehensiveness of the pre-existing translation memories and termbases. > **Example:** If a sentence like "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog" has been translated before, the CAT system will recall the previous translation of this exact segment or similar ones, saving the translator time and ensuring consistency. The subsequent stages, while not detailed on the provided pages, would typically involve post-translation checks, such as quality assurance, proofreading, and final file formatting, before delivering the completed translation. --- # Computer-assisted translation tools and functionalities Computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools are software applications designed to aid human translators by automating repetitive tasks, ensuring consistency, and leveraging previously translated content. ### 7.1 General principles and functionalities CAT tools operate through a combination of offline and online functions, managing translation memories (TMs) and providing various assistance mechanisms to translators. #### 7.1.1 Offline functions Offline functions in CAT tools typically involve the initial processing of texts and interaction with the translation memory before or after direct translation work. * **Import:** This function is used to transfer a source text and its translation from a text file into the TM. This can be done from a raw format, which may require reprocessing by the user, or from the TM's native format [62](#page=62). * **Analysis:** This process prepares texts for translation and term retrieval. It involves: * **Textual parsing:** Correctly recognizing punctuation to distinguish between sentence-ending periods and those in abbreviations, and identifying special text elements that may require special handling or translation. Markup is often used to denote these elements [62](#page=62). * **Linguistic parsing:** Reducing words to their base form to facilitate automatic term retrieval from term banks. Syntactic parsing can be used to extract multi-word terms or phraseology and to normalize word order variations within phrases [62](#page=62). * **Retrieval:** Different types of matches can be retrieved from a TM when translating a new segment: * **Exact match (100% match):** Occurs when the source segment in the TM is an exact character-by-character match to the current source segment [64](#page=64). * **In-Context Exact (ICE) match or Guaranteed Match:** An exact match that also occurs in the same context, defined by surrounding sentences and attributes like document file name, date, and permissions [64](#page=64). * **Fuzzy match:** Occurs when the match is not exact, with some systems assigning a percentage score between 0% and 100%. These percentages are not always comparable across different systems without specifying the scoring method [64](#page=64). * **Concordance:** Allows the translator to search for segment pairs that match selected words or phrases, useful for finding translations of terms and idioms when a terminology database is unavailable [64](#page=64). * **Updating:** A TM is updated with a new translation once it has been accepted by the translator. TMs can be modified by changing or deleting entries, and some systems allow for multiple translations of the same source segment to be stored [64](#page=64). * **Export:** Transfers the text from the TM into an external text file. Import and export functions are expected to be inverse operations [63](#page=63). #### 7.1.2 Online functions Online functions are those that assist the translator in real-time as they work through a document. * **Segmentation:** This function divides the source text into meaningful translation units, typically sentences, to be processed and stored in the TM. It uses superficial parsing and forms the basis for alignment. Manual correction of segmentation can lead to future errors if the system repeats its own initial segmentation [63](#page=63). * **Alignment:** The process of establishing correspondences between source and target language segments. A good alignment algorithm should be able to correct initial segmentation and provide feedback for segmentation refinement [63](#page=63). * **Term extraction:** This can utilize a prior dictionary or, for unknown terms, employ parsing based on text statistics. This is valuable for estimating the workload and scheduling of a translation project by counting words and repetition [63](#page=63). * **Automatic translation:** CAT tools often provide automatic retrieval and substitution of TM results as the translator progresses through a document [65](#page=65). * **Automatic substitution:** If an exact match is found, the software automatically inserts the stored translation. However, this can lead to the repetition of errors if the translator does not verify the translation against the source [65](#page=65). > **Tip:** Always review automatically substituted translations to prevent the propagation of past errors. * **Networking:** Enables collaborative translation by making sentences and phrases translated by one team member available to others. This can speed up the process and allows for error correction by other team members before the final translation [65](#page=65). * **Text memory:** This concept is foundational to standards like the OSCAR xml:tm standard and includes author memory and translation memory [65](#page=65). * **Translation memory (TM):** Remembers unique identifiers for text units to ensure precise alignment between source and target documents. Unchanged text units can be directly transferred to new document versions without translator intervention, embodying the concept of 'exact' or 'perfect' matching. xml:tm also supports in-document leveraged and fuzzy matching [65](#page=65). --- # Translation memory file formats and structure This section details the information stored within translation memory files and explores the common formats used, focusing on their structure and advantages [67](#page=67) [68](#page=68). ### 8.1 Information stored in translation memory files Translation memory (TM) files primarily store **translation units (TUs)**, which consist of paired source and target segments. Beyond this core information, TMs can also encompass a variety of additional metadata to enrich the data and provide context [67](#page=67). #### 8.1.1 Core information * **Segments:** The fundamental data includes the original source text segment and its corresponding translated target text segment [67](#page=67). * **Language:** Information about the language pair of the translation is stored [67](#page=67). * **Creation dates and times:** Timestamps indicating when the translation unit was created are typically recorded [67](#page=67). #### 8.1.2 Additional data TMs can also store a range of supplementary data points, enhancing their utility and providing a more comprehensive history of the translation process [67](#page=67): * **Author:** Identifies the person or entity responsible for creating or modifying the translation [67](#page=67). * **Usage count:** Tracks how many times a particular translation unit has been used [67](#page=67). * **Change dates and times:** Records when a translation unit was last modified [67](#page=67). * **Creation tool:** Specifies the software or tool used to create or import the translation unit [67](#page=67). * **Domain (field):** Indicates the subject matter or industry to which the translation pertains [67](#page=67). * **Alternate translations:** May include alternative translations for a given source segment [67](#page=67). * **Notes:** Allows for the inclusion of any relevant annotations or comments related to the translation [67](#page=67). ### 8.2 Typical formats of translation memory files While various formats can be used, the industry primarily relies on XML-based formats for their robust structure and interoperability [68](#page=68). #### 8.2.1 XML-based formats The two most prevalent file types are XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format) and TMX (Translation Memory eXchange). Both utilize the XML (Extensible Markup Language) format, which offers significant advantages over simpler text-based files [68](#page=68). **Advantages of XML for TM storage:** * **Well-defined structure:** XML files possess a clear and predictable structure, making them easy to parse by software [68](#page=68). * **Semantic tags:** The use of tags such as `` and `` helps to clearly indicate the meaning and type of data they enclose, enhancing human readability [68](#page=68). * **Software support:** A wide array of software tools are designed to work with XML, facilitating validation, import, parsing, and searching operations [68](#page=68). * **Interoperability:** The standardized and well-defined structure of XML files enables seamless data exchange between different applications and systems [68](#page=68). #### 8.2.2 Other formats TMs can also be stored in spreadsheet formats like Excel (XLS) or comma-separated value (CSV) text files. However, these formats typically store less information per translation unit, often limiting data to just the source and target segments and their languages. While XLS and CSV files tend to be smaller, this reduced data storage is a significant drawback [68](#page=68). ### 8.3 Structure of TM files: Header and Body Translation memory files, particularly those in XML formats like TMX and XLIFF, generally consist of two main sections: the header and the body [69](#page=69). #### 8.3.1 The header The header section contains metadata pertaining to the file itself and the localization process. This metadata can include information about the translation memory file, its creation, and the project it belongs to. The use of semantic XML tags makes the header human-readable and understandable even without deep technical knowledge of the specification [69](#page=69). ##### 8.3.1.1 Example header in TMX [ ] shows an example of a header section within a TMX file [70](#page=70). ##### 8.3.1.2 Example header in XLIFF [ ] provides an illustration of a header section in an XLIFF file [71](#page=71). #### 8.3.2 The body Following the header is the body of the file, which contains the most critical data: the translation units (TUs) and their constituent segments. This section is where the source and target language pairs are stored, forming the core of the translation memory [72](#page=72). ##### 8.3.2.1 Example body in TMX An example of the body section of a TMX file, illustrating how translation units are structured, can be found on [ ] [73](#page=73). ##### 8.3.2.2 Example body in XLIFF [ ] presents an example of the body section within an XLIFF file, demonstrating its structure for translation units [74](#page=74). > **Tip:** Understanding the header and body structure of TM files is crucial for effectively managing, importing, and exporting translation data. The semantic nature of XML tags greatly aids in deciphering the content of these files. --- # Understanding translation memory files and their importance Translation memory (TM) files are crucial tools for translators, enabling greater efficiency and consistency in their work by leveraging previously translated content [75](#page=75). ### 9.1 The function and benefits of translation memory files Translation memory files are utilized within Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) or Translation Environment Tool (TEnT) software to enhance translator productivity. When a segment in the current translation matches a segment previously translated and stored in the TM, the tool alerts the translator, offering automatic suggestions or partial matches. This process significantly speeds up translation by reducing the need to re-translate identical or similar content [75](#page=75). Beyond efficiency, TM files are instrumental in maintaining consistency across translations, especially when working on various projects for different clients. By using "client-based" or "project-based" translation memories, translators can ensure that specific terminology and phrasing are applied accurately and uniformly throughout their work [75](#page=75). > **Tip:** Always consider the project's specific requirements when deciding which translation memory to use to ensure adherence to client-specific terminology. ### 9.2 Industry standard file formats: TMX and XLIFF TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) and XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format) are both industry-standard, XML-based file types commonly used in translation workflows. While they share commonalities, including support for inline markup elements, they possess distinct structures and were developed for slightly different primary purposes [76](#page=76). #### 9.2.1 Key differences between TMX and XLIFF * **Purpose:** XLIFF was initially designed to store extracted text and facilitate data transfer throughout the localization process. In contrast, TMX was created specifically for exchanging translation memory data between different tools [76](#page=76). * **Language Support:** TMX files can accommodate multiple languages within a single document. XLIFF, however, is structured to handle one source and one target language at a time [76](#page=76). * **Inline Code Handling:** TMX exclusively uses encapsulation methods for inline codes, where native codes are enclosed within distinct elements. XLIFF offers both encapsulation (similar to TMX) and a placeholder method. In the placeholder method, native codes are removed to a "Skeleton file" and replaced with short elements that reference them, akin to OpenTag's approach [76](#page=76). * **Structural Organization:** A TMX file is a collection of `` (translation unit) elements that lack a specific order and do not contain mechanisms to reconstruct the original file [76](#page=76). * **Additional Data Fields:** XLIFF includes data types and fields not present in TMX, such as pretranslation, history, versioning, and binary objects [76](#page=76). * **Time and Date Data:** TMX files can store time and date information at the translation unit level, a capability that XLIFF files do not possess [76](#page=76). #### 9.2.2 Choosing between TMX and XLIFF Both TMX and XLIFF are robust and widely supported by translation software. The choice often depends on the specific project requirements or the software being used. In many instances, translators do not need to actively choose, as their CAT tools can export translation memories in either format. Ultimately, utilizing any form of translation memory is vastly superior to not using one at all [77](#page=77). However, for new translation projects, some professionals prefer TMX for two main reasons [78](#page=78): * **Time-stamped translation units:** This feature enables productivity analysis of one's work at a later stage [78](#page=78). * **Support for multiple target languages:** Multiple target languages can be stored within a single file [78](#page=78). Conversely, if the ability to reconstruct or rebuild the original file from the TM file is a priority, XLIFF is the more powerful format for this purpose [78](#page=78). ### 9.3 The role of metadata in translation memory files Translation software divides texts into segments, and each segment is associated with metadata. This metadata can trace a segment back to the translator, the date, and the time of its creation. This information is valuable, allowing translators to opt for more recent or relevant content when leveraging TM data and to identify and remove segments with outdated terminology [84](#page=84). Metadata also plays a critical role for Language Service Providers (LSPs) in effectively managing their TM resources. However, potential loss of essential metadata during format transfers can lead to interoperability issues, potentially restricting users to specific software tools [84](#page=84). Metadata, in essence, is data that describes other data, providing supplementary information about digital content and processes. As defined by Berners-Lee in the context of the World Wide Web, it is "data about data" or "machine understandable information about web resources or other things." There are three primary types of metadata [85](#page=85): * **Descriptive metadata:** Describes the content itself [85](#page=85). * **Structural metadata:** Describes how objects or components are organized [85](#page=85). * **Administrative metadata:** Provides technical information, such as file type [85](#page=85). --- # Interchange formats for translation data Interchange formats for translation data facilitate the seamless transfer of various types of linguistic information between different tools and stages of the localization process [88](#page=88). ### 10.1 Translation memory exchange formats #### 10.1.1 TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) TMX is designed for the transfer of translation memories between different translation tools. A translation memory (TM) itself is a repository of source text segments and their corresponding translations into one or more target languages. TMX enables users to maintain their organized TM data across various software solutions. The development and maintenance of TMX are overseen by the OSCAR Special Interest Group at LISA (the Localisation Industry Standards Association) [89](#page=89). ### 10.2 Localization data exchange formats #### 10.2.1 XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format) XLIFF facilitates the transfer of localizable data that has been extracted from original files. This format supports the movement of data through different phases of the localization workflow, including merging the localized content back into its original structure. XLIFF also aids in maintaining organized localization projects. The OLIF Consortium is involved with XLIFF, working closely with the SALT group [90](#page=90). ### 10.3 Lexical and terminological data exchange formats #### 10.3.1 OLIF (Open Lexicon Interchange Format) OLIF is a format specifically for transferring terminological and lexical data between translation tools. While similar in purpose to TBX, OLIF is more focused on Natural Language Processing (NLP) data, such as machine translation lexicons. The OLIF Consortium is responsible for its development and maintenance [91](#page=91). #### 10.3.2 TBX (TermBase eXchange format) TBX, also known as DXLT (Default XLT format), is used for transferring glossaries between translation tools. The format is based on the ISO 12200 standard, which is the Machine-Readable Terminology Interchange Format (MARTIF). The SALT (Standards-based Access service to multilingual Lexicons and Terminologies) group at BYU is involved with TBX [92](#page=92). > **Tip:** Understanding these interchange formats is crucial for managing translation assets effectively and ensuring interoperability between different localization tools and workflows. They prevent vendor lock-in and allow for more flexible project management [88](#page=88). --- # Translation memory alignment for legacy text Alignment is a process used to create translation memories from existing legacy text when it is not already in TM format [98](#page=98). ### 11.1 The need for alignment Translation Memory (TM) systems are essential in the translation and localization industry for reusing previously translated text. When a new project begins, existing translations are stored in a TM database, which can then be accessed as either 100% matches or fuzzy matches, leading to time and cost savings, as well as improved consistency. However, not all legacy material is available in TM format. This can occur for several reasons [97](#page=97): * Translations were performed by in-country offices without access to TM systems [98](#page=98). * A linguistic vendor did not deliver a TM as part of the project handover [98](#page=98). * A linguistic vendor provided a TM, but its quality was poor, and subsequent improvements were only made to the translated files, not the TM itself [98](#page=98). In such scenarios, existing translated work is not lost; TMs can be created from legacy text through the alignment process [98](#page=98). ### 11.2 What is alignment? Alignment involves taking a source file and its corresponding translation and matching segments to each other. This process builds a repository of translation units that are then saved as a TM for use in future translation projects [99](#page=99). ### 11.3 The alignment process The initial alignment is typically performed using automated alignment tools. These tools require a set of source and target files, which are loaded and linked based on their filenames. An automatic alignment is then executed for each file pair [100](#page=100). Alignment tools analyze the structure of both the source and target files, matching source text with probable translations on a sentence-by-sentence basis. These tools have advanced significantly over time, and the results of automated alignment are generally very good. Some tools also produce a report that includes a quality score, calculated using internal algorithms, to indicate the success of the alignment [100](#page=100). > **Tip:** Automated alignment tools can produce excellent results, but it's always advisable to review the quality score and, if possible, spot-check some of the aligned segments to ensure accuracy. [ ] includes a mention of seeing examples of these reports, but no specific examples are provided in the document . --- # Automated sentence alignment process The automated sentence alignment process involves using specialized software tools to match sentences in a source text with their corresponding translations in a target text. This process is crucial for creating bilingual corpora that are essential for various natural language processing tasks [100](#page=100) . ### 12.1 General principles of automated alignment Automated alignment tools operate by analyzing the structural properties of both the source and target files. They then proceed to match sentences in the source text with their most probable translations in the target text on a sentence-by-sentence basis. The sophistication of these tools has advanced significantly over time, leading to generally high-quality alignment results [100](#page=100). ### 12.2 Reporting and quality assessment Many alignment tools are capable of generating reports that include a quality score. This score is typically derived from internal algorithms and serves as an indicator of the success of the automated alignment process [100](#page=100). ### 12.3 Historical projects and evaluation metrics Recognizing the significance of sentence alignment, several international projects have been initiated to develop robust evaluation metrics and corpora for this task. Notable examples include : * **Project ARCADE (1995-1996):** This project focused on producing a bilingual French-English corpus specifically designed for sentence alignment and its evaluation . * **MULTEXT-East Project:** This initiative involved sentence-aligning six translations of George Orwell's novel "1984" with the original English text. The resulting alignments were subsequently validated manually . * **Egypt Statistical Machine Translation Toolkit:** This project, along with its successor GIZA++, contributed to the development of tools and methodologies for training statistical translation models, which often rely on accurately aligned corpora . --- # Linguistic verification and alignment factors This section details the process of linguistic verification after an alignment project is generated and outlines key factors that influence the quality and accuracy of alignment results. ### 13.1 Linguistic verification Linguistic verification is the crucial step where a linguist meticulously reviews each segment of an alignment project. The primary goal is to approve correct matches between source and target segments and to identify and rectify any incorrect matches . #### 13.1.1 Handling incorrect matches Incorrect matches can arise for various reasons. A common scenario is when the number of source sentences does not directly correspond to the number of target sentences due to linguistic flow or stylistic choices in translation. For instance, two English source sentences might be translated into a single German sentence to ensure proper sentence structure and readability. Alignment tools, which often rely on segment counts, may fail to recognize such discrepancies, leading to subsequent segments being misaligned . > **Tip:** When an incorrect match is identified, the linguist can make the necessary corrections. After these adjustments, it is often possible to re-run the automatic alignment process from the point of correction onwards. This re-run updates all subsequent incorrect matches, ensuring a more accurate alignment . #### 13.1.2 Exporting translated memories Once the linguistic verification and any necessary corrections are complete, the approved segments from all files are exported into a Translation Memory (TM) format. This TM is then ready for subsequent use in translation workflows . ### 13.2 Factors to