Studeren met succes TM lay-out.pdf

# Understanding how the brain learns This section delves into the fundamental processes by which the human brain acquires and retains information, focusing on the interplay between different memory systems and the influence of prior knowledge. ### 1.1 The workings of the brain: memory systems Our brains operate with three primary memory systems: sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. The brain processes new information by selecting relevant stimuli from the environment, processing it in working memory, and then integrating it into long-term memory for storage [8](#page=8). #### 1.1.1 Sensory memory Sensory memory briefly holds information from our environment, including sights, sounds, feelings, smells, and tastes. This intake is both conscious and unconscious. We only become aware of sensory input that captures our attention, and this attended information is then transferred to working memory. Unattended stimuli, even if present in our environment, do not enter our working memory [8](#page=8). > **Tip:** To optimize learning, it is important to create a study environment that minimizes unnecessary distractions and irrelevant sensory input [8](#page=8). #### 1.1.2 Working memory Working memory is where new information is actively processed. However, its capacity is very limited, holding only a small number of elements (typically 4 to 7) for a short duration (2 to 20 seconds). If information is not actively used or processed within this window, it is quickly forgotten. For instance, trying to memorize a new phone number requires constant repetition to keep it in working memory until it can be dialed [8](#page=8). > **Example:** Remembering a phone number like 0456 194523 is easier than a random string of 10 digits because the year 1945 holds meaning stored in long-term memory. This highlights how prior knowledge influences working memory's effectiveness [8](#page=8). #### 1.1.3 Long-term memory Long-term memory serves as a vast, virtually unlimited storage repository for everything we know, can do, and have experienced. We are often unaware of the full extent of our prior knowledge stored here, but it can surface spontaneously. When new information is presented, relevant prior knowledge from long-term memory can be retrieved and used to help process and understand the new information. The more prior knowledge one possesses about a topic, the easier it becomes to process and integrate new, related information into long-term memory, which is the essence of learning [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). > **Tip:** The more connections you can make between new information and your existing knowledge base, the more effectively you will learn and retain it [7](#page=7) [8](#page=8). ### 1.2 When have you learned? Learning is defined as acquiring knowledge, skills, or understanding that was not previously possessed and can be applied consistently over time and in various contexts. Simply encountering new information does not equate to learning [10](#page=10). #### 1.2.1 The process of learning and retention When presented with new material, such as a list of English words, initial recall might be good after a short study session. However, this information is not yet stable in long-term memory and is likely to be forgotten quickly. True learning occurs when information is deeply integrated into long-term memory through repeated practice and spaced retrieval over days and weeks [10](#page=10). > **Example:** Studying 10 new English words by reading them and then testing recall after 15 minutes might yield a high score. However, without further spaced practice, these words will likely be forgotten by the next day [10](#page=10). #### 1.2.2 The role of prior knowledge in learning New information is remembered more efficiently and effectively when it can be linked to existing knowledge. For instance, the acronym "OMG" is easier to remember than a meaningless string like "PXJ" because "OMG" can be linked to its meaning ("Oh My God") stored in long-term memory [7](#page=7). #### 1.2.3 The influence of prior knowledge on perception What you already know significantly shapes what you perceive. Someone with piano-playing experience will interpret a musical score differently than someone who cannot read music, even though they are looking at the same visual information. This demonstrates that prior knowledge alters how we process sensory input [7](#page=7). > **Example:** When viewing an ambiguous image, your perception of whether it's a duck or a rabbit depends on your attention and the prior knowledge you associate with features like a large beak or long ears [9](#page=9). ### 1.3 Debunking learning myths Research over the past century has revealed insights into effective learning strategies and common misconceptions students hold about their own learning processes. #### 1.3.1 The Dunning-Kruger effect and self-assessment It is difficult for individuals, especially those with limited expertise, to accurately assess their own abilities. The Dunning-Kruger effect describes how people with low competence in a particular area tend to overestimate their knowledge and abilities because they lack the expertise to recognize their own shortcomings. Conversely, those with high competence may underestimate their abilities, assuming tasks easy for them are also easy for others [11](#page=11) [12](#page=12). > **Tip:** Students who use ineffective study strategies (e.g., simply rereading or highlighting) may be unaware of more effective methods