LINGUISTIC LESSONS 06 MORPHOLOGY+.pdf

# Introduction to morphology and morphemes This section introduces morphology as the study of word forms and their constituent meaningful units, known as morphemes [1](#page=1). ### 1.1 Morphology Morphology is defined as the study of forms. It investigates the basic "elements" within a language that contribute to meaning or grammatical function. This contrasts with approaches that solely focus on identifying "words" as separated by spaces, which can be problematic in languages with more complex word structures. For instance, the Swahili form "nitakupenda" conveys "I will love you" and can be broken down into elements: "ni-" (I), "ta-" (will), "ku-" (you), and "penda" (love). This highlights the need to analyze these smaller units rather than relying on word boundaries alone [1](#page=1). ### 1.2 Morphemes A morpheme is defined as a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. These units are the building blocks of word forms [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.1 Examples of morphemes * **English "talks"**: Consists of the morpheme "talk" (meaning) and "-s" (grammatical function, plural) [1](#page=1). * **English "talker"**: Consists of "talk" (meaning) and "-er" (grammatical function, person who does something) [1](#page=1). * **English "talked"**: Consists of "talk" (meaning) and "-ed" (grammatical function, past tense) [1](#page=1). * **English "talking"**: Consists of "talk" (meaning) and "-ing" (grammatical function, present participle) [1](#page=1). * **English "reopened"**: Consists of "re-" (meaning "again"), "open" (meaning), and "-ed" (grammatical function, past tense) [1](#page=1). * **English "tourists"**: Consists of "tour" (meaning), "-ist" (marking "person who does something"), and "-s" (grammatical function, plural) [1](#page=1). #### 1.2.2 Types of morphemes ##### 1.2.2.1 Free and bound morphemes * **Free morphemes**: These can stand alone as single words and carry meaning. Examples include "open" and "tour" [1](#page=1). * **Bound morphemes**: These cannot stand alone and must be attached to another form. They are also known as affixes (prefixes and suffixes). Examples include "re-", "-ist", "-ed", and "-s" [1](#page=1). > **Tip:** When free morphemes are used with bound morphemes, the free morpheme is technically known as a **stem** [2](#page=2). ##### 1.2.2.2 Bound stems It is important to note that not all elements treated as stems are free morphemes. In words like "receive", "reduce", and "repeat", the element "re-" is a bound morpheme, but "-ceive", "-duce", and "-peat" are not independent word forms and are thus considered "bound stems" [2](#page=2). ##### 1.2.2.3 Lexical and functional morphemes Free morphemes can be further categorized into two groups: * **Lexical morphemes**: These are ordinary nouns, adjectives, and verbs that carry the main content of a message. They form an "open" class of words, meaning new ones can be added to the language relatively easily. Examples include "girl", "man", "house", "tiger", "sad", "long", "yellow", "sincere", "open", "look", "follow", and "break" [2](#page=2). * **Functional morphemes**: These are the functional words of the language, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. They form a "closed" class of words, as new ones are rarely added. Examples include "and", "but", "when", "because", "on", "near", "above", "in", "the", "that", "it", and "them" [2](#page=2). ##### 1.2.2.4 Derivational and inflectional morphemes Bound morphemes are also divided into two types: * **Derivational morphemes**: These are used to create new words or to change the grammatical category of a word. For example, adding "-ness" to the adjective "good" creates the noun "goodness". Similarly, "-ful" or "-less" can change the noun "care" into the adjectives "careful" or "careless". Other examples include suffixes like "-ish" (foolish), "-ly" (quickly), and "-ment" (payment), as well as prefixes like "re-", "pre-", "ex-", "mis-", "co-", and "un-" [2](#page=2). * **Inflectional morphemes**: These do not produce new words but indicate grammatical function. They are used to show plurality, past tense, or possessive forms. English has eight inflectional morphemes [2](#page=2): * Attached to nouns: "-'s" (possessive), "-s" (plural) [2](#page=2). * Attached to verbs: "-s" (3rd person singular), "-ing" (present participle), "-ed" (past tense), and "-en" (past participle) [2](#page=2). * Attached to adjectives: "-er" (comparative) [2](#page=2). --- # Classifying morphemes Morphemes, the smallest meaningful units in language, can be classified based on their independence, semantic content, and grammatical function. ## 