consider for improved alignment results Several factors significantly impact the quality and success of the alignment process: #### 13.2.1 File format consistency It is essential that both the source and target files are in the same format. Translation Memory (TM) systems process different file formats, such as InDesign and Word, in slightly varied ways. Formatting and variable information are converted into tags within the file for translation purposes. While alignment tools can utilize these tags as guides, disparities in tag structures between the source and target files can hinder accurate segment matching . > **Example:** If a source document is in InDesign and its translated counterpart is in Word, the way formatting is converted into tags might differ. This difference could lead to the alignment tool struggling to accurately map segments, even if the text content is identical . #### 13.2.2 File version consistency The source and target files should ideally be the same version. Updates to a source file after the initial translation (e.g., adding information or removing redundant text) can complicate the alignment process if the translated file is not simultaneously updated to reflect these changes . #### 13.2.3 Quality of translated files The alignment process, by default, does not typically include a linguistic review of the existing translations. Therefore, it is crucial that the client is satisfied with the quality of these prior translations before undertaking alignment. While a linguist can review the files during the alignment process, this adds to the overall time required to complete the task . --- # Using term bases and glossaries in translation Term bases and glossaries serve as crucial databases for managing specific terminology in translation projects, enhancing consistency, quality, and efficiency . ### 14.1 What is a term base? A term base or glossary is defined as a database containing single words or expressions pertinent to a particular subject matter. These terms are frequently presented in a bilingual or even multilingual format . ### 14.2 How does a term base work? Term bases are integrated features within many Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tools. Users can import existing glossaries and subsequently add or update terms as they translate. It is possible to merge multiple bilingual glossaries into a single multilingual one, and to flag specific terms as forbidden . ### 14.3 How to use a term base #### 14.3.1 Creating and maintaining a term base When constructing a term base, it is essential to identify key terminology. To ensure a high-quality term base, it is important to utilize final source texts, approved translations, and carefully researched contextual information. A term base can either be created in conjunction with a new translation project or imported from previous translation endeavors. Once established, a term base requires ongoing maintenance to incorporate changes in source texts, translations, or contextual information. Neglecting this maintenance can negatively impact translation quality . > **Tip:** Prioritize using final source texts and approved translations when building a term base to ensure accuracy and relevance . > **Tip:** Regular maintenance of term bases is crucial for their effectiveness and to prevent a decline in translation quality . #### 14.3.2 Benefits of using a term base Using a term base offers several advantages for the translation process: * **Increases consistency:** A well-constructed term base ensures that the core message remains consistent across multiple translation projects and collaborators within an organization . * **Improves translation quality:** By managing terminology and defining forbidden terms, term bases help prevent the use of undesirable words or expressions by translators . * **Speeds up translation:** The term base functionality in CAT tools is designed for easy and direct access to terminology resources, thereby accelerating the translation process . * **Correct usage and spelling of corporate terminology:** Term bases guarantee the correct spelling of product or company names, which are often case-sensitive. They also inform translators about terms that should not be translated but retained in the source language . ### 14.4 Enhancing the translation process with terminology management Language Service Providers (LSPs) should include term bases and specific instructions when delivering translation assignments to translators, directing them to align their work with the glossary. LSPs may also request translators to submit new terms to the glossary for review, thus transforming the glossary into a valuable asset that could potentially be offered to clients. Providing translators with all available terminology ensures they use client-preferred terms, saving time and money on proofreading and increasing client satisfaction through consistent translation output . In large projects, Project Managers (PMs) may not have knowledge of every language involved. However, a term base can be used to verify terminological consistency even without linguistic expertise in a specific language. If a translation deviates from the glossary, PMs can return it to the translator for correction, further reducing proofreading costs and time . > **Example:** A Project Manager who does not speak German can still verify the consistency of a German translation against a provided glossary, identifying any terminological discrepancies . ### 14.5 The case of Wordfast Anywhere #### 14.5.1 Imposing specific terminology The use of incorrect terminology can undermine an otherwise excellent translation. Many clients possess well-defined jargon, often compiled into glossaries, which they can provide to translators to enforce specific terminology. This approach, common in technical translation, aims to harmonize the translator's linguistic skills with the client's terminological requirements . #### 14.5.2 Creating glossaries during translation Sometimes, clients request translators to create a glossary of terms discovered during the translation research phase. In such instances, the translator must compile a glossary and incorporate specific terminology. This glossary building can occur either before the translation begins (during an initial terminology research phase) or concurrently with the translation process . #### 14.5.3 Utilizing client-provided glossaries In many scenarios, clients furnish a bilingual glossary that has been previously compiled from past translations. The translator's responsibility is then to adhere strictly to this glossary and, when appropriate, to contribute their own additions . #### 14.5.4 Glossary function for general translations For translations of a more general nature, or when a translator is still developing their general vocabulary in a source language, the glossary function in tools like Wordfast Anywhere (WFA) can be employed to itemize terminology encountered during the translation process . #### 14.5.5 Wordfast Anywhere's glossary implementation Wordfast Anywhere is designed to assist translators in all these situations through its glossary function. The WFA glossary is structured as a simple tab-delimited text document. Similar to translation memories, this glossary can be uploaded and downloaded from WFA and shared with other CAT programs as needed . --- # Managing glossaries in WFA This section details how to utilize, add to, and manage glossaries within the WFA translation environment to enhance efficiency and consistency . ### 15.1 Using existing glossaries When WFA encounters a term present in an active glossary within the source segment, it highlights this term with a blue background. These highlighted terms function as "placeables," meaning they can be manipulated using dedicated navigation icons (Previous, Next) or keyboard shortcuts (Ctrl+Alt+Right, Ctrl+Alt+Left). Clicking on the term with the mouse or typing its initial letter followed by the Tab key also allows for manipulation. A key advantage is that using the Copy icon or the Ctrl+Alt+Down shortcut will copy the corresponding **translation** from the glossary to the target segment. The Auto-suggest feature, enabled by default, is a highly efficient method for copying target terms, proposing them as you type the first letter of the target term or the first three letters of the source term . #### 15.1.1 Viewing glossary information To preview the translation of a highlighted glossary term, the glossary panel can be activated. This can be achieved via the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+Alt+H or by navigating to the View tab and selecting the "Show/Hide Glossary" button. For more detailed information about a term, such as comments or data entered in the F1, F2, and F3 fields, users can simply hover their mouse pointer over the source term in the segment. This action will display the associated information in a pop-up bubble, similar to how translations are shown in the glossary panel . > **Tip:** Activating the glossary panel is a quick way to verify translations without interrupting the translation flow . ### 15.2 Adding terms to the glossary WFA facilitates the dynamic incorporation of new terms and their translations into an existing glossary directly within the translation process, eliminating the need to exit the software. This feature is invaluable for reinforcing a linguist's memory and preventing repetitive research for the same words or phrases . #### 15.2.1 Steps for adding a new term 1. **Select the source term:** In the source text, click on the desired word or phrase. If it's a single word, simply clicking on it will suffice. Alternatively, use the Tab key (or Shift+Tab for backwards movement) to navigate to the term. The selected source term will be visually indicated with a red border . 2. **Select the target term:** In the target segment, click on the corresponding translated term. This selected target term will appear with a blue background . 3. **Invoke the Glossary Dialog Box:** Press Ctrl+Alt+T or click the "Add Term" button . 4. **Populate fields:** * If the term consists of a single word, the selected source and target terms should automatically populate the "Source" and "Target" fields in the dialog box . * For terms comprising multiple words, you may need to paste the text from your computer's clipboard or manually type it into the respective fields . 5. **Add additional information (optional):** * **Comment:** A comment field is available to record supplementary information that might be useful later, such as the specific context in which a translation was used . * **F1, F2, F3 fields:** These fields can be utilized to store information regarding the word's role, grammatical form, context, or any other relevant text-based data . 6. **Save the term:** Click the "Save" button to confirm the addition of the new term to the glossary . > **Example:** You encounter the term "user interface" in the source text and translate it to "interfaz de usuario." You can select both terms, invoke the Add Term dialog, and save "user interface" as the source and "interfaz de usuario" as the target. You might also add a comment like "Standard UI term for web applications." . > **Tip:** Regularly adding new terms to your glossary helps build a personalized and highly relevant translation memory, significantly reducing future research time . --- # Localization versus translation This topic explores the distinction between translation and localization, emphasizing that localization involves adapting content for specific local audiences beyond mere linguistic conversion . ### 16.1 Understanding translation Translation is the process of converting content from a source language into a target language. This process adheres to the grammar rules and syntax of the target language, moving beyond literal word-for-word conversion. The goal of translation is to ensure the original meaning of the source text is accurately preserved in the target language . Translation is required for various types of content, including user manuals, medical documents, technical publications, scientific journals, and literature . ### 16.2 Understanding localization Localization is a more extensive process than translation, focusing on adapting content to resonate with local audiences. While translation is a component of localization, localization encompasses a broader scope of adaptation . Localization is particularly relevant for digital and interactive content such as websites, mobile applications, software, video games, multimedia content, and voiceovers . > **Tip:** Localization acknowledges that even within a single language, variations exist across different regions or countries, necessitating tailored approaches . ### 16.3 Key differences and the localization process The primary distinction lies in the depth of adaptation. For example, Spanish used in Argentina, Mexico, and Spain requires different content strategies, similar to how English varies across the US, Australia, and Canada . The localization process involves more than just a team of translators. It requires collaboration with local marketers and consultants to ensure that cultural aspects and local laws of each target market are respected . > **Example:** To achieve business success in local markets, a client needs to localize their content, not just translate it, to gain the trust of the local public and overcome more than just language barriers. This involves crafting a customized message for each specific local audience . In essence, translation addresses linguistic barriers, while localization tackles the broader challenge of creating a customized and culturally relevant message to connect with diverse local audiences . --- # Localization goes beyond translation to adapt content for local audiences Localization is a comprehensive process of adapting content for local audiences, extending beyond mere linguistic translation to encompass cultural, legal, and market-specific nuances. It aims to ensure that a message resonates deeply with a particular target demographic, fostering trust and understanding . ### 17.1 Understanding the core difference: Translation vs. Localization #### 17.1.1 Translation: The linguistic foundation Translation involves converting content from a source language to a target language while adhering to grammatical rules and syntax. It is crucial for technical documentation, scientific journals, literature, and user manuals, demanding accuracy to preserve the original meaning . #### 17.1.2 Localization: Adapting for impact Localization, conversely, focuses on tailoring the message to local audiences. This process is essential for digital content such as websites, mobile applications, software, video games, multimedia, and voiceovers. It acknowledges that even within a single language, significant regional variations exist . > **Tip:** Think of translation as the first step, providing the fundamental linguistic bridge, while localization builds upon this to create a culturally congruent and relevant experience. ### 17.2 The multifaceted nature of localization #### 17.2.1 Addressing linguistic diversity within a language Even countries sharing an official language, such as Spanish-speaking nations like Argentina, Mexico, and Spain, require distinct approaches. Similarly, English varies considerably across the United States, Australia, and Canada. Localization requires attention to these local versions and dialects for effective marketing strategies . #### 17.2.2 The broader localization team Successful localization demands more than just skilled translators. It necessitates collaboration with local marketers and consultants to ensure respect for cultural aspects and local laws in each target market . #### 17.2.3 Building trust and gaining market penetration For businesses to succeed in foreign markets, regular translation is often insufficient. Localization is vital for earning the trust of the local populace, as selling in a new country involves overcoming more than just language barriers. It requires crafting a customized message specifically designed for each local audience . ### 17.3 Going beyond words: Cultural adaptation in action #### 17.3.1 Overcoming cultural barriers Cultural barriers can significantly impede the understanding of an original message. Localization strategies must address these inherent differences to ensure clarity and connection . #### 17.3.2 Case study: KitKat in Japan A prime example of successful localization is Nestlé's KitKat campaign in Japan. Instead of a direct translation of "Have a break, have a KitKat," the slogan was adapted to "Kitto Katsu," which translates to "surely win" in Japanese. Furthermore, exotic chocolate bar flavors were introduced to cater to local tastes . > **Example:** This strategic adaptation by KitKat transformed their Japanese campaign into a localization triumph, illustrating the power of using language and cultural references that resonate with local consumers . --- # Comprehensive localization involves numerous changes beyond text rewriting Comprehensive localization extends far beyond mere text translation, requiring significant adjustments to various elements to ensure a website or product is culturally appropriate and user-friendly for target audiences . ### 18.1 Beyond translation: Adapting content for local markets Effective localization aims to make a client's website appealing to diverse audiences by addressing numerous details that can overcome cultural barriers and enhance usability . ### 18.2 Key areas requiring adaptation Beyond translation, several additional changes are necessary for an improved user experience: #### 18.2.1 Color meanings Colors carry diverse cultural connotations; what is acceptable in one region may be offensive or convey a different message in another. For instance, red can signify danger in some cultures, white death, and orange mourning or loss. Thorough research is essential before translation, particularly for new target audiences . #### 18.2.2 Layout flexibility Different languages require varying amounts of space to express the same concepts. Therefore, a flexible layout is crucial to accommodate text of different lengths resulting from translation . > **Tip:** Anticipate text expansion during translation. Languages like German or French can expand English text by 30% to 100%, necessitating adaptable design . #### 18.2.3 Visual content adaptation Photographs and other visuals must be adapted to local cultures. For example, imagery like blond mothers hugging their children might not resonate with a Chinese audience and could even offend customers in the Middle East . #### 18.2.4 Units of measurement conversion Most countries utilize the metric system. Converting units of measurement to the metric system is vital for making content easily understandable and followable for the target audience . #### 18.2.5 Currency unit localization Currency also needs localization, which involves changing from one currency to another, such as from 100 dollars to 100 pounds sterling. To show equivalent amounts, currency conversion is necessary, for example, "100 dollars (65 pounds sterling)" . > **Tip:** When localizing currency, ensure you accurately reflect the equivalent value in the target currency. #### 18.2.6 Paper size considerations Printed documents may be designed for specific paper sizes, such as the European A4 (210 by 297 mm, or 8.27 by 11.7 inches) instead of the American letter size (8.5 by 11 inches). These subtle differences can affect document formatting and page breaks . #### 18.2.7 Date format standardization Understanding variations in date formats is critical. For instance, "4/5/15" could mean April 5 in the U.S. or May 4 in the UK, leading to crucial misunderstandings if not clarified . #### 18.2.8 Legal compliance When conducting business internationally, adherence to local regulations is mandatory. Respecting these rules is essential to avoid legal complications, potential penalties, or even website bans . > **Example:** Failing to adapt contracts and agreements to the legal framework of a foreign country can lead to significant financial penalties or legal action. --- # Localization versus translation and its importance Localization is crucial for international business success as it involves adapting content and products to specific local cultures and expectations, going beyond mere translation to ensure resonance and engagement with the target audience . ### 19.1 Understanding the core concepts #### 19.1.1 Translation vs. Localization Translation focuses on converting text from one language to another, preserving the original meaning as closely as possible. Localization, however, is a broader process that encompasses translation but also adapts a product or content to a specific locale, taking into account cultural nuances, local customs, and user expectations. The primary goal of localization is to make the product or content feel as if it were originally created for the target audience, irrespective of geographic location, culture, or language . > **Tip:** Think of translation as a component of localization, not as its entirety. #### 19.1.2 The necessity of localization In today's globalized marketplace, simply translating content is often insufficient to connect with a target market. To increase engagement and drive sales, businesses must tailor their offerings to meet local beliefs, traditions, and expectations. This strategic adaptation helps companies stand out in competitive markets and establish themselves as "local" entities . ### 19.2 The process and scope of localization #### 19.2.1 Strategic planning and execution Achieving a "local" feel requires significant strategic planning and the collaboration of individuals with diverse skill sets, both within the company and from external suppliers. This multi-faceted approach ensures that the final product is culturally relevant and appealing . #### 19.2.2 Areas of application Localization is applied across a wide range of products and content to enhance their appeal to specific markets. Common areas include: * Websites . * Video games . * Movies . * Product information . * Mobile applications . * Software . * Whitepapers . * Tech support pages . * Help files . * Newsletters . ### 19.3 The overarching objective of localization The ultimate objective of localization is to create an experience for the end-user that feels tailor-made for their specific locale. This involves making the product or content resonate with the user's cultural background and linguistic preferences, thereby maximizing the client's investment and improving the likelihood of increased sales and global business growth . --- # Technical considerations in language localization Technical considerations are crucial for adapting products and content to specific target locales, ensuring they feel locally created and relevant. This involves a strategic planning process that goes beyond simple translation to encompass cultural adaptation and technical adjustments . ### 20.1 The objective and scope of language localization The primary objective of language localization is to provide a product with the appearance and feel of being specifically designed for the target locale, irrespective of geographical location, culture, or language. This process is applied to a wide range of content and products, including websites, video games, movies, product information, mobile applications, software, whitepapers, tech support pages, help files, and newsletters . ### 20.2 Core components of language localization The translation itself is often the most time-consuming component of language localization. However, localization involves several other key technical considerations : #### 20.2.1 Translation of text and media * **Subtitles and Dubbing:** For video, audio, and film, spoken words or music lyrics are translated for subtitles or dubbing . * **Digital and Printed Materials:** Text in all printed materials and digital media, including documentation and error messages, requires translation . * **Logos and Images:** Logos and images containing text may need alteration or replacement with more generic icons and pictures if their text requires translation . #### 20.2.2 Design and layout adjustments * **Content Adaptation:** Website design or written content may need to be altered to accommodate differences in character sizes and translation lengths between languages . * **Complex Text Layout:** Some languages utilize complex text layouts where character shapes change based on context . #### 20.2.3 Linguistic and stylistic considerations * **Variety, Register, and Dialect:** For audio materials, localization must consider differences in variety, register, and specific dialects . * **Writing Systems and Direction:** Different writing systems use distinct scripts or characters (symbols, logograms, syllograms, letters). Writing direction can vary, with some languages going left-to-right (e.g., European languages), right-to-left (e.g., Arabic, Hebrew), or using boustrophedon