and falsely believe they are studying well [12](#page=12). #### 1.3.2 The impossibility of multitasking Humans cannot truly multitask; instead, the brain rapidly switches attention between different tasks. This switching is not only time-consuming but also increases the likelihood of errors. The only exceptions are when one of the tasks is highly automated, such as walking, unless a demanding cognitive load or unusual environment requires focused attention [12](#page=12). > **Example:** Trying to listen to a lecture while simultaneously using your phone means your brain is switching between listening and reading, not doing both consciously at once [12](#page=12). #### 1.3.3 The myth of visual and verbal learners The idea that individuals are exclusively "word thinkers" or "picture thinkers" is a myth; everyone is capable of both. In fact, information is processed and remembered more effectively when presented through both words and images, provided the visuals are well-chosen and relevant [13](#page=13). ### 1.4 Learning versus studying Learning is a fundamental, often natural process essential for survival and adaptation, present since human evolution. However, skills that are part of human culture, such as reading, mathematics, or foreign languages, are more recent inventions and require deliberate instruction and dedicated effort to acquire. Studying, therefore, is the active, effortful process of engaging with this cultural knowledge to achieve learning [13](#page=13). > **Key Takeaway:** Studying is considered "top sport" and requires dedicated effort to prepare the brain and environment for effective learning with maximum results [13](#page=13). > **Definition:** Learning is the ability to know, do, or understand something that was not previously possible, now and in the future [14](#page=14). --- # Effective study strategies and habits This section outlines practical methods for enhancing learning and retention through effective studying, focusing on preparation, habit formation, goal setting, and proven study techniques. ### 2.1 Develop strong and motivating habits Developing strong study habits is crucial for efficient learning, as they reduce the effort required to engage in desired behaviors. Habits are triggered by environmental cues, and consistently responding to these cues strengthens them. The good news is that effective habits can be learned by adapting one's environment and consistently repeating desired actions, which in turn fosters motivation [16](#page=16). #### 2.1.1 Adapt your environment To optimize learning, it is essential to minimize distractions by creating a study environment conducive to focus. This involves removing elements that compete for attention, such as mobile phones, radios, or social media notifications. For example, batching computer-based tasks first and then turning off the computer for non-computer-dependent work can help concentrate attention [16](#page=16). > **Tip:** Studies show that students with above-average smartphone use perform worse on exams. Designate your study space as a gadget-free zone by disabling notifications or keeping your phone in another room [17](#page=17). When it comes to listening to music while studying, it depends on the task's difficulty. For complex texts requiring full working memory capacity, background music can be detrimental. However, for more routine tasks, or in noisy environments like trains, quiet background music through headphones can help block out distractions [17](#page=17). #### 2.1.2 Repeat good habits Making the desired behavior the easiest option by adjusting your environment is key to reinforcing good habits. For instance, placing your smartphone in a different room while studying and using it as a reward during breaks can help link study with a desired activity [18](#page=18). New habits can also be linked to existing ones. If you typically re-read material, combine this with more effective strategies like self-testing after reading a paragraph or noting down keywords from memory. Consistent application of these strategies is vital for habit formation [18](#page=18). #### 2.1.3 Experience how satisfaction motivates you Habits aim for rewards, ideally immediate ones. Achieving small successes, such as studying without your phone or using self-testing alongside re-reading, boosts self-confidence and encourages perseverance. Developing successful study habits can lead to a more meaningful use of study time, better comprehension of lessons, and improved results, all of which are strong motivators. Self-efficacy, the belief in one's own abilities, also significantly impacts motivation; feeling capable of handling academic tasks increases motivation, while the perception of impossibility can lead to stress and anxiety [18](#page=18). ### 2.2 Plan from concrete learning goals Investing time and effort in studying is directly correlated with better academic results. However, *what* you do with that study time is equally important. This section focuses on how to plan your study time effectively by setting clear learning goals [19](#page=19). #### 2.2.1 Focus on learning instead of performing When setting study goals, it's important to differentiate between learning goals and performance goals. Performance goals focus on short-term achievements like getting good grades or outperforming others, while learning goals emphasize long-term understanding and application of knowledge. Research indicates that students with learning goals tend to use more effective strategies, seek challenges, and persist