2. Classifying morphemes Morphemes can be categorized in several ways, including free versus bound, lexical versus functional, and derivational versus inflectional. Understanding these classifications is crucial for analyzing the structure of words [2](#page=2). ### 2.1 Free and bound morphemes Morphemes are broadly divided into two types based on their ability to stand alone: free and bound [2](#page=2). #### 2.1.1 Free morphemes Free morphemes are those that can normally stand alone as independent words. These include basic nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which form the core content of a message. Examples of free morphemes are "dress" and "care" [2](#page=2). > **Tip:** Free morphemes often function as the "stems" to which bound morphemes are attached. #### 2.1.2 Bound morphemes Bound morphemes, also known as affixes, cannot normally stand alone and must be attached to another form. Prefixes and suffixes in English are typically bound morphemes. Examples include "re-", "-ist", "-ed", and "-s" [2](#page=2). > **Example:** In the word "undressed," "dress" is a free morpheme (the stem), while "un-" (prefix) and "-ed" (suffix) are bound morphemes. Similarly, in "carelessness," "care" is a free morpheme, and "-less" and "-ness" are bound morphemes [2](#page=2). #### 2.1.3 Bound stems It is important to note that not all elements that appear to be stems are free morphemes. Some forms, like "-ceive" in "receive" or "-peat" in "repeat," cannot stand alone and are therefore considered "bound stems" rather than free stems [2](#page=2). ### 2.2 Lexical and functional morphemes Free morphemes can be further subdivided into lexical and functional categories based on their content and typical usage [2](#page=2). #### 2.2.1 Lexical morphemes Lexical morphemes are free morphemes that carry the primary content of a message. These include common nouns, adjectives, and verbs. They form an "open class" of words because new lexical morphemes can be easily added to the language. Examples include "girl," "house," "sad," "long," "open," and "look" [2](#page=2). #### 2.2.2 Functional morphemes Functional morphemes are free morphemes that primarily serve grammatical purposes. They consist of functional words such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. This category forms a "closed class" of words, as new functional morphemes are rarely added to the language. Examples include "and," "but," "when," "because," "on," "the," "it," and "them" [2](#page=2). ### 2.3 Derivational and inflectional morphemes Bound morphemes (affixes) are divided into two main types: derivational and inflectional [2](#page=2). #### 2.3.1 Derivational morphemes Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes used to create new words or change the grammatical category of an existing word. For instance, adding the derivational suffix "-ness" to the adjective "good" creates the noun "goodness". Similarly, "-ful" and "-less" change the noun "care" into the adjectives "careful" and "careless," respectively. Other examples of derivational morphemes include suffixes like "-ish" (foolish), "-ly" (quickly), and "-ment" (payment), as well as prefixes like "re-", "pre-", "ex-", "mis-", "co-", and "un-" [2](#page=2). > **Tip:** Derivational morphemes can significantly alter the meaning and word class of the base word. #### 2.3.2 Inflectional morphemes Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes that do not create new words but instead indicate grammatical aspects of a word. They signal information such as plurality, past tense, comparative or superlative degrees, and possession. English has eight inflectional morphemes, all of which are suffixes [2](#page=2). * **Nouns:** "-'s" (possessive) and "-s" (plural) [2](#page=2). * **Verbs:** "-s" (3rd person singular present), "-ing" (present participle), "-ed" (past tense), and "-en" (past participle) [2](#page=2). * **Adjectives:** "-er" (comparative) and "-est" (superlative) [2](#page=2). > **Example:** In "Jim's two sisters are really different," "-'s" marks possession on "Jim," and "-s" marks plurality on "sisters". In "laughing," "-ing" indicates a present participle [2](#page=2). > **Note:** The possessive "-'s" on nouns is distinct from the contraction "-'s" for "is" or "has" (e.g., "she's singing") [2](#page=2). There can be variations in the form of inflectional morphemes, such as "-s'" for possessive plural (e.g., "boys' bags") and "-ed" for past participles (e.g., "have finished") [3](#page=3). ### 2.4 Distinguishing derivational and inflectional morphemes A key distinction lies in their effect on grammatical category. Inflectional morphemes never change a word's grammatical category; for