scripts. Some Asian languages can be written vertically . * **Capitalization:** Some languages require capitalization, which may not be present in others . * **Sorting Rules:** Different writing systems and languages have varying text sorting rules . * **Numeral Systems:** Translators must account for languages that use different numeral systems . * **Grammar and Pluralization:** Attention to detail is vital as pluralization and other grammatical rules vary across languages . * **Punctuation:** The use of punctuation can differ; for example, French may use guillemets, akin to English double quotes . #### 20.2.4 Data and format conventions * **Number Formats:** Writing conventions for number formats, including digit grouping and decimal separators, need consideration . * **Time and Date Formats:** Time and date formats, including the use of different calendars, must be adapted . * **Standard Data:** Standard data relevant to the target locale should be incorporated . #### 20.2.5 Economic and practical conventions * **Cultural Differences:** Economic conventions vary significantly, impacting elements like paper sizes, preferred storage media, broadcast TV systems, phone number formats, delivery services, and postal address formats . * **Currency:** Currency symbols, their position, and the use of currency markers must be adapted . > **Tip:** Always write currency amounts in full letters and never use currency symbols. For example, use "100 dollars" or "50 USD", not "$100" or "50$". * **Measurement Systems:** Localization requires consideration of different measurement systems . * **Electrical Standards:** Standards for battery sizes, electric current, and voltage may need to be adjusted . * **Third-Party Providers:** Variations in payment service providers, weather reports, and the presentation of online maps from third-party providers should be addressed . * **Time Zones:** Translators must carefully consider variations in time zones . #### 20.2.6 Legal and regulatory compliance * **Varying Legal Requirements:** Legal requirements differ by country, necessitating product customization or complete changes to fit specific regulatory compliance. This includes : * Compliance with privacy laws . * Additional disclaimers on packaging or websites . * Different consumer labeling requirements . * Regulations on encryption and export restrictions . * Conformity with subpoena procedures or internet censorship . * Accessibility requirements . * Tax collections, such as customs duties, value-added tax, and sales tax . --- # Considerations for linguistic and cultural adaptation in localization Localization requires careful attention to linguistic and cultural nuances to ensure content is appropriate and effective for target audiences. ### 21.1 Linguistic adaptation Adapting content for a new language involves more than direct translation, encompassing variations in writing systems, grammar, and punctuation. #### 21.1.1 Writing systems and directionality Different writing systems employ distinct scripts or characters, which can be symbols, logograms, syllograms, or letters. The direction of writing also varies significantly; European languages typically flow left-to-right, while Arabic and Hebrew are written right-to-left. Some scripts, like boustrophedon, alternate direction, and certain Asian languages can be written vertically . #### 21.1.2 Text layout and formatting Complex text layouts are common, where characters change shape based on context. Capitalization rules differ across languages, and some require it where others do not. Text sorting rules also vary between writing systems and languages . #### 21.1.3 Numerals and grammar Translators must account for different numeral systems used in various languages. Grammatical rules, including pluralization, also vary widely and require careful consideration . #### 21.1.4 Punctuation Punctuation usage can differ, with examples like the French language using guillemets (similar to double quotes) in some publications . ### 21.2 Cultural adaptation Beyond language, localization involves adapting to a wide array of cultural and economic conventions, as well as legal and political considerations. #### 21.2.1 Economic and technical conventions Economic conventions vary by country and can affect practical aspects like paper sizes, preferred storage media, broadcast TV systems, phone number formats, and postal address structures. This also extends to currency symbols, their placement and usage, measurement systems, battery sizes, and electricity standards (current and voltage). Variations in payment service providers, weather report presentations, and online map displays from third parties also need consideration . #### 21.2.2 Time zones and legal requirements Time zone differences are critical and must be carefully managed by translators. Legal requirements can necessitate significant product customization or even complete product redesign to ensure regulatory compliance. These include adherence to privacy laws, additional disclaimers on packaging or websites, different consumer labeling requirements, regulations on encryption and export restrictions, conformity with subpoena procedures or internet censorship, accessibility standards, and tax collections such as customs duties, value-added tax, and sales tax . #### 21.2.3 Political and social sensitivities Localization efforts must be sensitive to political issues, including disputed borders and geographical naming disputes. Numbers assigned by governments, such as national identification numbers, Social Security Numbers, and passport information, also require careful handling . #### 21.2.4 Personal and aesthetic considerations Translators should be mindful of local holidays, title conventions, and personal name conventions. Aesthetics play a role, influencing the appropriateness of colors and images, local architecture, socioeconomic status, clothing, and ethnicity of people depicted . #### 21.2.5 Local customs and taboos Special care must be given to local customs, superstitions, religious practices, and social taboos to avoid causing offense . > **Tip:** Understanding the target audience's cultural context is paramount. What is acceptable or even desirable in one culture may be offensive or misunderstood in another. This requires thorough research and often input from local experts. --- # Principles and distinctions of website internationalization and localization Internationalizing a website involves designing and developing it to be easily adapted for different languages and cultural preferences . ### 22.1 Internationalization (#i18n) principles Internationalization focuses on building a flexible foundation that supports future localization efforts. Key principles include: #### 22.1.1 Unicode standard Utilizing the Unicode standard is essential for compatibility with various writing systems, enabling the representation of diverse languages . #### 22.1.2 Separation of content and code Keeping content separate from the source code allows for easier translation without extensive coding modifications . #### 22.1.3 Flexible user interface (UI) Designing a flexible UI accommodates varying text lengths and supports languages with different reading directions . #### 22.1.4 Date, time, and number formats Adapting to locale-specific formats for dates, times, and numbers is crucial for cultural relevance . #### 22.1.5 Images and icons Selecting culturally neutral images and icons, or providing alternatives for different regions, ensures inclusivity . ### 22.2 Localization (#l10n) process for websites Localization is the process of adapting an internationalized website to a specific locale, considering linguistic and cultural aspects. This process involves several key steps: #### 22.2.1 Translation of content This involves converting text and multimedia elements into the target language, paying close attention to linguistic nuances and cultural sensitivities . #### 22.2.2 Adaptation of graphics and multimedia Ensuring that images, videos, and other multimedia elements are culturally appropriate and resonate with the target audience is a critical step . #### 22.2.3 Adjustment of layout and design Modifying the layout and design is necessary to accommodate variations in text length, font styles, and other language-specific considerations . #### 22.2.4 Integration of local regulations Compliance with legal requirements and local regulations concerning content, privacy, and accessibility is paramount . #### 22.2.5 Testing and quality assurance Rigorous testing of the localized website is performed to ensure functionality, linguistic accuracy, and cultural appropriateness . ### 22.3 Web localization vs. other audiovisual products While the core principles of localization apply broadly, websites present unique challenges compared to other media like applications or games: * **Dynamic content:** Websites often feature dynamic content requiring real-time updates, which complicates the localization process more than with static products . * **SEO considerations:** Effective localization of metadata, keywords, and tags is vital for search engine optimization (SEO), directly impacting a website's visibility in different regions . * **Cultural sensitivity:** As public-facing platforms, websites demand careful attention to cultural nuances to prevent misunderstandings or unintentional offense . * **Continuous updates:** The frequent updating of websites necessitates ongoing localization efforts to maintain current and culturally relevant content . > **Tip:** Internationalization is the proactive design and development phase to prepare for localization, whereas localization is the reactive adaptation to a specific locale. Both are crucial for global web presence. --- # Translation for search engine optimization and effective international web presence This topic explores the vital role of translators in enhancing a client's global online visibility through Search Engine Optimization (SEO) and effective international web presence . ### 23.1 Key considerations for translators in international SEO #### 23.1.1 Keyword research Thorough keyword research in the target language and region is essential to identify terms and phrases that local audiences use in search queries. This includes considering linguistic variations, synonyms, and colloquial expressions . > **Tip:** Understanding the specific search behaviors of the target audience is paramount for effective keyword selection. #### 23.1.2 Cultural relevance Translators must grasp cultural nuances and preferences to select keywords that genuinely resonate with the target audience. Literal translations should be avoided if they fail to capture the intended meaning or sound unnatural in the target language . #### 23.1.3 Localized content Translated content needs to be not only linguistically accurate but also culturally appropriate. This involves adapting the content to align with local customs, traditions, and market trends to enhance its relevance . #### 23.1.4 Metadata optimization Particular attention should be paid to translating and optimizing meta titles, meta descriptions, and URL slugs. Crafting compelling and concise meta descriptions that incorporate relevant keywords is crucial for encouraging click-throughs . #### 23.1.5 Multilingual link building Collaboration with web developers and marketers is key to building a network of high-quality, multilingual backlinks. Identifying reputable local websites and influencers for potential collaborations can significantly improve search engine rankings . #### 23.1.6 Content structure and formatting Ensuring that translated content maintains a user-friendly structure and formatting is important. Utilizing headers, bullet points, and other formatting elements enhances readability and SEO, as search engines value well-organized content . #### 23.1.7 Mobile optimization Recognizing the increasing importance of mobile search, translators must ensure that translated content is mobile-friendly. Optimizing images and other media for fast loading times on mobile devices positively impacts SEO rankings . #### 23.1.8 Regular updates Staying informed about changes in search engine algorithms and adapting SEO strategies accordingly is vital. Regularly updating translated content to reflect current trends ensures sustained visibility in international markets . #### 23.1.9 Analytics and reporting Working closely with clients to monitor website analytics and assess the performance of localized content is a crucial step. Providing insights and recommendations based on data analysis allows for the continuous refinement of SEO strategies . #### 23.1.10 Communication with clients Establishing clear communication channels with clients is essential to understand their business goals, target audience, and specific SEO objectives. Collaboration on a strategy that aligns translation efforts with broader marketing initiatives leads to a comprehensive international SEO approach . --- # The role of professional translators in optimizing web page metadata for foreign markets Professional translators are crucial in adapting web page metadata for foreign markets, ensuring effective optimization and global competitiveness . ### 24.1 Understanding web page metadata Metadata, including meta titles and descriptions, is essential for improving a website's visibility and search engine ranking. These elements help search engines understand and index webpage content accurately . ### 24.2 The translator's contribution to metadata optimization Professional translators play a pivotal role in optimizing metadata for international audiences by addressing several key areas: #### 24.2.1 Enhancing search engine visibility Translating metadata ensures that web content is accessible and understandable to global search engines, thereby improving a website's discoverability in foreign markets . #### 24.2.2 Increasing user click-through rates Skilled translators create compelling and linguistically accurate meta titles and descriptions. This localized content is more likely to resonate with users, encouraging them to click on search result links . #### 24.2.3 Ensuring local relevance and cultural alignment Translators possess an understanding of cultural nuances and audience preferences. By localizing metadata, they ensure that the content aligns with local expectations, making it more appealing and relevant to users in specific foreign markets . > **Tip:** Localizing metadata goes beyond direct translation; it involves adapting content to fit the cultural context of the target audience. #### 24.2.4 Optimizing for keywords in target languages Effective Search Engine Optimization (SEO) relies on relevant keywords. Translators with expertise in keyword research within target languages can incorporate region-specific terms into metadata, increasing the chances of a webpage appearing in relevant search results . #### 24.2.5 Maintaining global brand consistency For businesses expanding internationally, maintaining a cohesive brand image is vital. Professional translators ensure that translated metadata aligns with the brand's established tone and message, presenting a unified global presence . #### 24.2.6 Adhering to technical limitations Search engines impose character limits on meta titles and descriptions. Translators are skilled in crafting concise yet impactful translations that fit within these constraints, preventing truncation in search engine result pages . #### 24.2.7 Building credibility and trust Inaccurate or poorly translated metadata can damage a website's credibility. Professional translators safeguard the integrity of the content, contributing to the establishment of trust with users in foreign markets . #### 24.2.8 Adapting to market trends Linguistic and cultural landscapes are constantly evolving. Translators who stay informed about these shifts can update and adapt metadata to reflect current market trends, ensuring sustained optimization . > **Tip:** Regular review and adaptation of translated metadata are necessary to remain relevant in dynamic international markets. ### 24.3 The collaborative approach The collaboration between professional translators and web developers or marketers is fundamental for a holistic approach to web page optimization in foreign markets. Translators effectively bridge linguistic and cultural gaps, ensuring that metadata is not just translated but truly optimized for the specific nuances of each target audience, ultimately boosting a website's global competitiveness . --- # Pre-editing in machine translation processes Pre-editing involves revising technical documentation before machine translation (MT) to improve the source text and enhance the raw MT output quality, thereby reducing post-editing effort . ### 25.1 The role of humans in MT processes Humans play a crucial role in machine translation workflows, primarily through two distinct tasks: pre-editing and post-editing . ### 25.2 What is pre-editing? Pre-editing is the process of modifying source text to improve its suitability for machine translation. The primary objective is to enhance the quality of the raw MT output by making the source text more accessible to the MT engine. Effective pre-editing can significantly reduce or even eliminate the need for post-editing . #### 25.2.1 The pre-editor's perspective and actions Ideally, a specialized human editor performs pre-editing. This editor analyzes text from the viewpoint of an MT engine to anticipate potential errors in the output. The pre-editor's actions are aimed at facilitating MT by implementing several strategies : * **Sentence length reduction:** Shorter sentences are generally easier for MT systems to process accurately . * **Simplifying syntax:** Avoiding complex or ambiguous grammatical structures helps prevent misinterpretations by the MT engine . * **Ensuring term consistency:** Maintaining consistent terminology across the source text is vital for accurate translation . * **Article usage:** Proper and consistent use of articles can improve MT accuracy . #### 25.2.2 Utilizing automated tools in pre-editing Pre-editors can leverage automated revision tools to enhance their work: * **Spell-checking:** Ensuring the source text is free of spelling errors, especially against a project-specific glossary . * **Advanced grammar-checking:** Employing sophisticated grammar-checking tools to identify and correct grammatical issues . * **Tagging untranslatable elements:** Identifying and marking parts of the source document that should not be translated . > **Tip:** Implementing pre-editing techniques not only benefits machine translation projects but also offers advantages for human translation projects. Many organizations incorporate similar processes into their localization best practices when developing extensive mono- and multilingual materials. Writing with MT in mind from the outset has positive downstream effects on overall quality and productivity . --- # Controlled natural languages for improved documentation Controlled natural languages (CNLs) are subsets of natural languages intentionally restricted in grammar and vocabulary to minimize ambiguity and complexity, thereby enhancing clarity and facilitating automatic semantic analysis. These languages are crucial for improving the quality of technical documentation and simplifying translation processes, both human and automatic . ### 26.1 Types of controlled languages Traditionally, controlled languages are categorized into two main types: * Those designed to enhance readability for human readers, particularly non-native speakers . * Those engineered to enable reliable automatic semantic analysis of the language . The first category, often referred to as "simplified" or "technical" languages, includes prominent examples used across industries. These languages impose restrictions on writers through general guidelines such as maintaining short sentences, avoiding pronouns, using only approved vocabulary, and employing the active voice . ### 26.2 Examples of simplified technical languages Several simplified and technical languages are employed in industry to elevate the quality of technical documentation and to streamline (semi-)automatic translation. These include: * Caterpillar Technical English . * Simplified Technical English (STE) . * IBM's Easy English . #### 26.2.1 Caterpillar fundamental English Caterpillar Inc., a global manufacturer of heavy equipment, utilizes a controlled language to ensure consistency and high quality in its extensive technical documentation. This documentation covers a wide array of products and subsystems, necessitating materials like operations and maintenance manuals, testing and adjusting guides, disassembly and assembly instructions, and specifications. To achieve this, Caterpillar employs a restricted vocabulary of approximately 850 words, known as Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE) . ### 26.3 List of controlled natural languages A broad range of controlled natural languages exists, reflecting diverse approaches and applications. Some notable examples include: * ASD Simplified Technical English . * Attempto Controlled English . * Aviation English . * Basic English . * ClearTalk . * Common Logic Controlled English . * Distributed Language Translation Esperanto . * E-Prime . * Français fondamental . * Gellish Formal English . * Interlingua-IL sive Latino sine flexione (Giuseppe Peano) . * ModeLang . * Newspeak . * Processable English (PENG) . * Seaspeak . * Semantics of Business Vocabulary and Business Rules . * Special English . * PLAIN LANGUAGE MOVEMENT (Lenguaje claro) . ### 26.4 Companies utilizing controlled languages Numerous companies across various sectors have adopted controlled languages to enhance their documentation processes. These adoptions often align with specific industry standards or internal initiatives. Prominent examples include: * **Avaya:** Avaya Controlled English (ACE) . * **Boeing:** Simplified Technical English (STE), ASD-STE100 . * **Caterpillar:** Caterpillar Technical English (CTE), Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE) . * **Dassault Aerospace:** Français Rationalisé . * **European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS):** Simplified Technical English (STE), ASD-STE100 . * **Ericsson:** Ericsson English . * **General Motors (GM):** Controlled Automotive Service Language (CASL) . * **IBM:** Easy English . * **Kodak:** International Service Language . * **Nortel:** Nortel Standard English (NSE) . * **Océ:** Controlled English . * **Rolls-Royce:** Simplified Technical English (STE), ASD-STE100 . * **Saab Systems:** Simplified Technical English (STE), ASD-STE100 . * **Scania:** Scania Swedish . * **Sun Microsystems:** Sun Controlled English . * **Xerox:** Xerox Multilingual Customized English . ### 26.5 Rules for controlled languages The specific grammar rules for controlled languages are not universal and vary significantly from one language to another, as optimal results cannot be achieved for all languages with a single set of rules. However, implementing a set of controlled language rules can substantially reduce ambiguities in most texts, across many languages. Texts that are free from ambiguity are considered ideal for machine translation . The rules for controlled languages are exemplified by the CLOUT™ rule set. CLOUT is an acronym for Controlled Language Optimized for Uniform Translation, and this rule set was developed by Uwe Muegge . > **Tip:** Pre-editing technical documentation before machine translation, using techniques similar to those in controlled languages, can significantly improve raw output quality and reduce post-editing efforts . > **Tip:** Automated revision tools, such as spell checkers against project-specific glossaries and advanced grammar checkers, are valuable components of the pre-editing process . --- # Rules for writing controlled languages This section outlines ten rules for writing controlled languages, designed to reduce ambiguity and facilitate machine translation. These rules are exemplified by the CLOUT™ rule set, developed by Uwe Muegge . ### 27.1 General principles of controlled language rules The rules for controlled languages are language-specific and aim to minimize ambiguities, making texts more suitable for machine translation. The following ten rules are provided as examples to achieve this goal . ### 27.2 The ten controlled language rules #### 27.2.1 Rule 1: Sentence length **Rule:** Write sentences that are shorter than 25 words . > **Example:** > **Write:** The author performs the following tasks: Collect the necessary information. Analyze and evaluate the information. Write a structured draft. > **Do not write:** Authors will approach any writing project by collecting the necessary information first, and after carefully analyzing and evaluating it, they will create a structured draft . #### 27.2.2 Rule 2: Single idea per sentence **Rule:** Write sentences that express only one idea . > **Example:** > **Write:** Authors who optimize their texts for easy comprehension facilitate the translation process. These texts enable machine translation systems to produce better translation results. > **Do not write:** By optimizing their texts for easy comprehension, authors facilitate the translation process, and doing so enables machine translation systems to create better translation results . #### 27.2.3 Rule 3: Consistent sentence structure for repeated content **Rule:** Write the same sentence if you want to express the same content . > **Example:** > **Write:** Printer Installation. 