longer, even when faced with difficulties. While striving for good performance is not inherently wrong, prioritizing learning goals that focus on mastering material over time is more beneficial [19](#page=19). #### 2.2.2 Make your learning goals concrete The more specific a goal, the higher the likelihood of achieving it. For instance, instead of aiming to "study economics," break it down into concrete sub-goals, such as studying a specific chapter or topic within economics [20](#page=20). To make goals concrete, consider questions like: * How many parts does the chapter have? * Which parts will I cover in one study session? * How will I process the material (e.g., reading and self-questioning, flashcards, self-testing)? * What was my approach for the previous exam and what was the result? * Do I need to apply the knowledge? * Is there a practice test available? * How many review sessions should I schedule [20](#page=20)? These questions, along with effective study strategies and study cards, help break down a main goal into smaller, manageable steps, making it easier to start studying and providing a sense of accomplishment after each short session [20](#page=20). > **Tip:** When creating your plan, include buffer times for unexpected needs and try to schedule study time at fixed moments to develop a consistent habit [20](#page=20). A well-structured plan reduces stress, increases preparedness, improves oversight, and minimizes surprises. The format of the plan can be flexible, but should consider principles of effective time management and study habits [21](#page=21). An example of a detailed study plan for an economics chapter: * Study chapter structure: table of contents. * Close book: create a mind map with main titles and subtitles, keywords. * Create test questions for Chapter 1. * Answer and correct test questions for Chapter 1. * Make flashcards for key concepts in Chapter 2. * Practice with flashcards 3 times for 30 minutes each, with several hours between sessions. * Re-do exercises from the book twice for 30 minutes each, with several hours between sessions [20](#page=20). #### 2.2.3 3 x 30 > 1 x 90 Three study sessions of 30 minutes each are more effective for learning than a single 90-minute session, even though the total study time is the same. This principle leverages the strategy of spaced studying, where learning material is revisited at different times. This concept is supported by Hermann Ebbinghaus's research in 1885, which demonstrated that forgetting occurs rapidly unless repetition is incorporated. Active repetition interrupts the forgetting process and reinforces knowledge, making the forgetting curve less steep over time [22](#page=22). > **Tip:** Build short, intense study sessions into your schedule, spacing out your learning. Thirty to sixty minutes is a common duration for a study session, after which a break is essential [23](#page=23). ### 2.3 Take care of your body and mind Just like elite athletes, students must prioritize their physical and mental well-being. This includes regular exercise, healthy eating, adequate water intake, and sufficient sleep. Sleep is particularly crucial for students, as the brain processes and organizes information learned during the day while sleeping. Getting enough sleep is vital for better and longer retention of information; pulling an all-nighter is counterproductive [23](#page=23) [24](#page=24). > **Tip:** Students often struggle with sleep due to social factors and biological rhythms. While adolescents might feel less tired later in the evening due to cortisol levels, they still require adequate sleep [23](#page=23). Research indicates that a night's rest between study sessions improves performance and reduces the time needed for subsequent learning, highlighting the importance of sleep for retention [25](#page=25). ### 2.4 How to study: What, When, and How * **What to study:** Focus on concrete and achievable goals [26](#page=26). * **When to study:** Study spread out over time [26](#page=26). * **How to study:** Develop strong, motivating habits, adapt your environment to minimize distractions, repeat good habits, and experience satisfaction [26](#page=26). * **Body and Mind:** Prioritize nutrition, sleep, and exercise [26](#page=26). ### 3. Intense workout Effective study strategies are central to learning, enabling material to be recalled more easily and retained longer. These strategies often involve active thinking and can feel more challenging, akin to athletic training with added resistance. The goal is to deliberately introduce desirable difficulties that enhance long-term memory and understanding [27](#page=27). #### 3.1 Make it more difficult for yourself Strategies that feel more challenging and require deeper thinking engage the brain more intensely, leading to longer and better retention. Popular but less effective strategies like re-reading, highlighting, and transcribing text can create an "illusion of competence" because recognition is mistaken for recall. While re-reading may feel fast, it doesn't guarantee actual learning or recall. Highlighting alone doesn't guarantee processing of information, and transcribing can be done without deep understanding [28](#page=28). > **Tip:** Be discerning with your highlighter and thoughtful about what and why you mark [28](#page=28). To truly learn, deliberately making studying more difficult is key. This involves self-testing instead of re-reading, summarizing in your own words instead of literal transcription, mixing different types of exercises, and studying