example, both "old" and "older" are adjectives. Conversely, derivational morphemes can change a word's grammatical category. For instance, the derivational suffix "-er" changes the verb "teach" into the noun "teacher". This means that a morpheme that looks the same, like "-er," can function differently as either an inflectional or a derivational morpheme [3](#page=3). > **Tip:** When both a derivational and an inflectional suffix are attached to a word, the derivational suffix always comes first, followed by the inflectional suffix. For example, "teach" (verb) + "-er" (derivational) $\rightarrow$ "teacher" (noun) + "-s" (inflectional) $\rightarrow$ "teachers" (plural noun) [3](#page=3). > **Example Analysis:** In the sentence "The child's wildness shocked the teachers," the morphemes can be classified as follows: "the" (functional), "child" (lexical), "-'s" (inflectional), "wild" (lexical), "-ness" (derivational), "shock" (lexical), "-ed" (inflectional), "the" (functional), "teach" (lexical), "-er" (derivational), and "-s" (inflectional) [3](#page=3). ### 2.5 Problems in morphological description While the classifications of morphemes are useful, they present challenges in actual linguistic analysis. Some issues arise with morphemes that do not have easily identifiable forms, such as the plural of "sheep" (which is "sheep") or "men" (plural of "man"). Additionally, identifying derivational suffixes can be problematic, as not all word formations are straightforward (e.g., questioning if "-al" can be removed from "legal" to get "leg"). These complexities are often due to historical language influences and borrowing, requiring careful consideration in morphological descriptions [3](#page=3). --- # Problems and variations in morphological description This section delves into the complexities encountered when describing word structure, including irregular forms, historical linguistic influences, and the abstract nature of morphs and allomorphs. ### 3.1 Challenges in identifying morphemes While the distinction between derivational and inflectional morphemes is crucial, morphological analysis faces several challenges. These issues arise when morphemes are not easily identifiable as distinct units, particularly with irregular forms and historical linguistic influences [3](#page=3). #### 3.1.1 Irregular plural forms A significant problem in morphological description is the existence of irregular plural forms, which do not follow the standard addition of the plural morpheme, such as '-s'. For instance, the plural of "sheep" is "sheep," and the plural of "man" is "men". These cases defy simple affixation and require specific historical or phonological explanations [3](#page=3). #### 3.1.2 Historical language influences The historical development of a language can introduce complexities into its morphology. Borrowing from other languages can lead to words that appear to have a derivational relationship but do not. For example, the word "law" in modern English originates from a Scandinavian borrowing, while "legal" was borrowed later from Latin. Consequently, there is no direct derivational link between "law" and "legal" in modern English, despite their semantic connection. Similarly, "mouth" (Old English) and "oral" (Latin borrowing) illustrate this phenomenon. A comprehensive description of English morphology must account for these historical influences and the impact of borrowed elements [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). #### 3.1.3 Allomorphy: morphs and allomorphs To address variations in morphological realization, linguists propose the concept of morphs and allomorphs, drawing an analogy with phonology [4](#page=4). * **Morph:** A morph is the actual phonetic form used to realize a morpheme. For example, in "cats," "cat" is a lexical morph and "-s" is an inflectional morph for plural. In "buses," "bus" is a lexical morph and "-es" is another inflectional morph for plural [4](#page=4). * **Allomorph:** Allomorphs are different morphs that all realize the same morpheme. The plural morpheme in English, for instance, has multiple allomorphs, including "-s" and "-es" (phonetically /s/ and /əz/) [4](#page=4). > **Tip:** The prefix "allo-" signifies "one of a closely related set," highlighting that allomorphs are variations of a single abstract morpheme. Other allomorphs for the plural morpheme include a "zero-morph" (no change in form, e.g., "sheep" plural) and internal vowel changes (e.g., "man" to "men"). Similar allomorphic variation exists for other morphemes, such as the past tense, with regular forms like "walked" and irregular forms like "went" (from "go") [4](#page=4). ### 3.2 Morphological processes in other languages