1) Remove the printer from the carton. 2) Remove the plastic wrapping. > **Do not write:** Instructions for installing the printer. After unpacking the printer from the shipping carton, take the printer out of the plastic bag . #### 27.2.4 Rule 4: Grammatically complete sentences **Rule:** Write sentences that are grammatically complete . > **Example:** > **Write:** Do you wish to continue the installation of the software? > **Do not write:** Continue installing software ? #### 27.2.5 Rule 5: Simple grammatical structure **Rule:** Write sentences that have a simple grammatical structure . > **Example:** > **Write:** Show that you can organize your thoughts by using a simple sentence structure in your texts. > **Do not write:** You, in your texts, to show that you can organize your thoughts, should use a simple sentence structure . #### 27.2.6 Rule 6: Active voice **Rule:** Write sentences in the active form . > **Example:** > **Write:** The program manager will send a summary of all questions to the responsible coworkers. > **Do not write:** A summary of questions will be sent to the responsible individuals . #### 27.2.7 Rule 7: Noun repetition over pronouns **Rule:** Write sentences that repeat the noun instead of using a pronoun . > **Example:** > **Write:** You must check the spelling of your text before you publish your text. > **Do not write:** You must check the spelling of your text before publishing it . #### 27.2.8 Rule 8: Use of articles **Rule:** Write sentences that use articles to identify nouns . > **Example:** > **Write:** Test the installation. > **Do not write:** Test installation . #### 27.2.9 Rule 9: General dictionary words **Rule:** Write sentences that use words from a general dictionary . > **Example:** > **Write:** Avoid ambiguity. > **Do not write:** Eschew obfuscation . #### 27.2.10 Rule 10: Correct spelling **Rule:** Write sentences that use only words with correct spelling . > **Example:** > **Write:** Texts that contain spelling errors complicate the translation process. > **Do not write:** Texts that contein speling misstakes complicate the translation procces . --- # Understanding post-editing in machine translation Post-editing is the process of amending machine-generated translation to produce an acceptable final product . ### 28.1 Definition and Scope Post-editing (or postediting) involves human translators correcting machine translation output to meet a pre-defined quality level negotiated with the client. It is distinct from editing, which improves human-generated text, and revision, which proofreads human-generated text for simple mistakes . A person who performs post-editing is called a post-editor. The process may involve pre-editing the source text (e.g., using controlled language principles) before post-editing the machine output for optimal results . > **Tip:** Post-editing aims to improve machine translation (MT) output to a usable level, distinguishing it from editing human-generated text. ### 28.2 Use Cases and Efficiency Post-editing is employed when raw machine translation is insufficient but full human translation is not strictly necessary. Industry recommendations suggest using post-editing when it can at least double the productivity of manual translation, potentially quadrupling it for light post-editing tasks . However, predicting the efficiency of post-editing can be challenging. While studies and industry reports generally indicate that post-editing is faster than translating from scratch, regardless of language pairs or translator experience, there is no consensus on the exact time savings achievable. Industry figures often cite around 40% time savings, whereas some academic studies suggest practical savings in actual working conditions are more likely between 0–20%. Some professionals have even reported negative productivity gains, where corrections take longer than translating from scratch . > **Tip:** While generally faster than translating from scratch, the actual time savings from post-editing can vary significantly and are a subject of ongoing debate. ### 28.3 Post-editing Strategies and Quality Levels The amount of post-editing required is project-dependent, making it crucial to define expectations early. Key considerations guiding the post-editing strategy are time, quality, and cost . #### 28.3.1 Light Post-editing Light post-editing requires minimal intervention from the post-editor. The primary goal is to make the machine output understandable to the end-user. This approach is typically used for inbound purposes only, especially when texts are needed urgently or have a short time span . #### 28.3.2 Full Post-editing Full post-editing involves a more substantial level of intervention. The objective is to achieve a quality level that is not only understandable but also stylistically appropriate. The resulting text can then be used for assimilation and dissemination, suitable for both inbound and outbound purposes . At the higher end of full post-editing, the quality expectation is that it becomes indistinguishable from human translation . > **Example:** For a client needing to quickly grasp the gist of a large volume of internal documents, light post-editing might be sufficient. For a marketing brochure intended for external publication, full post-editing would be necessary to ensure stylistic accuracy and brand consistency. ### 28.4 The Evolving Landscape of Post-editing Historically, it was often assumed that translating directly from the source text required less effort than post-editing a machine-generated version. However, advancements in machine translation and artificial intelligence are changing this perception. For specific language pairs, tasks, and with MT engines customized using high-quality, domain-specific data, some clients are now requesting post-editing over manual translation, anticipating similar quality at a reduced cost . > **Tip:** The increasing sophistication of MT engines means that for certain use cases, post-editing is becoming a viable and cost-effective alternative to traditional human translation. --- # Guidelines for achieving different post-editing quality levels This section outlines the guidelines for achieving different post-editing quality levels, distinguishing between "good enough" and quality similar to human translation. The effort required for post-editing is primarily dictated by the initial machine translation (MT) output quality and the desired final quality . ### 29.1 Defining post-editing quality levels The two primary quality levels for post-editing are: * **"Good enough" quality:** This level ensures the content is comprehensible and accurate, meaning the core message is understood and aligns with the source text. However, stylistic improvements are not prioritized, and the text might retain a machine-generated feel with potentially unusual syntax or imperfect grammar, as long as the meaning is conveyed accurately . * **Quality similar to human translation:** This level aims for content that is not only comprehensible and accurate but also stylistically acceptable, with normal syntax, correct grammar, and punctuation. While it may not reach the highest standards of a native speaker, it is polished and error-free . ### 29.2 Guidelines for achieving "good enough" quality To achieve a "good enough" quality level, the following guidelines should be applied: * Prioritize semantic correctness in the translation . * Verify that no information has been unintentionally added or omitted . * Edit any content that is offensive, inappropriate, or culturally unacceptable . * Maximize the use of the raw MT output, making minimal necessary changes . * Adhere to basic spelling rules . * Refrain from implementing corrections that are solely stylistic in nature . * Avoid restructuring sentences solely to improve the natural flow of the text . > **Tip:** The focus for "good enough" quality is on conveying the correct meaning accurately, with minimal stylistic intervention . ### 29.3 Guidelines for achieving quality similar or equal to human translation To attain a quality level comparable to human translation, the following guidelines are essential: * Ensure the translation is grammatically, syntactically, and semantically correct . * Confirm that key terminology is translated accurately and that any untranslated terms are on the client's approved "Do Not Translate" list . * Guarantee that no information has been accidentally added or omitted . * Edit any offensive, inappropriate, or culturally unacceptable content . * Utilize as much of the raw MT output as possible, making necessary corrections . * Apply basic rules for spelling, punctuation, and hyphenation . * Ensure that the final formatting is correct . > **Tip:** Achieving human-equivalent quality requires meticulous attention to grammatical correctness, stylistic consistency, and adherence to client-specific terminology . --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Translation Memory (TM) | A database that stores previously translated segments of text, enabling translators to reuse existing translations for new projects. This significantly improves efficiency, reduces costs, and ensures consistency across different documents and versions. | | Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) | A set of software applications specifically designed to assist translators in their tasks. CAT tools provide resources like translation memories, terminology management, and project management to enhance productivity and quality. | | Segmentation | The process of dividing a source text into smaller units, typically sentences or phrases, based on punctuation and user-defined rules. These segments are then processed individually for translation and storage in a translation memory. | | Alignment | The process of matching corresponding segments between a source text and its translation. This is crucial for creating translation memories from existing translated documents that were not originally created using CAT tools. | | Term Base (Glossary) | A specialized database containing single words or expressions related to a specific subject, often in multiple languages. Term bases are essential for maintaining terminological consistency and ensuring the correct usage of industry-specific jargon. | | Localization (L10N) | The process of adapting a product or content to a specific local market and its culture. This goes beyond simple translation to include modifications to language, graphics, and other elements to meet local expectations and preferences. | | Fuzzy Match | A type of match found in a translation memory where the current source segment is not an exact character-by-character replica of a stored segment. These matches are typically assigned a percentage of similarity, indicating how much of the existing translation can be leveraged. | | Exact Match (100% Match) | A match found in a translation memory where the current source segment is identical to a stored segment. This allows for the direct reuse of the previously translated text, offering the highest level of efficiency. | | Metadata | Data that describes other data, providing additional information about digital content and processes. In CAT tools, metadata can include details about the translator, creation dates, usage counts, and the tool used to create a translation unit. | | Translation Unit (TU) | A pair of source and target text segments stored in a translation memory. Each TU represents a translated piece of content that can be reused in future translation projects. | | Terminology Management | The systematic process of identifying, collecting, organizing, and maintaining terms and their translations within a specific domain or for a particular client. This is crucial for ensuring consistency and accuracy in translations. | | Internationalization (I18N) | The design and development of a product or software in a way that allows it to be easily adapted to various languages and regions without requiring significant re-engineering. This is a prerequisite for effective localization. | | Automatic Dictionary Look-up | A system where a computer assists translators by searching for and presenting relevant dictionary entries based on input words, often including contextual information. | | Dynamic Concordance System | A feature within translation software that allows for the real-time searching and retrieval of previously translated segments or terms based on their occurrence in the source text. | | Interactive Translation System (ITS) | An early approach to Computer-Aided Translation that involved multiple levels of functionality, from basic editing and terminology management to integration with machine translation systems. | | Keypunched | The process of encoding data onto punched cards, a method used in early computing to input information into a machine. | | Lexical Items | The individual words or vocabulary units that constitute a language. | | Machine Translation (MT) | The use of computer software to translate text or speech from one language to another automatically, often used in conjunction with other CAT tools. | | Translator's Workstation | A comprehensive software environment designed for translators, typically integrating a translation memory, editor, and terminology management tools. | | Simship | The simultaneous release of a product across all local markets, requiring rapid and coordinated translation efforts to meet global launch deadlines. | | Time-to-market | The duration from product conception to its availability on the market, a critical factor that necessitates faster translation and localization processes. | | Software Localization | The adaptation of software applications to specific languages and cultures, including the translation of user interfaces, help files, and other textual elements. | | File Preparation | The process of converting source files into a format suitable for translation tools and then reassembling them after translation, often becoming a new area of expertise for translators. | | Post-processing | The steps taken after the translation and file assembly process to ensure the final translated content is accurate, formatted correctly, and ready for publication. | | Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) | A system that uses specialized software applications designed to efficiently assist translators in their tasks, aiming to provide them with necessary resources automatically and quickly. | | Terminology Management Software | Software used for creating and managing glossaries or term bases, ensuring consistent use of specific terms and phrases across translations. | | TermBase eXchange (TBX) | An open, industry-standard format for exchanging terminological data between different software tools, facilitating the sharing of glossaries. | | Translation Memory eXchange (TMX) | An open, industry-standard format for exchanging Translation Memory data between different CAT tools, ensuring interoperability. | | Extensible Markup Language (XML) | A text-based markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable, commonly used for structured data like TM files. | | Project Management Software | Software used to control the flow of information in translation projects, including task assignment, quality control, content analysis, report generation, word counts, and final delivery to the client. | | Full Matches | Segments of text that are identical to previously translated segments stored in a translation memory. | | Fuzzy Matches | Segments of text that are similar but not identical to previously translated segments stored in a translation memory, requiring human review and adjustment. | | Intra-file Repetitions | Identical segments of text that appear multiple times within the same document. | | Cross-file Repetitions | Identical segments of text that appear in different documents. | | Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) System | A software system designed to aid human translators in the translation process by providing tools such as translation memory, terminology management, and quality assurance checks. | | Translation Process | The series of steps undertaken by a translator to produce a final translated text, which, when using a CAT system, involves specific technological integrations. | | File Format Check | An initial step in the CAT translation process that involves verifying the compatibility and integrity of the source file format to ensure it can be processed correctly by the CAT software. | | Resource Assignment | The allocation of necessary resources, such as specific translation memories, termbases, or project instructions, to a translation task within a CAT system to ensure consistency and efficiency. | | Translation | The core activity of converting text from a source language to a target language, which in a CAT system is facilitated by the software's tools and functionalities. | | Import | This function is used to transfer a text and its translation from an external text file into a Translation Memory (TM). It can be performed from raw formats, where the source text and its translation are provided, or from the TM's native format, which is used for saving translation memories. | | Textual Parsing | A process within analysis that focuses on correctly identifying punctuation to differentiate between sentence-ending periods and periods used in abbreviations. This often involves markup, which is a form of pre-editing, to distinguish special text elements that may or may not require translation or conversion. | | Linguistic Parsing | A process that involves reducing words to their base forms to facilitate automatic term retrieval from a term bank. Syntactic parsing can also be employed to extract multi-word terms or phrases from a source text, normalizing word order variations to identify potential phrases. | | Term Extraction | A function that can utilize a pre-existing dictionary or employ parsing based on text statistics to identify unknown terms. This process is valuable for estimating the workload of a translation project, aiding in planning and scheduling by counting words and assessing text repetition. | | Export | The function that transfers translated text from a Translation Memory (TM) into an external text file. Ideally, the export function should be the inverse operation of the import function. | | Exact Match | Occurs when a current source segment in a document precisely matches a stored segment in the Translation Memory (TM) character by character. This is also referred to as a "100% match" and indicates that the identical sentence has been translated previously. | | In-Context Exact (ICE) Match | An exact match that also occurs in the identical context, meaning it is found in the same location within a paragraph. Context is often determined by surrounding sentences and attributes like document file names, dates, and permissions. | | Concordance | A feature where the system retrieves segment pairs that match specified search criteria when a translator selects one or more words in a source segment. This is particularly useful for finding translations of terms and idioms when a dedicated terminology database is unavailable. | | Updating | The process of adding a new translation to a Translation Memory (TM) after it has been accepted by the translator. This can involve modifying or deleting existing entries, and some systems allow for the storage of multiple translations for the same source segment. | | Segment | A unit of text, typically a sentence or a phrase, that is translated and stored within a translation memory. | | Source Segment | The original text segment in the source language that has been translated. | | Target Segment | The translated text segment in the target language corresponding to the source segment. | | XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format) | An XML-based file format designed for the exchange of localizable software information between different tools and services, commonly used for translation memory. | | TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) | An XML-based file format specifically designed for the exchange of translation memory data between different translation memory tools. | | XML (Extensible Markup Language) | A markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable, widely used for data exchange due to its structured nature. | | Header | The section of a translation memory file that contains metadata about the file itself and the localization process, such as language pairs and creation information. | | Body | The main section of a translation memory file that contains the actual translation units, including source and target segments. | | Semantic Tags | XML tags that describe the meaning or purpose of the data they enclose, such as `` or ``, making the file structure more understandable. | | Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tool | Software designed to assist human translators by providing features such as translation memory integration, terminology management, and quality assurance checks. | | Translation Environment Tool (TEnT) | An alternative term for a Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tool, encompassing software that supports the translation process. | | Consistency | The uniformity of terminology, style, and phrasing across a translation project or between different projects for the same client, which TM files help to maintain. | | Inline Markup Elements | Special codes or tags within a translation file that represent formatting, tags, or other non-translatable elements of the source text. | | Encapsulation Method | A method used in file formats where native codes are enclosed within specific elements of the file structure. | | Placeholder Method | A method where native codes are removed from the main text and replaced by short elements that refer to them, often used in formats like XLIFF. | | Skeleton File | In some localization formats, a file that holds the original structure and non-translatable elements, with placeholders in the main file referring to it. | | TMX | Transfer of translation memories between different translation tools. A translation memory is a database containing source text segments and their corresponding translations in one or more target languages. | | XLIFF | Transfer of localizable data extracted from original files through various stages of the localization process, including merging localized data back into its original format. | | OLIF | Open Lexicon Interchange Format, designed for the transfer of terminological and lexical data between translation tools, particularly geared towards Natural Language Processing (NLP) data such as machine translation lexicons. | | TBX | TermBase eXchange format, also known as DXLT, which facilitates the transfer of glossaries between translation tools. It is based on the ISO 12200 standard, MARTIF. | | Glossary | A collection of terms and their definitions, often specific to a particular domain or project, used to ensure consistency in terminology. | | Localization | The process of adapting a product or content to a specific locale or market, including translation, cultural adaptation, and technical adjustments. | | Natural Language Processing (NLP) | A field of artificial intelligence and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human language, enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language. | | Legacy Text | Existing translated material that is not currently in a Translation Memory (TM) format, often requiring a specific process to be converted into a usable TM for future projects. | | Translation Unit | A pair of matched source and target text segments that form the fundamental building block of a Translation Memory (TM), representing a translated concept or phrase. | | Automated Alignment Tool | Software used to automatically match source and target text segments by analyzing file structures and sentence content, forming the initial stage of the alignment process. | | 100% Match | A translation segment found in a Translation Memory (TM) that is an exact match to the current source segment, allowing for direct reuse without modification. | | Automated Sentence Alignment | The process of automatically matching sentences in a source text with their corresponding translations in a target text using specialized software tools. This process analyzes the structure of both texts to identify probable sentence correspondences. | | Alignment Tool | Software designed to perform automated sentence alignment by