material across multiple sessions rather than in one go [28](#page=28). Research shows a significant discrepancy between students' planned and reported study strategy use, with re-reading being highly common and self-testing (e.g., using flashcards or practice tests) being less frequently employed, despite the intention to use them more often [29](#page=29). #### 3.2 Choose study strategies that work #### 3.2.1 Test yourself Self-testing is a powerful learning strategy that requires active recall of information. It helps accurately assess your understanding and retention, unlike mere recognition. Methods include using flashcards, taking practice tests, explaining material to others, creating mind maps, or solving new problems while reasoning aloud. The key is to keep the source material closed and engage in deep thinking [30](#page=30). > **Tip:** The more varied and frequent you test yourself, the better you learn and remember; you become smarter by testing yourself [30](#page=30). Testing oneself improves long-term retention more effectively than simply re-reading material. Interestingly, students who relied heavily on re-reading often overestimated their performance on a delayed test, highlighting the "illusion of competence" [31](#page=31). **Key considerations for self-testing:** * **Check your knowledge:** Always verify the accuracy of your recalled information and note areas of difficulty for future focus [32](#page=32). * **Active recall:** Avoid peeking at your notes or book; simulate exam conditions [32](#page=32). * **Timing:** Test yourself later (e.g., the evening of, or a day after studying) to encourage deeper processing and enhance learning gains [32](#page=32). * **Relevance:** Align your testing methods with the format and requirements of the actual exam [32](#page=32). **Methods of self-testing:** * **Flashcards:** Use cards with concepts on one side and definitions on the other [33](#page=33). * **Braindumps:** Write down everything you remember about a topic on a blank page. This is useful before starting other study strategies or as a summary [34](#page=34). #### 3.2.2 Re-process the material "Re-processing" or "re-kneading" the material involves actively transforming the information into a new product, such as a mind map, drawing, summary, or practice questions. This process forces deeper thinking about the meaning, core ideas, and connections to existing knowledge, which aids memory [35](#page=35). The process of re-processing generally involves: 1. Starting with a source (e.g., textbook). 2. Gaining a global overview (e.g., scanning the table of contents). 3. Reading or viewing the material attentively. 4. Selecting core ideas. 5. Reflecting on meaning, generating examples, and identifying similarities/differences. 6. Linking new information to prior knowledge. 7. Transforming the knowledge into something new [35](#page=35). > **Tip:** Re-processing strategies provide a more accurate assessment of what you know and don't know, guiding you to revisit material or seek further clarification [35](#page=35). When taking notes, writing by hand is often preferred over typing, as it tends to involve more active processing and less verbatim transcription, and avoids digital distractions [37](#page=37). **Strategies for re-processing:** * **Generating questions:** Create questions about the material and then answer them in detail [39](#page=39). * **Drawing:** Create diagrams or sketches to represent processes or concepts, combining words and images for better retention [40](#page=40). * **Explaining:** Explain the material (or an exercise) to yourself or someone else, forcing detailed thought and connection-making [41](#page=41). * **Mapping:** Create visual schemas like mind maps to show relationships between concepts [42](#page=42). * **Summarizing with the Cornell method:** Divide notes into main points, cues/questions, and a summary, allowing for self-testing [43](#page=43). > **Important note:** Avoid simply copying text; ensure that any summaries or questions you create contain accurate and complete information. Build a solid knowledge base before employing these strategies [38](#page=38). #### 3.2.3 Practice smart Consistent practice is essential for mastering any skill, including academic subjects. Smart practice involves more than just repetition; it means practicing effectively to make progress. Students can hinder their progress by practicing exercises that are too easy, working on one type of problem exclusively, or not learning from mistakes [46](#page=46). Research comparing grouped practice (e.g., all of type A, then all of type B) with interleaved practice (mixing types A, B, and C) shows that interleaved practice leads to better performance on tests, both short and long-term. This is because it forces the brain to work harder by determining which strategy to apply [45](#page=45) [47](#page=47). **Strategies for smart practice:** * **Practice with worked-out examples:** Use detailed examples that explain each step to understand how to solve problems [46](#page=46). * **Practice by alternating (interleaving):** Mix different types of similar problems rather than practicing them in blocks [47](#page=47). > **Tip:** Initially, it's helpful to practice grouped problems to learn the method. However, switch to interleaved practice to improve problem-solving and strategy selection [47](#page=47). #### 3.2.4 Study spread out The principle of studying spread out, or spaced repetition, states that three 30-minute study sessions are more effective for long-term retention than one 90-minute session. This involves revisiting the same material at different intervals. This strategy can be implemented within a single session by doing a braindump of earlier material at the end, which makes subsequent recall more challenging but ultimately leads to deeper learning [48](#page=48). > **Tip:** When reviewing material, opt for active recall strategies like self-testing rather than passive re-reading [48](#page=48). **How to study spread out:** 1. Plan your study time, dividing it into smaller sessions spread across days or weeks [49](#page=49). 