Examining morphology across different languages reveals a wide array of forms and patterns for realizing morphemes [4](#page=4). #### 3.2.1 Derivational and inflectional processes In both English and Aztec, a derivational morpheme can be attached to a stem, followed by an inflectional morpheme [4](#page=4). * English: `dark` (stem) + `-en` (derivational) + `-ed` (inflectional) = `darkened` [4](#page=4). * Aztec: `mic` (“die”) (stem) + `-tia` (“cause to”) (derivational) + `-s` (“future”) (inflectional) = `mictias` (“will kill”) [4](#page=4). #### 3.2.2 Prefixation in Kanuri In Kanuri, a language spoken in Nigeria, the prefix `nəm-` functions as a derivational morpheme that forms nouns from adjectives [5](#page=5). * `karite` (“excellent”) $\rightarrow$ `nəmkarite` (“excellence”) [5](#page=5). * `kura` (“big”) $\rightarrow$ `nəmkura` (“bigness”) [5](#page=5). * `gana` (“small”) $\rightarrow$ `nəmgana` (“smallness”) [5](#page=5). * `dibi` (“bad”) $\rightarrow$ `nəmdibi` (“badness”) [5](#page=5). > **Example:** Discovering such a regular feature allows for prediction; if the Kanuri word for "length" is `nəmkurugu`, it can be inferred that "long" is `kurugu`. #### 3.2.3 Prefixation in Ganda Ganda, spoken in Uganda, uses different inflectional prefixes for singular and plural nouns [5](#page=5). * Singular: `omusawo` (“doctor”) $\rightarrow$ Plural: `abasawo` (“doctors”) [5](#page=5). * Singular: `omukazi` (“woman”) $\rightarrow$ Plural: `abakazi` (“women”) [5](#page=5). * Singular: `omuwala` (“girl”) $\rightarrow$ Plural: `abawala` (“girls”) [5](#page=5). * Singular: `omusika` (“heir”) $\rightarrow$ Plural: `abasika` (“heirs”) [5](#page=5). The singular forms use the prefix `omu-`, while the plural forms use `aba-`. If `abalenzi` means "boys," the singular form "boy" can be deduced as `omulenzi` [5](#page=5). #### 3.2.4 Reduplication in Ilocano Ilocano, a language of the Philippines, marks plurals through reduplication, which involves repeating all or part of a form [5](#page=5). * Singular: `u´lo` (“head”) $\rightarrow$ Plural: `ulu´lo` (“heads”) [5](#page=5). * Singular: `da´lan` (“road”) $\rightarrow$ Plural: `dalda´lan` (“roads”) [5](#page=5). * Singular: `bı´ag` (“life”) $\rightarrow$ Plural: `bibı´ag` (“lives”) [5](#page=5). * Singular: `mu´la` (“plant”) $\rightarrow$ Plural: `mulmu´la` (“plants”) [5](#page=5). When the first part of the singular form is `bi-`, the plural begins with `bibi-`. Given the plural `talta´lon` (“fields”), the singular form can be inferred as `ta´lon` (“field”) [5](#page=5). #### 3.2.5 Infixation and reduplication in Tagalog Tagalog, another Philippine language, utilizes infixes and reduplication for morphological marking [5](#page=5). * **Infixation:** In the imperative forms, an infix `-um-` is inserted after the first consonant or syllable onset [5](#page=5). * `basa` (“read”) $\rightarrow$ `bumasa` (“Read!”) [5](#page=5). * `tawag` (“call”) $\rightarrow$ `tumawag` (“Call!”) [5](#page=5). * `sulat` (“write”) $\rightarrow$ `sumulat` (“Write!”) [5](#page=5). * **Reduplication:** The future tense is marked by repeating the first syllable [5](#page=5). * `basa` (“read”) $\rightarrow$ `babasa` (“will read”) [5](#page=5). * `tawag` (“call”) $\rightarrow$ `tatawag` (“will call”) [5](#page=5). * `sulat` (“write”) $\rightarrow$ `susulat` (“will write”) [5](#page=5). Using this information, one can predict: * `lakad` (“walk”) $\rightarrow$ `lumakad` (“Walk!”) $\rightarrow$ `lalakad` (“will walk”) [5](#page=5). * `lapit` (“come here”) $\rightarrow$ `lumapit` (“Come here!”) $\rightarrow$ `lálapit` (“will come here”) [5](#page=5). --- # Morphology across different language typologies This section categorizes languages based on their morphological structure, focusing on analytic, synthetic (fusional and agglutinative), and polysynthetic languages, and explaining how grammatical relationships are expressed in each type. ### 4.1 Analytic (isolating) languages Analytic languages are characterized by a low morpheme-per-word ratio, particularly regarding inflectional morphemes. They rely heavily on unbound morphemes, which are separate words, and grammatical constructions often use these unbound morphemes. These languages tend to use stricter word order, various prepositions or postpositions, particles, modifiers, and context to convey grammatical information [6](#page=6). **Examples:** * Mandarin Chinese is considered highly analytic because it has almost no inflectional affixes, despite having many compound words which increase its morpheme-per-word ratio. For instance, it does not inflect nouns for number [6](#page=6): * Mandarin Chinese: `一天 yī tiān` (one day), `三天 sān tiān` (three days) [6](#page=6). * Mandarin Chinese: `一個男孩 yī ge nánhái` (one boy, lit. 