analyzing source and target files, linking them based on filenames, and then matching sentences based on structural similarities and probable translations. | | Quality Score | A metric generated by some alignment tools, based on internal algorithms, to provide an indication of the success and accuracy of the automated sentence alignment process. | | Bilingual Corpus | A collection of texts that exists in two languages, specifically prepared or suited for tasks like sentence alignment and its evaluation, as exemplified by Project ARCADE. | | Sentence Alignment Task | The specific objective of matching sentences between a source text and its translation(s) in a target language, which is a crucial step in many natural language processing and machine translation workflows. | | Linguistic Verification | The process where a linguist reviews each segment of an alignment project, approving correct matches and correcting or deleting any incorrect matches to ensure accuracy. | | Incorrect Match | A scenario where the alignment tool fails to correctly pair source and target segments, potentially due to structural differences like one source sentence being translated into multiple target sentences. | | Formatting/Variable Information | Data within a file that is converted into tags by a Translation Memory system, which the alignment tool can use as a guide for matching segments. | | Source and Target Files | The original document (source) and its translated version (target) that are processed for alignment. Consistency in format and version between these files is crucial for optimal results. | | Quality of Translated Files | The standard of the existing translations significantly impacts the alignment process, as the alignment tool typically does not include a linguistic review of the translations themselves. | | Term Base | A database designed to store single words or expressions pertinent to a specific subject matter, often presented in bilingual or multilingual formats. | | CAT Tool | Computer-Assisted Translation tool that integrates features like term bases to aid translators in their work, often allowing for import and export of terminology resources. | | Forbidden Terms | Specific words or expressions that translators are explicitly instructed not to use in their translations, helping to maintain brand consistency and avoid errors. | | LSP | Language Service Provider, an organization that offers translation and localization services, often utilizing term bases and glossaries to manage client terminology. | | Project Manager (PM) | The individual responsible for overseeing a translation project, who can use term bases to verify the consistency of terminology even without fluency in all target languages. | | Placeables | Terms recognized from the glossary within the source segment, highlighted in blue. These terms can be manipulated using specific shortcuts or icons. | | Auto-suggest Feature | A default feature in WFA that proposes target terms as the user types the first few letters of the source or target term, facilitating faster translation. | | Glossary Panel | A panel within WFA that displays glossary information, including translations and associated comments, which can be activated via a keyboard shortcut or menu option. | | Glossary Dialog Box | A pop-up window invoked by a specific shortcut or button, used for adding new terms and their translations, along with supplementary information, to the glossary. | | F1, F2, F3 Fields | Designated areas within the Glossary Dialog Box for storing additional, text-based information about a term, such as its role, context, or grammatical form, to enhance understanding. | | Source Language | The original language of a text or content that is being translated or localized. | | Target Language | The language into which content is translated or localized. | | Local Versions and Dialects | Variations of a language spoken in specific geographic regions or by particular groups, which may include differences in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation that need to be considered during localization. | | Cultural Aspects | The social behaviors, customs, beliefs, and values specific to a particular region or group of people, which must be considered during localization. | | Local Laws | The legal regulations and statutes that are specific to a particular country or region, which content must comply with during localization. | | Cultural Barriers | Differences in customs, beliefs, values, and social norms between different cultures that can impede understanding or acceptance of content or products. | | User Experience | The overall feeling and satisfaction a user has when interacting with a product, website, or service, influenced by factors like usability, accessibility, and cultural appropriateness. | | Units of Measurement | Standard quantities used to express physical properties, such as length, weight, or volume, which often need to be converted to local standards (e.g., metric vs. imperial) for clarity. | | Currency Conversion | The process of exchanging one currency for another, often necessary for financial transactions or displaying equivalent monetary values in different regions. | | Date Formats | The various conventions used to represent dates, which differ across countries and can lead to misinterpretation if not localized (e.g., MM/DD/YY vs. DD/MM/YY). | | Text Expansion | The phenomenon where translated text can increase in length compared to the source text, requiring flexible design to accommodate these variations. | | Target Locale | The specific geographical region or cultural group for which a product or content is being adapted; localization aims to make the product feel native to this locale. | | Engagement | The degree to which a target audience interacts with and connects to a message or product, which can be increased by tailoring marketing efforts to local expectations. | | Globalization | The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world's economies, cultures, and populations, which necessitates approaches like localization to effectively reach diverse markets. | | Language Localization | A specific type of localization that focuses on adapting linguistic elements of a product or service, primarily involving translation, to ensure cultural and linguistic appropriateness for the target audience. | | Subtitling | A method of presenting translated dialogue from audio or video content as text displayed at the bottom of the screen, allowing the original audio to remain audible. | | Dubbing | The process of replacing the original voice-overs in audio or video content with translated dialogue performed by new voice actors, synchronized with the on-screen action. | | Writing Systems | The various methods used to represent language in written form, employing different scripts, characters (symbols, logograms, syllograms, letters), and writing directions (e.g., left-to-right, right-to-left, vertical). | | Boustrophedon | A style of writing where lines alternate in direction, with one line proceeding from left to right and the next from right to left, resembling the path of an ox plowing a field. | | Complex Text Layout | A feature in some languages where the shape of characters changes based on their context within a word or sentence, requiring advanced rendering capabilities. | | Sorting Rules | Different algorithms and conventions used to order text alphabetically or lexicographically within various writing systems and languages, which can vary significantly. | | Numeral System | A system for representing numbers, which can differ across languages and cultures, including the symbols used and the base of the system (e.g., decimal, binary). | | Pluralization | The grammatical process of forming the plural of a noun, which varies in complexity and rules across different languages, often requiring specific attention during translation. | | Guillemets | A type of quotation mark, specifically angle quotes (`« »`), commonly used in French and other European languages, serving a similar purpose to double quotes in English. | | Economic Conventions | Variations in common practices and standards related to economic aspects across different countries, such as paper sizes, preferred storage media, currency formats, and measurement systems. | | Text Layout | Encompasses the complex arrangement of characters in a language, where their shapes might change based on context, and includes considerations for capitalization rules, text sorting, and the use of punctuation, which can differ significantly across languages. | | Numeral Systems | Refers to the distinct sets of numbers and their associated symbols used by different languages and cultures, requiring translators to be aware of these variations during the localization process. | | Grammatical Rules | Pertains to the specific structures and conventions of a language, including variations in pluralization and other grammatical elements, which necessitate careful attention to detail to ensure accurate and natural-sounding translations. | | Time Zones | Refers to the different standard times observed across the world, which translators must carefully consider to ensure that temporal information in localized content is accurate and relevant to the target audience's location. | | Legal Requirements | Pertains to the laws and regulations specific to a country or region that may necessitate customization or complete alteration of a product to ensure compliance, including privacy laws, disclaimers, labeling, encryption regulations, censorship, accessibility standards, and tax collection procedures. | | Political Issues | Involves considerations related to sensitive political matters such as disputed borders and geographical naming disputes, which require careful handling to avoid offense or misrepresentation in localized content. | | Local Customs | Encompasses the established practices, traditions, superstitions, religious beliefs, and social taboos of a particular community or region, which must be understood and respected during the localization process to ensure cultural appropriateness. | | Personal Name Conventions | Refers to the established practices for naming individuals within a culture, including title conventions and the structure of personal names, which need to be accurately represented in localized content. | | Unicode Standard | A universal character encoding standard that ensures compatibility with a wide range of writing systems, enabling the representation of diverse languages on a website. | | Separation of Content and Code | A design principle where website content is kept distinct from the underlying source code, simplifying the translation process and reducing the need for extensive modifications to the code itself. | | Flexible User Interface (UI) | A website interface designed to accommodate variations in text length and support languages with different reading directions (e.g., left-to-right or right-to-left). | | Translation of Content | The act of converting textual and multimedia elements of a website into the language of the target audience, paying close attention to linguistic accuracy and cultural appropriateness. | | Adaptation of Graphics and Multimedia | Ensuring that visual elements such as images and videos are culturally suitable for the target audience and effectively communicate the intended message without causing offense. | | Adjustment of Layout and Design | Modifying the visual arrangement and aesthetic elements of a website to accommodate differences in text length, font styles, and other language-specific requirements. | | Integration of Local Regulations | The process of ensuring that a website complies with the legal requirements, privacy policies, and accessibility standards specific to the target region or country. | | Dynamic Content | Website content that is generated or updated in real-time, presenting a unique challenge for localization due to the need for continuous adaptation and consistency. | | SEO Considerations | The practice of optimizing localized website elements, such as metadata, keywords, and tags, to improve search engine visibility and ranking within specific geographic regions. | | Cultural Sensitivity | The careful consideration of cultural nuances, customs, and values when localizing a website to prevent misunderstandings, avoid unintentional offense, and foster positive user experiences. | | Search Engine Optimization (SEO) | The practice of optimizing website content and structure to improve its visibility and ranking in search engine results pages, thereby increasing organic traffic. | | Website Localization | The process of adapting a website's content, design, and functionality to a specific target market or region, considering linguistic and cultural differences to enhance user experience and relevance. | | Keyword Research | The process of identifying and analyzing search terms and phrases that potential customers use when looking for products or services related to a business, crucial for targeting the right audience in international markets. | | Cultural Nuances | Subtle differences in customs, traditions, values, and social behaviors that are specific to a particular culture, which must be understood and respected when translating content for international audiences. | | Localized Content | Website material that has been translated and adapted to suit the linguistic, cultural, and market-specific preferences of a target audience, ensuring it resonates effectively and feels natural. | | Meta Titles | The HTML title element that appears in search engine results pages and browser tabs, serving as a brief description of a page's content and a key factor in SEO. | | Meta Descriptions | A short summary of a webpage's content that appears in search engine results, designed to entice users to click through to the page by accurately reflecting its content and including relevant keywords. | | URL Slugs | The part of a URL that identifies a particular page on a website in human-readable form, often including keywords to improve SEO and user understanding. | | Multilingual Link Building | The strategic process of acquiring backlinks from reputable websites in various languages, which helps to improve a website's authority and search engine rankings across different international markets. | | Mobile Optimization | The process of ensuring that a website's content and design are effectively displayed and function well on mobile devices, which is critical for SEO given the prevalence of mobile search. | | Search Engine Algorithms | The complex sets of rules and calculations used by search engines to determine the ranking of websites in search results, which are constantly updated and require ongoing SEO strategy adjustments. | | Website Analytics | The process of collecting, measuring, analyzing, and reporting website data to understand user behavior and website performance, essential for assessing the effectiveness of SEO strategies. | | Search Engine Visibility | The degree to which a webpage is discoverable and appears in relevant search engine results for a given query, which is enhanced by accurately translated and optimized metadata for foreign markets. | | User Click-Through Rates | The percentage of users who click on a specific link in search engine results or on a webpage, which can be significantly influenced by compelling and culturally relevant translated meta titles and descriptions. | | Local Relevance | The degree to which webpage content, particularly metadata, aligns with the cultural nuances, preferences, and expectations of a specific target audience in a foreign market, making it more appealing and relevant. | | Keyword Optimization | The process of strategically incorporating relevant keywords, including region-specific terms, into metadata to improve a webpage's ranking in search engine results for targeted queries in a foreign language. | | Global Brand Consistency | The maintenance of a unified brand tone, message, and identity across all international markets, ensured by professional translators who align translated metadata with the overall brand strategy. | | Adherence to Character Limits | The practice of ensuring that translated metadata, such as meta titles and descriptions, fits within the specific character constraints imposed by search engines to prevent truncation and maintain readability in search results. | | Credibility and Trust | The perception of a website's reliability and authenticity by users, which can be positively impacted by accurate and professional translations of metadata, fostering confidence in foreign markets. | | Adaptation to Market Trends | The continuous process of updating and refining translated metadata to reflect current linguistic, cultural, and market shifts, ensuring sustained optimization and relevance for foreign audiences. | | Pre-editing | The process of revising technical documentation before it is processed by a Machine Translation (MT) engine, with the goal of improving the source text to enhance the quality of the raw output. Effective pre-editing can significantly reduce or even eliminate the subsequent post-editing workload. | | Post-editing | The process of revising the output generated by a Machine Translation (MT) system to improve its quality, accuracy, and fluency, making it suitable for its intended purpose. | | Source Text | The original document or text that is intended to be translated into another language. | | Raw Output | The initial, unedited translation produced by a Machine Translation (MT) system, which typically requires further human review and correction. | | Term Consistency | The practice of using the same translation for a specific term throughout a document or a set of related documents to ensure uniformity and clarity. | | Automated Revision Tools | Software applications designed to assist in the review and correction of text, such as spell checkers, grammar checkers, and tools that verify term consistency against a glossary. | | Project-Specific Glossary | A curated list of terms and their approved translations relevant to a particular project, used to ensure consistency and accuracy in both pre-editing and translation. | | Controlled Natural Language (CNL) | A subset of a natural language that is created by imposing restrictions on its grammar and vocabulary to minimize or eradicate ambiguity and complexity, facilitating both human comprehension and reliable automatic semantic analysis. | | Simplified Technical English | A type of controlled language, often referred to as "simplified" or "technical" languages, used in industries to elevate the quality of technical documentation and potentially streamline the process of semi-automatic translation by adhering to specific writing rules. | | Caterpillar Fundamental English | A restricted vocabulary of approximately 850 words developed by Caterpillar Inc. to ensure consistency and high quality in the authoring and translation of technical documents for their complex products across various target languages. | | CLOUT™ rule set | An acronym for Controlled Language Optimized for Uniform Translation, this is a collection of grammar rules developed to reduce ambiguities in texts across many languages, making them more suitable for machine translation. | | Ambiguity | The quality of being open to more than one interpretation; inexactness, which controlled natural languages aim to eliminate to improve clarity and machine processability. | | Controlled Language | A language that adheres to a specific set of rules designed to reduce ambiguity and improve clarity, particularly for machine translation. | | Machine Translation | The use of computer software to translate text or speech from one language to another automatically. Controlled languages are optimized to enhance the accuracy of machine translation. | | Sentence Length Rule | A guideline within controlled language writing that recommends keeping sentences below a certain word count (e.g., 25 words) to enhance readability and comprehension. | | Single Idea Rule | A principle in controlled language writing that advocates for sentences to express only one distinct thought or concept, preventing complex sentence structures that can lead to misinterpretation. | | Grammatically Complete Sentences | Sentences that contain all the necessary components to form a complete thought and follow the established rules of grammar, avoiding fragments or incomplete statements. | | Simple Grammatical Structure | The use of straightforward sentence construction, typically involving a clear subject-verb-object order, to make texts easier to understand and process, especially for non-native speakers or machines. | | Active Voice | A grammatical construction where the subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb, as opposed to the passive voice where the subject receives the action. Active voice generally leads to clearer and more direct communication. | | Noun Repetition | A rule in controlled languages that encourages repeating a noun rather than using a pronoun to refer to it, thereby eliminating potential confusion about the antecedent. | | Article Usage | The practice of employing articles (e.g., "a," "an," "the") to clearly identify nouns, which helps in specifying whether a noun is general or specific, thus reducing ambiguity. | | General Dictionary Words | The use of vocabulary that is commonly understood and found in standard dictionaries, avoiding specialized jargon, slang, or obscure terms that might not be universally recognized. | | Post-editor | A person who performs the task of post-editing, correcting machine translation output to meet agreed-upon quality standards. | | Revision | The process of improving human-generated text, often referred to as editing in the field of translation, and distinct from post-editing. | | Light Post-editing | A type of post-editing that focuses on making machine translation output simply understandable, requiring minimal intervention to convey the core meaning. | | Full Post-editing | A comprehensive approach to post-editing that aims to make machine translation output not only understandable but also stylistically appropriate for various uses. | | Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tools | Software applications designed to assist human translators in the translation process, many of which now support the post-editing of machine translated output. | | Raw Machine Translation | The direct output from a machine translation engine without any subsequent human correction or refinement. | | Assimilation | In the context of post-editing, refers to the process of integrating translated content for internal understanding or use within an organization. | | Dissemination | In the context of post-editing, refers to the process of distributing translated content to a wider audience or for external communication. | | Raw MT output | The initial, unedited text generated by a machine translation system, which serves as the basis for post-editing. | | Publishable quality | A high standard of translation quality, equivalent to that produced by a human translator and subsequently revised, suitable for immediate publication without further review. | | Good enough quality | A lower standard of translation quality that ensures the message is comprehensible and accurate, but may not be stylistically perfect or sound entirely natural, often referred to as "fit for purpose." | | Semantically correct translation | A translation where the meaning of the source text is accurately conveyed, ensuring that the intended message is understood without distortion or misinterpretation. | | Stylistically compelling | Refers to text that is not only accurate and comprehensible but also possesses a natural flow, engaging tone, and appropriate linguistic nuances, similar to well-written human prose. |