2. Schedule multiple study sessions for the same material, with increasing intervals between them [49](#page=49). > **Important note:** This strategy is most effective when there is sufficient time before the exam. If time is limited, grouped practice may be the only option [49](#page=49). ### 3.3 One in, then out, out, out After encoding information into memory ("in"), it is crucial to actively retrieve it from memory ("out") multiple times. This retrieval practice, followed by checking and correcting answers, is more beneficial than simply re-reading. While re-reading can be useful for initial understanding or when encountering difficult material, it should be supplemented with other strategies to avoid passive processing. Combining strategies, such as explaining a worked example aloud and then practicing similar problems in an interleaved fashion, or starting with a braindump and then generating test questions, can significantly enhance learning [50](#page=50). The brain's learning process involves: * **Selection:** Choosing what to focus on [51](#page=51). * **Organization:** Structuring information [51](#page=51). * **Integration:** Connecting new information with existing knowledge [51](#page=51). The memory system includes sensory memory, working memory (limited capacity), and long-term memory (unlimited capacity). Effective studying moves information from working memory to long-term memory through strategies that promote recall and retention [51](#page=51). --- # The importance of preparation and reflection in studying Effective studying involves more than just dedicating time to reading and memorizing material; it critically relies on thorough preparation before study sessions and diligent reflection afterward to enhance learning and ensure long-term retention. This comprehensive approach, akin to how top athletes prepare for training, maximizes the effectiveness of study time and fosters motivation by building confidence through successful experiences [15](#page=15) [18](#page=18). ### 3.1 Preparation: The 'warming-up' phase The 'warming-up' phase of studying focuses on creating an optimal environment and establishing strong, motivating habits. This involves minimizing distractions, setting clear goals, and preparing the mind for the task ahead [15](#page=15). #### 3.1.1 Developing strong and motivating habits Habits are triggered by environmental cues. To cultivate effective study habits, it is essential to adapt one's environment and reinforce desired behaviors through repetition and positive reinforcement [16](#page=16). ##### 3.1.1.1 Adapting your environment A key aspect of preparation is creating a conducive study space. Since attention is crucial for learning, it's important to eliminate anything that competes for it. This means strategically arranging the study area to minimize distractions, such as keeping a mobile phone out of sight. For instance, completing computer-based tasks first and then shutting down the computer for non-digital work can help maintain focus [16](#page=16) [17](#page=17). > **Tip:** Creating a "gadget-free zone" for studying is highly effective, especially concerning smartphones and tablets, which can significantly impair academic performance [17](#page=17). Music can also be a distraction, particularly for complex tasks requiring full cognitive capacity. While quiet background music might be acceptable for routine tasks or in noisy environments, it can hinder concentration when tackling difficult material [17](#page=17). ##### 3.1.1.2 Repeating good habits Making desired behaviors the easiest option is a core principle of habit formation. For example, placing your smartphone in a different room while studying and allowing yourself to check it only during breaks links the task of studying with a desired activity. New habits can also be integrated with existing ones. If the habit is rereading material, it can be combined with more effective strategies like self-testing [18](#page=18). ##### 3.1.1.3 Experiencing satisfaction as motivation Every habit aims for a reward, preferably an immediate one. Experiencing small successes, such as completing a study session without phone distractions or preparing for a test using self-testing, builds self-confidence and motivates continued effort. This positive reinforcement leads to a sense of purpose in study time, better comprehension, and improved results. Confidence in one's ability to succeed in academic tasks also significantly impacts motivation and can mitigate stress or exam anxiety [18](#page=18). #### 3.1.2 Planning from concrete learning goals Investing sufficient time and effort in studying is directly linked to better academic results. However, how that time is utilized is equally important, which begins with setting clear learning goals [19](#page=19). ##### 3.1.2.1 Focusing on learning instead of performance Goals can be categorized as performance goals (e.g., achieving a high grade) or learning goals (e.g., understanding