'one [entity of male child'), `四個男孩 sì ge nánhái` ('four boys', lit. 'four [entity of male child') [6](#page=6). * English is not entirely analytic as it uses inflections for noun number (e.g., "day" vs. "days") and possession (e.g., "boy's"). However, it is considered weakly inflected and more analytic compared to most other Indo-European languages [6](#page=6). * Persian is generally considered analytic, with minimal inflections. It uses prefixes and suffixes to indicate possession or attribute qualities. For example, the suffix `hâ` pluralizes nouns, similar to `'s'` in English: `دختر ها آمدند dokhtar hâ âmadand` ('The girls came'). Persian nouns do not agree in number with subjects or adjectives, and there are practically no inflections for number [6](#page=6): * Persian: `یک روز Yek rooz` (one day), `سه روز se rooz` (three days, lit. 'three day') [6](#page=6). * Persian: `یک پسر yek pesar` (one boy, lit. 'One boy'), `چهار پسر čahâr pesar` (four boys, lit. 'Four boy') [6](#page=6). **List of analytic languages:** Afrikaans, Danish, English, Swedish, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Kalto, Hawaiian, Burmese, Mandarin and Cantonese, Vietnamese, Khmer, Thai, Lao, Yoruba, etc. [6](#page=6). ### 4.2 Synthetic language Synthetic languages use inflection or agglutination to express syntactic relationships within a sentence. They have a higher morpheme-to-word ratio than analytic languages. Inflection involves adding morphemes to a root word that assign grammatical properties, while agglutination combines two or more morphemes into one word, where each morpheme typically has a single function. The information added by morphemes can indicate a word's grammatical category, such as subject or object [7](#page=7). The two subtypes of synthetic languages are agglutinating and fusional languages [7](#page=7). > **Tip:** Synthetic languages convey grammatical information more internally through word structure, whereas analytic languages rely more on external elements like word order and helper words. #### 4.2.1 Fusional (inflected) languages Fusional languages are a type of synthetic language where a single inflectional morpheme often signifies multiple grammatical, syntactic, or semantic features simultaneously. This is in contrast to agglutinative languages, which tend to have one grammatical category per affix [7](#page=7). **Examples:** * In Spanish, the verb `comer` ('to eat') has the first-person singular preterite form `comí` ('I ate'). The suffix `-í` encodes both first-person singular agreement and the preterite tense [7](#page=7). * In Latin, the word `bonus` ('good') has the ending `-us` which denotes masculine gender, nominative case, and singular number. In the form `bonum`, the ending `-um` can denote masculine accusative singular, neuter accusative singular, or neuter nominative singular [7](#page=7). * A complex example from German is `Aufsichtsratsmitgliederversammlung` (Meeting of members of the supervisory board), which combines multiple morphemes with varying functions and meanings [7](#page=7). **List of Fusional languages:** Polish, Russian, Ukrainian, Sanskrit, Pashto, Kashmiri, Punjabi; Greek, Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian; Irish, German, Faroese, Icelandic, Albanian, Hebrew, Arabic, Hungarian, Estonian, Finnish, Navajo [7](#page=7). #### 4.2.2 Agglutinative language Agglutinative languages are synthetic languages where morphology primarily uses agglutination. They generally have one grammatical category per affix. The term "agglutinative" comes from the Latin verb `agglutinare`, meaning "to glue together". In contrast to fusional languages, which "squeeze" affixes together and combine multiple meanings into a single affix, agglutinative languages combine affixes in a more transparent way, with each affix typically representing a single meaning or grammatical function [8](#page=8). **Examples:** * The Spanish word `comí` ('I ate'), mentioned as an example of fusionality, can also be seen in an agglutinative context. The suffix `-í` carries meanings of first person, singular number, past tense, perfective aspect, indicative mood, and active voice [8](#page=8). **List of Agglutinative languages:** Cree, Blackfoot, Cherokee, Yuchi, Nheengatu, Nahuatl, Wasteko, Tagalog, Malay, Indonesian, Sundanese, Javanese, Bantu, Berber, Tamil, Telugu, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Burmese, Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Basque [8](#page=8). ### 4.3 Polysynthetic language Polysynthetic languages are highly synthetic languages, often referred to historically as holophrastic languages, where words are