# Scientific translation challenges and strategies This section outlines key considerations and practical approaches for overcoming common obstacles encountered in scientific translation, focusing on formulas, file management, and effective internet utilization [47](#page=47). ### 1.1 Formulas and equations In most scientific translations, formulas and equations typically do not require modification. However, translators must exercise caution with symbols used within regular text to avoid confusion. For instance, the symbols 'µ' and 'u' can be easily mistaken [48](#page=48). #### 1.1.1 Handling symbols If the exact identity of a symbol is unclear, a common strategy is to try changing the font to improve legibility. The primary translation strategy for formulas and equations is to copy and paste them directly, retaining their original form [48](#page=48). #### 1.1.2 Symbol adaptation In a few specific instances, symbols might need to be adapted to align with the target language conventions. An example of this is translating the symbol for weight, 'W' (from English), to 'P' for 'peso' in Spanish [48](#page=48). ### 1.2 Managing and naming files Effective file management is crucial for maintaining organization and preventing data loss during the translation process [49](#page=49). #### 1.2.1 Storing files For each project, it is recommended to create a master folder. Within this master folder, separate subfolders should be established for source files and translated files. Additionally, dedicated folders should be created for reference materials and glossaries [49](#page=49). #### 1.2.2 Translating files When possible, use a System Template (ST) as a template to overwrite, which helps preserve formatting. If a template is not available, the translator should mirror the original formatting. It is imperative never to work on the only copy of a source file; instead, upload it to a Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tool or create a copy and save it in the target language (TL) folder [49](#page=49). #### 1.2.3 File naming conventions When saving translated files, maintain the original file name and append the appropriate ISO language code, such as `_ES` for Spanish or `_EN` for English [49](#page=49). ### 1.3 Using the internet The internet is an invaluable resource for obtaining necessary information, but it requires careful navigation and critical evaluation to ensure reliability [50](#page=50). #### 1.3.1 Finding relevant information * **Parallel texts:** These are exceptionally useful resources that aid understanding and serve as a rich source of terminology [50](#page=50). * **Search engines:** Maximizing their utility involves using quotation marks for exact phrase searches and employing advanced search functions. Further advanced search operators like `SITE:` and `FILETYPE:` can also be beneficial [50](#page=50). * **Terminology resources:** Specialized databases such as IATE, UNTERM, Termium, and Termcat are essential for terminology research. Search engines can be used effectively by combining the target term with a related word in the target language or a best guess. Linguee can be used as a preliminary tool, but with caution [50](#page=50). * **Translators' forums:** Platforms like ProZ allow translators to seek advice from peers, but information from these forums should be used with discernment [50](#page=50). > **Tip:** While translators' forums can offer valuable insights, always cross-reference information and exercise critical judgment before adopting suggestions [50](#page=50). > **Tip:** When using search engines, remember that advanced search operators can significantly refine your results [50](#page=50). --- # Medical specialities and communicative situations This section delves into the diverse landscape of medical specialities and the various communicative situations and reader profiles encountered within the medical field [59](#page=59). ### 2.1 Medical specialities Medical translation encompasses the communication of knowledge across a wide array of medical specialities. These include, but are not limited to [59](#page=59): * Internal Medicine [59](#page=59). * Obstetrics and Gynaecology [59](#page=59). * Orthopaedics [59](#page=59). * Paediatrics [59](#page=59). * Psychiatry [59](#page=59). * Surgery [59](#page=59). * Pharmacology [59](#page=59). Beyond these core medical disciplines, medical translation may also involve knowledge from related fields such as anthropology, psychology, and sociology, highlighting the vastness of the subject matter [59](#page=59). ### 2.2 Communicative situations and participants The communicative situations in the medical field are exceptionally broad, extending beyond interactions among researchers to include communications involving health professionals, patients, and the general public regarding health matters [60](#page=60). Key communicative functions within this domain include: * Dissemination of biomedical research among specialists [60](#page=60). * Dissemination of relevant research through mass media [60](#page=60). * Education of health professionals at universities [60](#page=60). * Education of patients [60](#page=60). * Processes related to the approval of new drugs [60](#page=60). * Advertising of health products and services [60](#page=60). * Communication within hospitals and health centres [60](#page=60). * Public health campaigns by health institutions [60](#page=60). #### 2.2.1 Reader profiles There are five main reader profiles, each with distinct levels of knowledge and experience, leading to different degrees of specialisation. These profiles are [61](#page=61): * General readers [61](#page=61). * Patients [61](#page=61). * Students [61](#page=61). * Health professionals [61](#page=61). * Researchers [61](#page=61). Each reader group engages with information for different reasons and utilizes it in diverse ways. The application of information varies according to the reader profile [61](#page=61): * General readers seek information for preventing disease [61](#page=61). * Patients use information for treating disease [61](#page=61). * Students utilize information to become health professionals [61](#page=61). * Health professionals apply information for implementing knowledge in their practice [61](#page=61). * Researchers engage with information for advancing knowledge in their field [61](#page=61). The choice of a particular genre for communication is contingent upon the specific communicative situation and the reader's profile, needs, and intended application of the information [61](#page=61). ### 2.3 Frequently translated medical genres Medical genres can be broadly categorized into four main groups based on their societal roles [62](#page=62). #### 2.3.1 Research genres These genres are employed by researchers and physicians in hospitals, research centres, laboratories, and universities across all medical specialities to communicate their findings. They serve as primary sources of information and are typically highly standardized. Examples include [62](#page=62): * Research papers [62](#page=62). * Review articles [62](#page=62). * Case reports [62](#page=62). * Clinical trial protocols [62](#page=62). * Conference proceedings [62](#page=62). #### 2.3.2 Professional genres Professional genres are utilized by health professionals, such as doctors, nurses, technicians, and managers, in their daily work within clinics and the health industry. Examples of these genres include [63](#page=63): * Informed consents [63](#page=63). * Clinical guidelines [63](#page=63). * Standard operating procedures [63](#page=63). * Summary of product characteristics [63](#page=63). * Manuals [63](#page=63). * Medical questionnaires [63](#page=63). * Medical histories [63](#page=63). #### 2.3.3 Educational genres Educational genres are employed for teaching and learning purposes across a wide spectrum of contexts, ranging from university courses and institutional campaigns to domestic life. Commonly translated educational genres include [64](#page=64): * Fact sheets/brochures for patients [64](#page=64). * Patient information leaflets [64](#page=64). * Course books [64](#page=64). * Popularising articles [64](#page=64). * Medical encyclopaedias [64](#page=64). #### 2.3.4 Commercial genres Commercial genres are used for the sale and purchase of products and services within the health sector. This category encompasses [65](#page=65): * Drug advertisements [65](#page=65). * Vial and carton labels [65](#page=65). * Catalogues [65](#page=65). * Patents [65](#page=65). * Press releases [65](#page=65). It is important to note that some genres, such as dictionaries and encyclopaedias, can appropriately belong to more than one category [65](#page=65). --- # Understanding medical and scientific text genres This section explores the characteristics of various medical and scientific text genres, categorizing them by their level of specialization and primary rhetorical purpose [91](#page=91). ### 3.1 Categorization of genres Medical and scientific texts can be broadly classified based on two key dimensions: the level of specialization and the dominant rhetorical purpose [91](#page=91). #### 3.1.1 Level of specialization This refers to the intended audience and the depth of technical knowledge assumed [91](#page=91). * **Little specialized / Rather general:** Texts intended for a broad audience with limited prior knowledge [91](#page=91). * **Highly specialized:** Texts aimed at experts or those with advanced training in a specific field [91](#page=91). #### 3.1.2 Rhetorical purpose This describes the main function or goal of the text [91](#page=91). * **Instructive:** To teach or provide guidance [91](#page=91). * **Expository:** To explain or inform [91](#page=91). * **Argumentative:** To persuade or advocate for a particular viewpoint [91](#page=91). ### 3.2 Examples of medical and scientific text genres The interplay of specialization and purpose leads to distinct genre types [91](#page=91). #### 3.2.1 Popular science texts These texts generally fall into the "little specialized" category and often have an "expository" or "instructive" purpose [91](#page=91). * **Popular science book:** Aims to make complex scientific concepts accessible to the general public [91](#page=91). * **Article (in popular science publications):** Similar to popular science books, these articles explain scientific topics to a non-specialist audience [91](#page=91). > **Tip:** Popular science genres often employ engaging narratives and analogies to explain scientific ideas, prioritizing comprehension over technical precision. #### 3.2.2 Highly specialized texts These texts are designed for audiences with expert knowledge and typically serve an "expository" or "argumentative" purpose [91](#page=91). * **Scientific paper:** A core genre in academic research, presenting original findings, methodologies, and analyses to a specialized community [91](#page=91). * **Fact sheet for patients:** While often aimed at a general audience, these can vary in their level of detail and may include more specific medical information, bordering on instructive or expository for a particular health condition [90](#page=90). > **Example:** A scientific paper detailing a new drug's efficacy would be highly specialized and primarily expository, while a promotional article in a general health magazine about the same drug might be less specialized and more persuasive (argumentative). The document also mentions "Montalt & González-Davies (2007: 58)" in relation to medical genres and their rhetorical purpose, and "Montalt (2005: 83)" without further specific context within the provided pages [90](#page=90) [93](#page=93). --- # Case studies in technical contexts Case studies in technical contexts are marketing texts that use real-world examples of customer success to promote a company's products or services . ### 4.1 Definition and terminology * **Alternative names:** These texts are also known as customer stories, success stories, or similar variations. In Spanish, they can be referred to as "estudios de caso," "historias de clientes," "historias de éxito," "casos prácticos," or "casos de éxito," depending on the company . * **Purpose:** The primary goal is to demonstrate how potential customers can benefit from a company's offerings by showcasing a real-world application. They aim to build trust by presenting a positive customer experience, especially when a well-known client is featured . ### 4.2 Content and stylistic features * **Textual blend:** These case studies combine technical language with elements of marketing and journalism . * **Persuasive nature:** They are argumentative texts designed to persuade potential customers of the company's expertise through practical examples . * **Credibility enhancement:** The inclusion of quotes, names of individuals within the client company, and their job titles personalizes the text and adds credibility . * **Industry terminology:** The language often incorporates terminology from both the company's own business and the client's industry, not necessarily limited to the specific technology involved . * **Positive framing:** The language used reflects a very positive experience from the featured customer, reinforcing the promotional aspect . > **Tip:** Selecting the "right" customer to feature, such as a large or well-respected brand, can significantly enhance the credibility and persuasive power of a case study . ### 4.3 Design and structure * **Aesthetics:** The design is typically attractive, presenting information clearly and concisely . * **Subsections:** Subsections are often introduced by short, attention-grabbing headings followed by text formatted in bold and italics . * **Typical elements:** A common structure includes: * A catchy headline . * A summary quote or testimonial from the client, alongside quotes from interviews . * A description of the client's business activities and needs, outlining the problem or challenge they faced . * An explanation of how the company provided the solution to the client's problem . * Visual aids such as diagrams, statistics, and images . ### 4.4 Publication and usage * **Formats:** Case studies are published on company webpages or as printable PDF documents . * **Marketing integration:** They are actively incorporated into marketing and sales efforts to engage potential clients . --- # Technical data sheet and safety data sheet Technical data sheets (TDS) and safety data sheets (SDS) are crucial documents providing comprehensive information about a product's composition, properties, applications, safety, and legal considerations . ### 5.1 Purpose and standardization The primary aim of TDS and SDS is to deliver clear, detailed, and unambiguous information regarding various product aspects. This ensures the product is used correctly, safely, and in compliance with relevant legislation. While the specific content can differ based on the product, company, or country-specific legal requirements, these documents are highly standardized, featuring consistent sections, terminology, and language . > **Tip:** The standardization of TDS and SDS is vital for ensuring consistency and facilitating understanding across different users and regions. ### 5.2 Audience and textual features TDS and SDS are typically targeted towards an expert audience, such as engineers and designers, making them highly specialized texts. They exhibit many characteristics common to technical texts, including a large amount of specialized terminology and acronyms, factual data, figures, graphics, and references to regulations and standards . ### 5.3 Content and function #### 5.3.1 Technical data sheet (TDS) The Technical Data Sheet (TDS) primarily serves as a reference to assist users in selecting the appropriate product and confirming that its intended application falls within its capabilities. It can also fulfill a marketing function for the product . #### 5.3.2 Safety data sheet (SDS) The Safety Data Sheet (SDS) provides critical safety information, which typically includes: * Hazard pictograms . * Signal words . * Hazard statements . * Precautionary statements . * And other essential safety details . > **Tip:** Understanding the specific components of an SDS is crucial for safe handling and emergency response related to a product. ### 5.4 Interrelation Both the TDS and SDS are closely related documents, and consistency between them is important. This ensures that the information provided about a product's characteristics and its safe usage is coherent and complementary . --- # Handling latinisms and scientific nomenclature in translation This topic addresses the complexities and strategies involved in translating Latin-derived terms and scientific nomenclature [38](#page=38). ### 5.1 The nature of latinisms and scientific nomenclature Latin has historically served as a lingua franca among scientists, leading to the prevalence of Latin terms and phrases in various fields. These terms, often assimilated into national languages, retain a strong resemblance across European languages due to minor grammatical and orthographic modifications. Scientific nomenclature, conversely, is a system designed to assign unique names to species of animals and plants, providing scientists with stable, simple, and internationally recognized methods for naming organisms. Examples include names like *corydoras paleatus* for the peppered Cory catfish. Latin is also utilized in medical contexts for anatomical directional terms, such as *superior* and *inferior* [38](#page=38). ### 5.2 Advantages of scientific nomenclature The benefits of employing a standardized scientific nomenclature are significant: * Each species receives a unique designation, ensuring distinct identification [39](#page=39). * These names are universally understood by experts across all countries and languages [39](#page=39). * The system promotes consistency in spelling and stability in meaning, avoiding ambiguities that can arise from common names, such as the difference between "tadpole" (UK) and "polliwog" (US) for a batrachian larva [39](#page=39). ### 5.3 Translation strategies for latinisms and scientific nomenclature For translators, scientific nomenclature and latinisms offer specific considerations: * **Retain:** In most instances, Latin terms can be retained in the target text, typically presented in italics [40](#page=40). * **Explain:** This strategy involves providing both the Latin name and its common target language (TL) equivalent, either parenthetically or as an explanatory phrase preceding or following the Latin term. This is particularly useful when translating for a general audience that may lack the specialized background of the source text's intended readers, such as in medical articles [40](#page=40). * **Replace:** Replacement is recommended when the target audience (TA) or TL has limited exposure to Latin terminology [40](#page=40). > **Tip:** When dealing with scientific nomenclature, the consistency and international recognition of these terms can be a significant aid in identifying commonly used equivalents in the target language [39](#page=39). > > **Tip:** Always be vigilant for misspellings in Latin terms or scientific nomenclature, as accuracy is paramount [39](#page=39). ### 5.4 Context of scientific texts in translation Scientific papers are highly specialized texts describing original research results, intended to inform and persuade peers about the validity of observations, conclusions, and methods. The typical audience consists of scientists and academics who share a similar expert background with the author, leading to a high density of specialized terminology. These papers commonly follow a structured format, often including an Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods (or separate Materials and Procedures sections), Results, Discussion, Conclusions, and References. The IMRaD (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure is also prevalent [42](#page=42) [45](#page=45) [46](#page=46). #### 5.4.1 Key sections of scientific papers * **Title:** Should be informative, clearly conveying the core aspects of the research [43](#page=43). * **Abstract:** A condensed summary of the paper's content, crucial for determining if the main text will be read. It must be self-contained and can sometimes contain language errors if written by non-native authors [43](#page=43). * **Keywords:** Essential for indexing and search engine optimization, these terms must be representative and specific to the research [43](#page=43). * **Introduction:** Provides the necessary background information and context for the study, explains the rationale behind its conduct, and clearly states the study's aims. It may also offer a brief overview of the methodology [44](#page=44). * **Materials:** Details the materials used in the study, which can be highly technical and include trademarked names [45](#page=45). * **Procedure:** A step-by-step description of the experimental actions, typically in the past tense. It often incorporates acronyms and units of measure, requiring accuracy, clarity, and consistency for study reliability and repeatability [45](#page=45). * **Results:** Presents an objective statement of findings and data, which may include numbers, statistics, and descriptions, without interpretive discussion [45](#page=45). * **Discussion:** Analyzes, interprets, and explains the findings. The language here can be more complex, employing set phrases for opinions, beliefs, probabilities, and doubts, and may also address study limitations [46](#page=46). * **Conclusions:** If present, this section summarizes the hypothesis, key results, and main conclusions derived from the discussion, potentially including suggestions for future research [46](#page=46). * **References:** Establish the origin of ideas, justify claims, provide context, and demonstrate engagement with the research field. Journals usually specify the required bibliographical style, which may necessitate translation of certain details, such as the place of publication [46](#page=46). > **Example:** When translating a scientific paper, retaining the Latin name of a plant or organism in italics, such as *Quercus robur*, followed by the common English name "English oak" in parentheses, would be an instance of the "retain and explain" strategy [40](#page=40). --- # Medical genres and their characteristics This section explores various medical genres and their distinguishing features, focusing on educational genres like fact sheets for patients. ### 7.1 Classification of medical genres Medical genres can be broadly categorized, with some genres potentially fitting into multiple classifications. One significant category is commercial genres, which are utilized for the sale and purchase of health-related products and services. Examples of commercial genres include [65](#page=65): * Drug advertisements [65](#page=65). * Vial and carton labels [65](#page=65). * Catalogues [65](#page=65). * Patents [65](#page=65). * Press releases [65](#page=65). * And others [65](#page=65). ### 7.2 Educational genres: Fact sheets for patients Fact sheets for patients (FSP), also referred to as "patient [information brochure/booklet" or "patient leaflet," fall under the category of educational genres. These documents are typically produced by health organizations such as governmental bodies (local, national, or international), patients' associations, professional associations, research institutes, hospitals, or medical societies [68](#page=68). The primary purpose of an FSP is to convey essential information to patients about a specific disease, condition, medicine, or medical procedure. Patient education is recognized as a crucial element in both managing existing diseases and preventing their onset [68](#page=68). > **Tip:** It is important to distinguish fact sheets for patients (FSP) from patient information leaflets (PIL). PILs are documents enclosed within the outer packaging of a medicine and are issued by pharmaceutical companies [68](#page=68). #### 7.2.1 Features of fact sheets for patients Fact sheets for patients possess several key characteristics that distinguish them: * **Language:** These documents are usually written by health professionals with the intent that patients and the general public can comprehend the content. The information is presented in a clear, concise, and easy-to-read manner [69](#page=69). * **Structure:** FSPs are organized hierarchically, starting with the most fundamental information. They employ headings that briefly summarize the most significant aspects of the disease or condition being discussed [69](#page=69). * **Sources of information:** The information presented in FSPs is typically derived from highly reliable and well-established medical sources, such as clinical handbooks. These fact sheets can be considered elaborations and re-contextualizations of texts found in more specialized medical genres [69](#page=69). * **Terminology:** Medical terms within fact sheets are frequently accompanied by explanations to ensure understanding for the target audience [69](#page=69). > **Example:** A fact sheet on diabetes might start with a general definition of the disease, followed by sections on symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment options, and lifestyle recommendations, all presented in accessible language with explanations for any technical terms. ### 7.3 Further reading For a more in-depth exploration of medical translation and genres, the following source is recommended: Montalt, V. & González Davies, M. *Medical Translation Step by Step*. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing: pages 15-45, 52-53 [66](#page=66). --- # Case reports in medical literature Case reports are a fundamental and long-standing format in medical literature used to communicate detailed observations of individual patient cases, primarily for educational and research stimulation purposes [78](#page=78). ### 8.1 Definition and origins Case reports, also known by terms such as clinical/medical case report, (clinical) case study, clinical case, or case history have their origins in medical teaching from the 19th century. This era saw a shift from purely theoretical discussions to a more practical, bedside analysis of cases, aiming to help other clinicians recognize and manage similar problems. In Spanish, they are referred to as "caso clínico". A case report is written by a clinician to describe and discuss a specific instance of a disease in a single patient targeting a broad medical audience [78](#page=78). ### 8.2 Purpose and communicative functions The primary reasons for publishing a case report are when a case presents a unique condition, an unusual manifestation of a common condition, or details an innovative treatment or diagnostic strategy, thereby holding significant educational value [79](#page=79). The communicative functions of case reports include: * Sharing relevant clinical information with other clinicians to enhance their clinical practice [79](#page=79). * Stimulating further research in a particular medical field or on a specific issue [79](#page=79). * Educating medical students on how to approach complex clinical scenarios efficiently [79](#page=79). Typically, case reports describe an aspect of a patient's condition, the treatment administered, and any adverse reactions observed. They are generally considered highly specialized [79](#page=79). ### 8.3 Content and style Case reports are usually expository texts, meaning they primarily present facts through narration and description with little to no argumentation or instruction [80](#page=80). > **Example:** "H.L. is a 46 year old Afro-American female, with a past medical history significant for hypothyroidism and beta-thalassemia, who was otherwise healthy until two weeks prior to admission. At that time she noted onset of a sore throat, malaise and low-grade fevers. Four days prior to admission, she experienced fever to 104ºF, chills, nausea and vomiting, and arthralgias and myalgias. She presented to the John Hopkins Bayview Medical." [80](#page=80). A prominent example of a platform for publishing case reports is: https://jmedicalcasereports.biomedcentral.com/ [80](#page=80). ### 8.4 Contribution to scientific research Case reports contain primary information that has not been previously published, thus contributing to scientific research by rapidly disseminating new and up-to-date information. However, they are considered a weaker form of research due to relying on the evidence of only a single case. Despite this limitation, they provide foundational information for more systematic and sophisticated scientific studies, such as case series [81](#page=81). > **Tip:** Readers of a case report should aim to clearly understand the patient's experience, the timeline of events, and the rationale behind the management decisions made [81](#page=81). ### 8.5 Standard structure The typical structure of a case report includes several common sections [82](#page=82): * Title * Author(s) * Abstract * Introduction * Case description/case presentation (encompassing case history, examination, and intervention) – this is generally considered the most important section [82](#page=82). * Discussion * Conclusions * References --- # Ethical considerations and client types in medical translation This section explores the paramount ethical considerations in medical translation and categorizes the diverse types of clients medical translators engage with [84](#page=84). ### 9.1 Ethical priorities in medical translation The core ethical imperative in both medicine and medical translation is to act with knowledge and skill, given that patients' health and lives are at stake. This underscores the critical importance of several key principles [84](#page=84): * **Accuracy and validity of information:** Ensuring that the translated content is factually correct and medically sound is non-negotiable [84](#page=84). * **Clarity:** The translated text must be easily understandable to the target audience, avoiding ambiguity [84](#page=84). * **Confidentiality:** Protecting sensitive patient and client information is a fundamental ethical duty [84](#page=84). * **Promotion of understanding, respect, and empathy:** Medical translation should foster positive communication and attitudes among all parties involved [84](#page=84). The weight of these principles can vary depending on the specific genre of the medical text being translated [84](#page=84). ### 9.2 Types of clients in medical translation Medical translators interact with a broad spectrum of clients, broadly categorized into the public and private sectors [86](#page=86). #### 9.2.1 Public sector clients Clients in the public sector include: * International institutions such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Red Cross [86](#page=86). * Government agencies [86](#page=86). * Universities [86](#page=86). * Research institutes [86](#page=86). * Hospitals and health services, particularly in countries with significant immigrant populations [86](#page=86). #### 9.2.2 Private sector clients Clients in the private sector encompass a range of entities, including: * Pharmaceutical laboratories [86](#page=86). * Publishers specializing in health-related content [86](#page=86). * Private hospitals [86](#page=86). * Manufacturers of medical appliances [86](#page=86). * The medical software industry [86](#page=86). * Private biomedical research centers [86](#page=86). * Biotechnology companies [86](#page=86). * Health and care managers and professionals [86](#page=86). It is common for medical translators to receive assignments from these private sector clients through translation agencies [86](#page=86). ### 9.3 Common tasks of the medical translator The responsibilities of a medical translator are diverse and can extend beyond simple text translation. Common tasks include [87](#page=87): * Translating texts intended for both internal use and external publication [87](#page=87). * Translating medical software and website content [87](#page=87). * Translating research articles, often into English [87](#page=87). * Revising and editing existing translations [87](#page=87). * Revising and editing original source texts [87](#page=87). * Rewriting and adapting texts for different audiences or purposes [87](#page=87). * Developing and maintaining terminological databases of medical terms [87](#page=87). * Planning and managing translation projects [87](#page=87). * Providing interpreting services in hospitals and health services [87](#page=87). * Performing sight translation (immediate oral translation of written text) [87](#page=87). > **Tip:** It is crucial for medical translators to always adhere strictly to the specifics of their translation assignment [87](#page=87). ### 9.4 Genres, rhetorical purpose, and level of specialization The nature of medical texts varies significantly, impacting the required skills and approach of the translator. This variation can be understood by considering the genre, its primary rhetorical purpose, and its level of specialization [88](#page=88). #### 9.4.1 Categorizing medical genres When analyzing translated medical genres, texts like patient fact sheets, the informative sections of informed consent documents, and case reports can be placed within a framework that considers their rhetorical purpose and specialization [89](#page=89). The main rhetorical purpose of various medical genres includes instructive, expository, and argumentative functions, combined with different levels of specialization (little specialized/rather general versus highly specialized) [90](#page=90) [91](#page=91). * **Fact sheets for patients** are typically instructional and aimed at a general audience [90](#page=90) [91](#page=91). * **Informed consent (informative part)** often has an instructive purpose, aiming to inform patients about a procedure or treatment [89](#page=89) [90](#page=90). * **Case reports** are generally expository, detailing specific patient cases, and can range in specialization depending on the journal or context [89](#page=89) [90](#page=90). #### 9.4.2 Categorizing scientific texts Other scientific texts encountered by translators can also be categorized based on their rhetorical purpose and specialization: * **Popular science books** are typically expository and aimed at a less specialized, general readership [91](#page=91). * **Articles in popular science publications** also serve an expository purpose for a broad audience [91](#page=91). * **Scientific papers** are highly specialized and primarily expository, often with argumentative elements, intended for an expert audience [91](#page=91). The following table illustrates the interplay between rhetorical purpose and level of specialization: | | + INSTRUCTIVE | + EXPOSITORY | + ARGUMENTATIVE | | :----------------------- | :-----------: | :----------: | :-------------: | | LITTLE SPECIALISED/RATHER GENERAL | | | | | HIGHLY SPECIALISED | | | | --- # Translating computer code and sample text Translating sample text and computer code involves specific considerations for technical translators, particularly in software localization, where understanding code structures and identifying translatable elements is crucial . ### 3.1 Understanding localization tasks Technical translators often engage in localization projects, which entails translating text that will be displayed within software applications or on websites. This includes user interfaces such as menus, text strings, error messages, and dialogue boxes. Additionally, online documentation like help files and "read me" files, along with technical documentation, marketing materials, and advertising content, require translation. Although translators are not programmers, they are expected to recognize code and tags and know how to handle them, as fragments of code may appear as ordinary text within sentences . ### 3.2 Identifying non-translatable code elements Several indicators can help translators identify elements that should not be translated : * **All uppercase words:** Words written exclusively in uppercase, such as "MENUITEM," are typically code elements and should not be translated . * **Consecutive words without spaces or linked by underscores:** Phrases like "CompanyName" or "Style\_Caption," where multiple words are joined without spaces or connected by underscores, are usually code identifiers and should remain untranslated . ### 3.3 Identifying translatable text within code contexts Conversely, certain elements, despite containing unusual characters or punctuation, require translation : * **Words with ampersands (`&`):** Ampersands preceding words often indicate hotkeys used for menu navigation. For example, "&View" translates to "View" and "F&ormat" to "Format" in a menu bar . * **Variables:** Variables serve as placeholders for information and are often identified by a preceding dollar sign (`$`) or percentage sign (`%`). For instance, "Your search returned $d results" might be translated with actual numbers, and "Are you sure you want to delete %1?" could become "Are you sure you want to delete PRESENTATION.DOC?" . * **Text including tags for formatting:** Text enclosed in tags like `` for bold or `` for italics should be translated while preserving the tags. For example, `hello` will display as **hello** . ### 3.4 Main strategies for translating code and sample text Several key strategies guide translators when dealing with code and sample text : * **Selective translation:** Not all text within computer code requires translation; translators should only translate the designated translatable portions . * **Do not translate compounds:** Phrases linked by underscores or written as single compound words should not be translated . * **Look for quotation marks:** Text enclosed within quotation marks generally needs to be translated . * **Preserve punctuation:** Punctuation, such as periods used to indicate menu options leading to dialogue boxes (e.g., "Print..."), should be maintained . > **Tip:** Always be mindful of the context. Text that looks like code might be a regular string in some cases, and vice versa. ### 3.5 Handling variables and tags When translating text that includes variables and formatting tags, specific rules apply to ensure functional integrity : * **Do not change variables:** Variables should never be deleted, modified, or rearranged within a string. For example, "Click %s to update %s" should be translated without altering the order or presence of `%s` placeholders, even if the surrounding text changes. Incorrect rearrangement can lead to nonsensical outputs like "To update Refresh, click DATABASE.MDB" . * **Keep tags in the right place:** Formatting tags, such as `` and ``, must be positioned correctly to enclose the text that should appear in bold . > **Example:** Given the source string "Click %s to update %s", a correct translation would be "Cliquez %s pour mettre à jour %s", preserving the variables. An incorrect translation might be "Pour mettre à jour %s, cliquez %s". ### 3.6 Special considerations and best practices Translators should also be aware of other nuances and follow best practices: * **Beware of single-word strings:** Single words can pose translation challenges, as their meaning might vary based on context. For instance, "None" can have multiple translations depending on grammatical gender, and "Contact" could be a verb for a button or a noun for a label . * **Match the software:** The translation must align with what is displayed on the software's screen to ensure consistency and user experience . * **Seek clarification:** When in doubt about any element or translation, it is essential to consult the project manager or the client for guidance . --- # Features of technical documents Technical documents are characterized by several key features that ensure clarity, accuracy, and functionality for their intended audience [99](#page=99). ### 11.1 Language The language used in technical documents is typically clear, straightforward, and functional, aiming for directness and conciseness. Clarity and simplicity are often achieved by employing simple declarative sentences and providing clear instructions in a chronological order. A logical cause-and-effect structure further enhances understanding. These documents also incorporate specialized terminology, including abbreviations and acronyms. Additionally, specialized terms may be used that could appear as general terms in other contexts, such as "jumper" in relation to an electrical device [99](#page=99). ### 11.2 Facts and figures Facts and figures are integral components of technical documents and can be presented in various ways: embedded within a sentence, listed as bullet points, or displayed in tables without additional textual explanation. The inclusion of units of measure is also a critical aspect of presenting factual data accurately . ### 11.3 References References are frequently used to direct readers to related information within the same document or to other external documents, emphasizing the need for consistency in referencing. It is common to find references to laws, directives, and standards, which serve to affirm a product's reliability and safety. In software-related documentation, references often point to diagrams, screenshots, interface elements, menus, or accompanying documents . ### 11.4 Graphics Graphics, such as diagrams, graphs, photographs, and screenshots, are extensively utilized in technical documents, particularly for software products. These visual representations serve two primary purposes : * **Reinforcing and supporting textual information:** Graphics help to visually confirm and strengthen the information conveyed through text, making consistency between the text and visual elements, like user interfaces, crucial . * **Conveying information quickly and effectively:** Graphics can present complex information in a clear, rapid, and efficient manner . --- # Giving warnings and advice Providing warnings and advice is crucial in addition to instructions, particularly for highlighting potential risks and ensuring safety. Legal frameworks necessitate clear and effective warning information, with legislation constantly evolving and requiring accurate translation of warnings and advisory content. It is important not to understate or overstate risks, and a range of words like "Note," "Warning," "Caution," and "Danger" are used to indicate the relative importance of the information. In Europe, there are now two signal words: "Warning" for less severe hazards and "Danger" for more severe hazards . ### 12.1 Symbols for warnings Historically, European hazard symbols were presented on an orange background and accompanied by text descriptions, which were translated into most official EU languages. Since 2009/2015, these have been replaced by international symbols, in accordance with "Regulation CLP" (Classification, Labelling and Packaging, EC No. 1272/2008) . ### 12.2 Hazard statements Hazard statements are descriptive phrases formulated for different categories of hazardous materials and the risks they pose to health and safety. They are used on packaging, in safety data sheets, or in documents related to product approval. The precise wording of these statements is critical as it is tested, accurate, legal, and recognizable . Previously, the EU utilized risk phrases (R phrases) and safety phrases (S phrases). For example, S2: "Keep out of the reach of children" had official translations in various languages. These have now been replaced by hazard and precautionary statements under Regulation CLP, with new and modified statements applicable from October 2020. An example is P102 – "Keep out of reach of children". These statements are also translated into official languages . > **Tip:** When translating, always refer to the official translations of hazard and precautionary statements to ensure accuracy and compliance . ### 12.3 Main strategies for giving warnings and advice When providing descriptions of substances or warnings related to their use, it is essential to use the same terminology as found in official regulations and descriptions. For instance, avoid replacing "toxic" with "poisonous" unless the official terminology dictates it . For descriptions of hazardous materials and hazard/precautionary statements, use the official translation provided in the target language (TL). Crucially, ensure that warning notices are translated consistently throughout the entire document . --- # Informed consent in medical practice Informed consent is a crucial ethical and legal principle in medical practice, ensuring that patients have the autonomy to make decisions about their healthcare based on adequate information [71](#page=71). ### 13.1 Scenarios and principles Informed consent primarily applies to two main scenarios: * **Consent to medical procedures:** Patients provide written consent for surgical or medical interventions [71](#page=71). * **Participation in clinical studies:** Consent is given for involvement in medical research, including trials for new drugs, procedures, and techniques [71](#page=71). The core principles underpinning informed consent are: * **Physician's duty to disclose:** Healthcare providers have an obligation to provide patients with information sufficient for them to make a reasonable decision about their treatment [71](#page=71). * **Patient's right to free choice:** Individuals should be empowered to exercise their free will based on understanding the elements involved in a medical matter, recognizing this as a fundamental human right [71](#page=71). ### 13.2 European framework In Europe, the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine reinforces these principles. Specifically, Chapter II, Article 5 states that any intervention in the health field requires the free and informed consent of the person concerned. This person must be provided with appropriate information regarding the intervention's purpose, nature, consequences, and risks beforehand. Crucially, the individual retains the right to freely withdraw consent at any time [72](#page=72). ### 13.3 Exceptions to informed consent There are specific circumstances where obtaining explicit informed consent may not be feasible or immediately required: * **Emergency situations:** If consent cannot be obtained due to an emergency, medically necessary interventions can be performed immediately for the patient's benefit. This is outlined in Article 8 of the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine [73](#page=73). * **Threat to public health:** Situations posing a risk to the wider public may necessitate interventions without individual consent [73](#page=73). * **Incapacitated patients:** Individuals unable to provide informed consent, such as those with mental illnesses or children, require consent to be signed by a surrogate, parent, or guardian [73](#page=73). * **Other exceptions:** Additional exceptions may exist, as detailed in other relevant documents [73](#page=73). ### 13.4 Treatments requiring written informed consent Written informed consent is typically required for: * Most surgical procedures [74](#page=74). * Advanced or complex medical tests and procedures, such as an endoscopy [74](#page=74). * Radiation or chemotherapy for cancer treatment [74](#page=74). * Certain vaccinations [74](#page=74). * Some blood tests, including HIV testing [74](#page=74). > **Tip:** The requirement for written consent can vary depending on the specific medical context and jurisdiction. ### 13.5 Translation and interpretation of consent forms Informed consent forms generally need to be translated when individuals have limited proficiency in the source language of the document. It is also highly recommended to offer interpreting services to ensure full comprehension [74](#page=74). > **Example:** If a medical procedure document is written in English, and the patient speaks only Spanish, a translated version of the consent form and an interpreter for the consent discussion would be necessary. ### 13.6 Key features of informed consent documents Informed consent documents are characterized by specific language and structural elements: #### 13.6.1 Language * **Lay language:** The language used should be plain and understandable, avoiding excessive technical jargon where possible, to ensure comprehension by participants [75](#page=75). * **Accessibility:** The language should be appropriate for the participant's age group and educational background [75](#page=75). * **Absence of coercion:** The process must be free from any form of pressure or coercion [75](#page=75). #### 13.6.2 Structure The structure of an informed consent form typically comprises two parts: * **Informative section (information sheet):** This part details the necessary information about the procedure or study [75](#page=75). * **Certificate of consent (authorisation):** This section is usually written in the first person singular and serves as the formal authorization. It is considered to be midway between medical and legal documentation and can be admissible in court [75](#page=75). ### 13.7 Information typically provided The information conveyed in an informed consent process usually includes: * The nature of the procedure or study [76](#page=76). * The purpose of the intervention or research [76](#page=76). * The potential benefits [76](#page=76). * The risks and any secondary effects [76](#page=76). * Available alternatives to the proposed treatment or study [76](#page=76). * The reasons for recommending the specific procedure or the choice of this particular intervention [76](#page=76). * Other relevant details as applicable [76](#page=76). --- # Key features of technical texts Technical texts are designed to convey information as clearly and effectively as possible, acting as tools to help specific individuals perform tasks. Their creation and translation are often governed by laws, regulations, and directives, such as EU Council Resolutions, which mandate the translation of technical documentation for legal sales and distribution in different countries, creating significant demand for translators [95](#page=95). ### 14.1 Introduction and aim The primary aim of technical texts is to deliver the correct information to the appropriate audience in the right format, enabling them to accomplish a specific objective. This functional purpose positions them as valuable tools [95](#page=95). ### 14.2 Audience Understanding the audience is paramount in technical writing and translation, profoundly influencing content generation and linguistic choices. Readers engage with technical documents for two main reasons: genuine interest in the subject matter or, more commonly, professional necessity to perform their job duties (e.g., engineers, technicians) or to make a product function correctly. Different reader types may interact with these documents in varied ways, influenced by their individual needs, attitudes, and expectations [96](#page=96) [98](#page=98). For translators, identifying the target audience is crucial, often achieved through translation briefs, explicit textual references, or implicit contextual clues. The accuracy and effectiveness of a translation are largely dependent on a translator's