and applying knowledge long-term). Research indicates that students with learning goals tend to employ more effective strategies, seek challenges, and persevere longer, even when facing difficulties. While performing well is not detrimental, prioritizing learning goals that emphasize deep understanding and long-term mastery is more beneficial [19](#page=19). ##### 3.1.2.2 Making learning goals concrete The more specific a goal, the higher the likelihood of achieving it. Large goals should be broken down into smaller, actionable sub-goals. This involves identifying the components of the material, deciding how to process it (e.g., reading, self-testing, flashcards), considering past experiences with similar tasks, and planning for application and review [20](#page=20). > **Example:** To study economics, concrete sub-goals could include: > * Studying the chapter structure via the table of contents. > * Creating a mind map with main titles and subtitles after closing the book. > * Developing test questions for chapter 1. > * Answering and correcting chapter 1 test questions. > * Making flashcards for key concepts in chapter 2. > * Practicing with flashcards for 30 minutes three times with breaks in between. > * Re-doing textbook exercises twice for 30 minutes with breaks. Incorporating these sub-goals into a plan makes it easier to start studying and provides a sense of accomplishment after completing each smaller task, which is highly motivating [20](#page=20). > **Tip:** When creating a study plan, include buffer periods for unexpected time needs and establish fixed study times to build a consistent habit, dedicating a set amount of time each week regardless of deadlines [20](#page=20). A well-structured plan reduces stress, improves preparedness, maintains an overview of tasks, and minimizes surprises [21](#page=21). ##### 3.1.2.3 3 x 30 minutes > 1 x 90 minutes Spreading study sessions over time, even with the same total duration, leads to better long-term retention and recall. This principle, known as spaced studying, leverages the effectiveness of revisiting material at different intervals. Research by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885 highlighted the rapid rate of forgetting, demonstrating that active repetition interrupts this process and reinforces knowledge, with each repetition making the forgetting curve flatter [22](#page=22). > **Example:** Instead of one 90-minute study session, three 30-minute sessions for the same material will result in greater learning gains [22](#page=22). #### 3.1.3 Caring for your body and mind Just as athletes prioritize their physical well-being, students must care for their physical and mental health through regular movement, healthy eating, adequate hydration, and sufficient sleep. Sleep is particularly vital for consolidating learned information, and all-night study sessions are counterproductive. While adolescents may experience shifts in their natural sleep-wake cycles, they still require adequate rest [23](#page=23) [24](#page=24). > **Tip:** Ensure that study sessions are short and intense, with breaks after every 30 to 60 minutes, and incorporate spaced repetition into your weekly or monthly planning [23](#page=23). ### 3.2 Reflection: The 'cooling-down' phase The reflection phase, or 'cooling-down', involves critically evaluating one's study behavior and making adjustments for future learning. This is akin to having a coach who guides and critiques performance. #### 3.2.1 Be your own (strict) coach This process involves being your own critical coach, actively planning, monitoring, and evaluating your learning process. These metacognitive strategies are interconnected and continuously influence each other [54](#page=54). ##### 3.2.1.1 Planning your learning process (before studying) Before studying, ask yourself: * What specific learning goals do I want to achieve [55](#page=55)? * Which effective study strategies should I employ [55](#page=55)? * What strategies have I used previously for similar tasks, and were they successful [55](#page=55)? * What prior knowledge do I have on this topic [55](#page=55)? * How can I schedule the study of this material over time [55](#page=55)? * What resources can I utilize [55](#page=55)? * How can I minimize distractions [55](#page=55)? ##### 3.2.1.2 Monitoring your learning process (during studying) During study, continually check your understanding: * Do I truly comprehend this content, or am I relying on recognition [55](#page=55)? * Can I summarize what I've read in my own words [55](#page=55)? * Am I actively recalling the information, or is my book constantly open [55](#page=55)? * How likely is it that I can correctly answer a potential exam question [55](#page=55)? * Am I maintaining sufficient focus [55](#page=55)? * Am I testing myself both before and during study, or only at the end [55](#page=55)? * Is this strategy optimal for this material, or would another approach be better [55](#page=55)? * Could I explain this material to someone else in a few days [55](#page=55)? * Have I tested myself a few hours or days after my study session [55](#page=55)? ##### 3.2.1.3 Evaluating your learning process (after studying) After studying, assess your progress: * Did I achieve my learning goal, as evidenced by self-testing rather than just recognition [56](#page=56)? * Do I retain the material even after several days or weeks [56](#page=56)? * Did I select the most suitable effective study strategies [56](#page=56)? * Which parts of the material am I most likely to forget quickly [56](#page=56)? * How would I approach this study session differently next time [56](#page=56)? #### 3.2.2 Avoid, retain, and adjust After reviewing the material, critically assess your study habits: * **Avoid:** Identify less effective study behaviors to discontinue, such as passively re-reading or rewriting material, or studying in a distracting environment [56](#page=56). * **Retain:** Keep effective strategies that have proven beneficial, such as planning study sessions and repeating material at different times [56](#page=56). * **Adjust:** Refine strategies that are not being applied optimally. For example, if summarizing involves only re-reading the summary, adjust by incorporating self-testing using the summary as a prompt [56](#page=56). > **Tip:** It takes time and effort to change long-standing habits. Use this book as a reference throughout your academic career to continuously build knowledge about effective studying and practice these strategies [56](#page=56). The process of studying successfully involves a continuous cycle of planning, active learning, and reflective evaluation, supported by a healthy lifestyle [26](#page=26) [57](#page=57). > **Example:** Mixing and matching effective learning strategies, such as self-testing, explaining concepts to others, spaced practice, and using methods like the Cornell Note-Taking System, can significantly enhance learning outcomes [57](#page=57). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Sensory memory | This is the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended. | | Working memory | This is a system that temporarily stores and manipulates information required for complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension. It has a limited capacity and duration. | | Long-term memory | This is the stage of the human memory system where information is stored for extended periods, potentially a lifetime. It serves as a vast, essentially unlimited storage space for knowledge, skills, and experiences. | | Prior knowledge | This refers to the knowledge and experience that a learner already possesses before encountering new information. It significantly influences how new information is understood, processed, and integrated into existing cognitive structures. | | Metacognition | This is the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. It involves thinking about thinking and includes planning, monitoring, and evaluating one's learning strategies. | | Dunning-Kruger effect | This is a cognitive bias whereby people with low ability at a task overestimate their ability. Conversely, people with high ability may underestimate their relative competence. | | Multitasking | The act of performing multiple tasks simultaneously. The document argues that true multitasking is not possible for conscious tasks; instead, the brain rapidly switches attention between tasks, leading to reduced efficiency and increased errors. | | Spaced practice | This refers to a learning strategy where study sessions are spread out over time, rather than concentrated into one long session. It leverages the forgetting curve by revisiting material at increasing intervals to enhance long-term retention. | | Retrieval practice | This is a learning technique that involves actively recalling information from memory, rather than passively rereading it. Testing oneself, even without feedback, significantly improves long-term retention. | | Elaborative encoding | This is a memory technique that involves linking new information to existing knowledge. By making connections and thinking deeply about the meaning of the information, it is more easily stored and retrieved. | | Illusions of competence | This refers to a situation where a learner feels they have mastered material, often due to familiarity or recognition, when they have not actually achieved true understanding or recall ability. This can hinder effective learning strategies. | | Habit formation | This is the process by which a behavior becomes automatic through repetition. Habits are triggered by environmental cues and can be either beneficial or detrimental to learning, depending on the behavior. | | Learning goals | These are objectives focused on understanding and mastering a subject or skill for long-term benefit, as opposed to performance goals which are focused on short-term achievement or comparison with others. | | Performance goals | These are objectives focused on demonstrating competence, achieving high grades, or outperforming others, often with an emphasis on short-term outcomes rather than deep understanding. | | Interleaved practice | This is a study strategy where different types of problems or concepts are mixed together during practice sessions, rather than practicing one type exclusively before moving to the next. This requires the learner to actively select the appropriate strategy for each problem. | | Worked examples | These are problems that are solved step-by-step, with all intermediate steps clearly explained. They are particularly useful for learning how to perform new procedures or solve problems in unfamiliar domains. | | Braindump | This is a strategy where a learner writes down everything they can recall about a specific topic on a blank sheet of paper without referring to any notes or textbooks. It helps to identify knowledge gaps and activate existing memory. | | Cornell Note-Taking System | A method of note-taking that divides a page into three sections: a main note-taking area, a cue column, and a summary area. It facilitates active recall and review. |