composed of many morphemes and are very highly inflected. The term "polysynthesis" combines the Greek roots `poly` (many) and `synthesis` (placing together). These languages typically feature long "sentence-words" that express complex ideas in a single word [8](#page=8). **Examples:** * The Yupik word `Tuntussuqatarniksaitengqiggtuq` translates to "He had not yet said again that he was going to hunt reindeer." This single word incorporates morphemes for `tuntu` (reindeer), `ssur` (hunt), `qatar` (future), `ni` (say), `ksaite` (negation), `ngqiggte` (again), and `uq` (3rd person singular indicative). Except for `tuntu`, none of the other morphemes can appear in isolation [8](#page=8). * Another way to achieve high synthesis is through noun incorporation, where entire nouns are integrated into the verb word, similar to "babysit" in English (where "baby" is incorporated) [8](#page=8). * Chukchi, a polysynthetic, incorporating, and agglutinating language, demonstrates this with the sentence `Təmeyŋəlevtpəγtərkən` meaning 'I have a fierce headache,' broken down as `t-ə-meyŋ-ə-levt-pəγt-ə-rkən` (1sg.subj-great-head-hurt-pres.1) [9](#page=9). * Mohawk offers another example: `Washakotya'tawitsherahetkvhta'se` means "He ruined her dress," conveying a complex idea that would require multiple words in a more analytic language like English [9](#page=9). **List of polysynthetic languages:** Ainu, Yana/Yahi, Awtuw, Yimas, Macro-Gunwinyguan, Murrinh-patha, classical Tiwi, Enindhilyagwa [9](#page=9). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Morphology | The linguistic study of word forms, analyzing the basic elements and structures within words and how they are constructed. | | Morpheme | A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function within a language; it is the smallest meaningful component of a word. | | Free morpheme | A morpheme that can stand alone as a single word and has meaning by itself, such as "open" or "tour". | | Bound morpheme | A morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word and must be attached to another morpheme, typically a stem, to convey meaning or grammatical function. Examples include prefixes and suffixes. | | Affix | A type of bound morpheme that is attached to a word stem to modify its meaning or grammatical function; includes prefixes and suffixes. | | Stem | The base form of a word to which morphemes are attached; in many cases, it is a free morpheme. | | Bound stem | A stem that cannot stand alone as a word and must be combined with other morphemes, such as "ceive" in "receive". | | Lexical morpheme | Free morphemes that carry the primary content of messages, typically consisting of nouns, adjectives, and verbs; they form an open class of words. | | Functional morpheme | Free morphemes that serve a grammatical purpose, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns; they form a closed class of words. | | Derivational morpheme | A bound morpheme used to create new words or change the grammatical category of a word, such as "-ness" in "goodness". | | Inflectional morpheme | A bound morpheme that indicates grammatical function (e.g., tense, number, case) without changing the word's core meaning or category; English has eight of these. | | Morph | The actual phonetic or written form of a morpheme; the concrete realization of an abstract morpheme. | | Allomorph | One of a set of different morphs that all realize the same morpheme, often due to phonetic or grammatical context. For example, the plural morpheme in English has allomorphs like "-s", "-es", and a zero morph. | | Reduplication | A morphological process that involves repeating all or part of a word form to mark a grammatical or semantic feature, commonly used for pluralization or intensification in some languages. | | Analytic language | A language that relies heavily on separate words (like prepositions and articles) and word order to convey grammatical relationships, rather than inflectional morphemes. | | Synthetic language | A language that uses inflection or agglutination to express grammatical relationships, generally having a higher morpheme-to-word ratio than analytic languages. | | Agglutinative language | A subtype of synthetic language where morphemes are strung together in a sequence, with each morpheme typically having a single grammatical function. | | Fusional language | A type of synthetic language where a single inflectional morpheme can represent multiple grammatical, syntactic, or semantic features simultaneously. | | Polysynthetic language | Highly synthetic languages in which words are composed of many morphemes, often forming long "sentence-words" that express complex ideas in a single word. |