comprehension of the audience, guiding decisions such as term selection, phrase rephrasing for enhanced clarity, and the reorganization of sentences to ensure logical and chronological instruction flow [98](#page=98). > **Tip:** Always consider who will be reading the text when making translation or writing choices. ### 14.3 Specific features #### 14.3.1 Language The language employed in technical texts is characterized by its clarity, directness, and functionality. Several strategies contribute to achieving this clarity and simplicity [99](#page=99): * **Sentence structure:** The use of simple declarative sentences is favored [99](#page=99). * **Instructional clarity:** Clear and simple instructions presented in chronological order enhance comprehension [99](#page=99). * **Logical flow:** Employing a logical cause-and-effect structure aids in understanding relationships between concepts [99](#page=99). Technical texts also feature specialized terminology, including abbreviations and acronyms. Additionally, they often incorporate specialized terms that may appear to be general vocabulary but have specific technical meanings, such as "jumper" in the context of an electrical device [99](#page=99). #### 14.3.2 Facts and figures Numerical data, facts, and figures are integral to technical texts. They can be presented in various formats : * Integrated within sentences . * Listed as bullet points . * Organized within tables with minimal accompanying text . The precise measurement units associated with these figures are also critical components of technical texts . --- # Technical translation pitfalls and strategies This section outlines common challenges encountered in technical translation and provides strategic approaches to address them, focusing on elements like instructions, currencies, and code . ### 15.1 Common pitfalls in technical translation Many pitfalls in technical translation are shared with scientific texts, while others are more specific to certain document types . #### 15.1.1 Pitfalls shared with scientific texts These include issues related to abbreviations and acronyms, quantities and units of measure, graphics, Latinisms, errors in the source text, formatting and layout, product names, references to other documents, file management and naming, and the use of the Internet . #### 15.1.2 Additional pitfalls Specific challenges include instructions that do not make sense, handling currencies, translating sample text and computer code, dealing with contact details, and conveying warnings and advice . ### 15.2 Strategies for specific pitfalls Effective technical translation requires proactive strategies to navigate common problems . #### 15.2.1 Instructions that do not make sense Instructions must be clear, use understandable terminology consistently, and follow a logical, chronological order . * **Research:** Investigate the product to understand its appearance and functionality, and modify instructions for clarity if necessary . * **Rearrangement:** Reorganize instructions if they are not presented logically or chronologically . * **Simplification:** Split complex sentences into smaller, more digestible units when information is densely packed . * **Clarification:** Provide additional explanations for vague statements . * **Client consultation:** If instructions are nonsensical, contact the client for clarification . #### 15.2.2 Currencies Translating currency amounts presents several potential issues regarding conversion, representation, and symbol usage . * **Conversion:** Decide whether to convert amounts to the target currency. This is risky due to potential inaccuracies and fluctuating exchange rates . * **Representation:** There are various ways to write currency amounts, such as EUR 40.00, 40EUR 00, 40.00 EUR, or 40.00 EUR . * **Symbol vs. Code:** Determine whether to use currency symbols (which can be ambiguous, like the dollar sign) or the three-letter ISO 4217 codes (USD, EUR, GBP, etc.), which are unique . **Main strategies for handling currencies:** * **Leave original:** The most common approach, especially if the translator has an idea of the currency's value . * **Convert:** Suitable for less common currencies or when the exact amount is incidental or for general information for a non-specialist audience; however, this is highly risky . * **Combination:** Present the original currency alongside an approximate equivalent in brackets if this aids reader comprehension, especially when the reader's understanding might otherwise be impaired . **Guidelines for currency symbols:** * Always check the client's preferences, often found in style guides or on their website . * Refer to recommendations from authoritative bodies like the Real Academia Española (RAE) and the FundéuRAE . * Consult the ISO 4217 alphabetic codes for standardized currency identifiers . #### 15.2.3 Sample text and computer code Technical translators frequently engage in localization, which involves translating text for software interfaces and websites . * **Localization context:** This includes user interfaces (menus, text strings, error messages), online documentation (help files, "read me" files), installation manuals, FAQs, and marketing materials . * **Code recognition:** While translators are not programmers, they must recognize code and tags and know how to manage them . * **Challenges:** Fragments of code can be embedded within standard sentences and may appear as ordinary text, posing a significant challenge . > **Tip:** Always be cautious when translating text that might contain code or markup language. Ensure that special characters and tags are preserved correctly to avoid breaking functionality. > **Example:** When translating an HTML snippet like `

Click here: Link

`, ensure that the tags (`

`, ``, ``, `

`) and attributes (`href="..."`) remain intact and in the correct positions. The translated text "Click here:" should be placed within the appropriate tag. --- # Key features of scientific texts This section outlines the primary characteristics that define scientific texts, focusing on their language, factual presentation, referencing, graphical elements, and the use of formulas and notation. ### 16.1 Language Scientific and technical language is commonly perceived as concise, precise, rigorous, coherent, and objective, often appearing dry and lacking stylistic creativity. However, this perception is not always accurate [18](#page=18). #### 16.1.1 Clarity and complexity While scientific texts aim for clarity, they can also employ a range of linguistic devices, including long, complex sentences, and figurative language to aid reader comprehension [19](#page=19). #### 16.1.2 Rhetorical devices and popular science In popular science, vivid imagery, literary style, and rhetorical devices are frequently used to educate and entertain readers. The purpose is to make concepts more understandable, establish a connection with the reader, and increase engagement with the subject matter [20](#page=20). ##### 16.1.2.1 Metaphors and similes Metaphors and similes are utilized to assign concrete names to abstract concepts and to explain them in ways that readers can readily grasp. Examples include "black hole" and "greenhouse effect" [21](#page=21). ##### 16.1.2.2 Latinisms Latin terms and phrases are prevalent in scientific language, particularly in biological and life sciences for binomial nomenclature, such as *Homo sapiens* and *Chamomilla recutita* [21](#page=21). #### 16.1.3 Specialised terminology Specialised terminology is a defining characteristic of scientific texts. This includes abbreviations and acronyms, which can be subject-specific, context-dependent, or even company-specific in their meaning, as exemplified by "DP". Some specialised terms may also resemble general vocabulary, for instance, "The INS/DEL jumper should be closed if you want the system to react immediately". This specialised vocabulary can make texts appear intimidating and complex [22](#page=22). ### 16.2 Facts and figures Facts and figures are typically presented within sentences in scientific texts [23](#page=23). ### 16.3 References Authors frequently direct readers to information found elsewhere within the same document or in external sources like books and journal papers. This practice serves to strengthen arguments and enhance the reader's confidence in the information's validity and the writer's credibility. Footnotes are also common, providing supplementary information or citations to other works [24](#page=24). ### 16.4 Graphics Scientific texts employ visual representations such as diagrams, graphs, photographs, and screenshots to convey information. The primary aim of these graphics is to communicate information clearly, swiftly, and effectively [25](#page=25). ### 16.5 Formulae, equations, and scientific notation Formulas, equations, and scientific notation are used to express abstract concepts and ideas with clarity and conciseness. They can, however, contribute to the text's intimidating and complex appearance. Scientific notation is also known as standard form or exponential notation [26](#page=26). --- # Formulae, equations and scientific notation Formulae, equations, and scientific notation allow for the clear, concise, and accurate expression of abstract concepts and complex ideas. While they can make texts appear intimidating, they are crucial tools in scientific and technical communication [26](#page=26). ### 5.1 Scientific notation Scientific notation, also known as standard form or exponential notation, is a method for expressing numbers that are too large or too small to be conveniently written in decimal form [26](#page=26). ### 5.2 Units of measure Units of measure are essential for quantifying physical quantities. The International System of Units (SI) is the most widely adopted standard, consisting of seven base units to which prefixes (e.g., micro-, milli-) can be added. Some units are named after scientists (eponyms), such as the watt (W) [27](#page=27). > **Tip:** When translating, be aware of potential conversions between imperial and metric systems, such as feet and inches to metres and centimetres [28](#page=28). ### 5.3 Formulae Formulae provide a symbolic and concise way to express information, often involving mathematical operations. They are compact, accurate, and are generally understood universally [28](#page=28). ### 5.4 Equations Equations are mathematical statements that assert the equality of two expressions. They are commonly used in fields like chemistry and physics to represent relationships between variables [28](#page=28). > **Example:** A simple equation could be $a = b + c$, stating that the value of $a$ is equivalent to the sum of $b$ and $c$. ### 5.5 Formatting quantities and units in translation Different languages have varying conventions for formatting numbers and units. For instance, the decimal separator and thousands separator can differ significantly between languages [32](#page=32). **Key considerations for translating quantities and units:** * **Number formatting:** Be mindful of conventions for decimal and thousands separators. For example, English typically uses a comma for thousands and a period for decimals (e.g., 1,495.50), while other languages might use a period for thousands and a comma for decimals (e.g., 1.495,50) [32](#page=32). * **Metric system conversion:** Languages not using the metric system may require conversions, which should be approached with caution [32](#page=32). * **Unit symbols and spelling:** Ensure correct symbols and spellings are used for units, especially for eponyms (e.g., watt vs. vatio) [32](#page=32). * **Punctuation:** A non-breaking space is often required between a number and its unit to prevent line breaks [32](#page=32). * **Similar units:** Differentiate clearly between similar-looking units to avoid misinterpretation [32](#page=32). **Main translation strategies for quantities and units:** * **Transfer:** This is the most common strategy, especially for SI units, and is particularly suitable for specialist audiences [33](#page=33). * **Convert:** This strategy is appropriate when the exact quantity is less critical or when translating for a general audience. Conversion for specialist texts should only be done after client consultation due to potential risks [33](#page=33). * **Combination:** Presenting the original quantity alongside an approximate equivalent in brackets can aid reader comprehension when there's a risk of impairment [33](#page=33). --- # Addressing formatting and layout constraints in translation Addressing formatting and layout constraints is crucial in translation to ensure that the target text conveys all necessary information effectively within the available space, especially when faced with linguistic expansion or contraction between languages [54](#page=54). ### 10.1 Understanding the challenge Formatting and layout constraints arise in various contexts within scientific and technical translation, including: * **Diagrams and charts:** Text labels within visual elements often have limited space [54](#page=54). * **Specific document types:** Certain documents, like information leaflets, have fixed layouts and space restrictions [54](#page=54). * **Audiovisual translation:** This medium inherently involves strict time and space constraints [54](#page=54). The primary challenge is that translations can naturally expand or contract in length compared to the source text, depending on the language combination and the direction of translation. The goal is to maintain clarity and accuracy while fitting all essential information into the predetermined space [54](#page=54). ### 10.2 Main translation strategies for formatting and layout constraints To overcome these challenges, translators employ several strategies: * **Use short, simple words and sentences:** Employing concise language aids in reducing the overall length of the translated text while ensuring clarity and ease of understanding [55](#page=55). * **Utilise abbreviations:** Where appropriate and without overuse, abbreviations can significantly shorten text. It is preferable to use abbreviations already established by the company or within the subject area [55](#page=55). * **Avoid excessive adherence to the source text (ST):** A different grammatical or syntactic structure in the target language (TL) might inherently lead to a shorter translation. For example, converting a passive voice construction to an imperative can save space [55](#page=55). * **Employ flexible and creative translation procedures:** Procedures such as modulation (changing the point of view or concept), transposition (changing the grammatical category of a word), and adaptation (replacing source culture elements with target culture equivalents) can help in condensing or rephrasing text to fit space constraints. These are based on the principles outlined by Vinay and Darbelnet [55](#page=55). > **Tip:** When dealing with space constraints, focus on conveying the core meaning accurately and concisely. Prioritize essential information over stylistic nuances that might not fit. > **Example:** Translating "It is recommended that users ensure the device is switched off before cleaning" might require condensation. A shorter, effective translation could be "Switch off the device before cleaning" if the context allows for the removal of the passive voice and the pronoun. --- ## 18. Addressing formatting and layout constraints in translation This section details the critical considerations and potential pitfalls encountered when translating texts that incorporate specific formatting, layout, and diverse content types, particularly within technical and marketing contexts. ### 18.1 The importance of formatting and layout Formatting and layout are not merely aesthetic elements; they are integral to the clarity, functionality, and effectiveness of technical and marketing documents. They guide the reader, convey information efficiently, and ensure that the intended message is understood accurately by the target audience. For translators, understanding and replicating these elements is crucial for producing a translation that is not only linguistically accurate but also functionally equivalent to the source text [95](#page=95) [98](#page=98). ### 18.2 Common elements and their translation challenges Technical and marketing documents often contain a variety of elements that require careful handling during translation. #### 18.2.1 Instructions and procedural information Instructions are a cornerstone of technical documentation, such as user guides. They must be clear, use understandable terminology, be presented consistently, and follow a logical chronological order . * **Main strategies for unclear instructions:** * Conduct research to understand the product and modify instructions for clarity . * Rearrange instructions if they are not in a logical or chronological sequence . * Split complex sentences into smaller, more digestible units . * Provide additional clarification for vague statements . * Contact the client if instructions are nonsensical . #### 18.2.2 Facts, figures, and units of measure Numbers, units of measure, and specific data are frequently incorporated into sentences, bullet points, or tables. Translators must ensure these are accurately transcribed and, where necessary, converted or presented in a way that is meaningful to the target audience . #### 18.2.3 References Technical texts often refer to information within the same document, other documents, laws, directives, or standards to ensure reliability and safety. Consistency in referring to these elements is paramount in translation. In software documentation, references might point to diagrams, screenshots, interface items, or accompanying files . #### 18.2.4 Graphics and visual representations Diagrams, graphs, photographs, and screenshots are widely used to reinforce textual information or convey it quickly and effectively. Consistency between the text and any accompanying graphics, especially in software interfaces, is key . #### 18.2.5 Currencies Translating monetary amounts presents several challenges, including whether to convert currencies, how to format them, and whether to use symbols or currency codes . * **Issues with currencies:** * Conversion accuracy and fluctuating exchange rates . * Formatting variations (EUR 40.00, 40EUR 00, 40.00 EUR, 40.00 EUR) . * Ambiguity of currency symbols versus unique 3-letter ISO 4217 codes (USD, EUR, GBP) . * **Main strategies for handling currencies:** * **Leave in original currency:** Most common, especially if the translator has an idea of its value . * **Convert:** Risky, best for non-specialist audiences where the exact amount is incidental, or for less common currencies . * **Combination:** Present original currency with an approximate equivalent in brackets for texts where reader comprehension is critical . * Always check client preferences (style guides, websites) and consult authoritative sources like the RAE, FUNDEU, and ISO 4217 for currency codes and writing recommendations . * **CRITICAL RULE:** All currency amounts must be written out in full letters (e.g., "dollars," "USD," "euros," "EUR") and never use currency symbols like USD, EUR, or GBP [As per general instructions. #### 18.2.6 Sample text and computer code Technical translators often work on localization projects involving software and websites. This includes user interfaces, online documentation, and related technical materials. While translators are not programmers, they must recognize and appropriately handle computer code and tags . * **Clues to identify non-translatable code:** * Words in all uppercase (e.g., MENUITEM) . * Words written together without spaces or linked by underscores (e.g., CompanyName, Style_Caption) . * **Text that typically needs translation, even with unusual characters:** * Words with an ampersand (&) for hotkeys (e.g., &View) . * Variables used as placeholders, often preceded by $ or % (e.g., $d results, %1) . * Text enclosed in quotation marks . * Text containing tags for formatting (e.g., ``, ``) . * **Main strategies for sample text and computer code:** * Do not assume all code needs translation; only specific text fragments do . * Do not translate compounds linked by underscores or written as one word . * Preserve punctuation, especially dots indicating menu options (e.g., Print...) . * Do not change, delete, or rearrange variables . * Keep formatting tags in their correct positions . * Be cautious with single-word strings that can have multiple translations (e.g., "None," "Contact") . * Ensure the translation matches the on-screen software display . * When in doubt, consult the project manager or client . #### 18.2.7 Contact details This category includes personal names, email addresses, websites, telephone numbers, and postal addresses . * **Main strategies for contact details:** * **Personal names:** Add titles (Mr., Ms.) if the gender is unclear . * **Email addresses:** Do not alter them . * **Websites:** Advise the client; replace with the target language link if it exists, otherwise add a caveat (e.g., "(solo disponible en inglés)") . * **Telephone numbers:** Convert to international format with dialling codes and prefixes if not provided . * **Postal addresses:** Add the country if it is missing . #### 18.2.8 Warnings and advice Providing clear and effective warnings about potential risks and what not to do is critical for safety and legal reasons. Legislation governs this information, and translations must be accurate and recognizable . * **Signal words:** The range of words used to indicate risk importance (Note, Warning, Caution, Danger) is evolving. In Europe, there are now two primary signal words: "Warning" (less severe hazards) and "Danger" (more severe hazards) . * **Symbols:** Historically, European hazard symbols on an orange background were used. Since 2009/2015, these have been replaced by international symbols conforming to "Regulation CLP" (Classification, Labelling and Packaging) . * **Statements:** Descriptive phrases for hazardous materials and risks are used in packaging, safety data sheets, and product approval documents. The wording must be precise, tested, accurate, legal, and recognizable . * Previously, the EU used risk phrases (R phrases) and safety phrases (S phrases) . * These have now been replaced by hazard and precautionary statements under Regulation CLP, with new and modified statements applicable from October 2020 . * **Main strategies for warnings and advice:** * Use the exact terminology from official regulations and descriptions for substances and their use (e.g., do not replace "toxic" with "poisonous") . * For descriptions of hazardous materials and hazard/precautionary statements, use the official translation in the target language . * Ensure consistency in translating warning notices throughout the document . ### 18.3 Case studies illustrating formatting and layout challenges #### 18.3.1 User guide User guides, also known as instruction manuals, are designed to help users operate a product. They typically feature simple, clear language, short sentences, imperatives, graphics, tables, and cross-references. Machine translation may be used as a raw version requiring post-editing to ensure accuracy and completeness. Consistent cross-references and screenshots are vital, and translators must be mindful of how these elements are presented in the target language . #### 18.3.2 Technical case study A technical case study, or customer story, is a marketing text that uses real-world examples to promote products or services. It combines technical language with marketing and journalistic elements. The aim is to describe the product/service and present a positive customer experience to build trust. These texts are often argumentative, use quotes, company and client names, and feature attractive designs with clear subsections and headings. The structure typically includes a headline, testimonials, problem/challenge, solution, and supporting visuals . ### 18.4 General principles for translating technical and marketing content * **Audience is paramount:** Understanding the intended audience is crucial for making informed translation decisions, such as term selection, rephrasing, and sentence order [98](#page=98). * **Clarity and simplicity:** Technical language prioritizes clarity, directness, and functionality, often achieved through simple declarative sentences and chronological instructions [99](#page=99). * **Specialized terminology:** Technical texts rely heavily on specialized terms, abbreviations, and acronyms, which must be translated accurately and consistently [99](#page=99). * **Consistency:** Maintaining consistency in terminology, references, and the translation of warnings and advice throughout a document is essential . * **Ethical considerations:** In medical and technical translation, accuracy, clarity, and validity of information are of critical importance due to the potential impact on health and safety [84](#page=84). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts