ENGELS SAMENVATTING.pdf

# Academic and legal English common errors This section addresses frequently confused words and structures in academic and legal English, emphasizing correct usage for precision and credibility [6](#page=6). ### 1.1 Remember, remind, and recall These verbs are often confused, but they have distinct meanings and uses [6](#page=6). * **Remember:** To bring something back to mind or retain it in internal memory [6](#page=6). * **Example:** I remember meeting her last year [6](#page=6). * **Remind:** To cause someone else to remember something through an external trigger [6](#page=6). * **Tip:** "Remind" cannot be used to express that you personally remember something [6](#page=6). * **Example:** Can you remind me to call the doctor? [6](#page=6). * **Recall:** To retrieve information from memory, often used in a formal or academic context [6](#page=6). * **Example:** I can’t recall his name [6](#page=6). ### 1.2 Assure, ensure, and insure Understanding the nuances between these words is crucial for clarity in legal writing [6](#page=6). * **Assure:** To remove doubt or give confidence to a person [6](#page=6). * **Example:** I assure you that everything will be fine [6](#page=6). * **Ensure:** To make certain that something happens, referring to a situation or process [6](#page=6). * **Example:** Please ensure the door is locked [6](#page=6). * **Insure:** To protect against risk, typically in a financial or insurance context [6](#page=6). * **Example:** I insured my car against theft [6](#page=6). ### 1.3 As and like The correct usage of "as" and "like" depends on whether you are indicating a role or similarity [6](#page=6). * **As:** Indicates a role, function, or manner [6](#page=6). * **Example:** He works as a lawyer [6](#page=6). * **Example:** She sings as her mother did [6](#page=6). * **Like:** Indicates similarity [6](#page=6). * **Example:** She sings like her mother [6](#page=6). * **Tip:** "As" is used for roles and actions, while "like" is used for resemblance [6](#page=6). ### 1.4 Especially and specially These adverbs are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings [7](#page=7). * **Especially:** Highlights importance or emphasis [7](#page=7). * **Example:** I like fruit, especially mangoes [7](#page=7). * **Specially:** Indicates something made for a specific purpose [7](#page=7). * **Example:** The cake was specially made for her birthday [7](#page=7). ### 1.5 Nouns and verbs ending in -ice and -ise There is a spelling distinction between nouns and verbs in American and British English [7](#page=7). * **Nouns:** Always end in "-ice" [7](#page=7). * **Examples:** practice, advice [7](#page=7). * **Verbs (US English):** End in "-ice" [7](#page=7). * **Example:** to practice [7](#page=7). * **Verbs (UK English):** End in "-ise" [7](#page=7). * **Example:** to practise [7](#page=7). * **Tip:** This distinction is relevant in legal writing depending on the jurisdiction [7](#page=7). ### 1.6 Compare to and compare with The prepositions used after "compare" determine the nature of the comparison [7](#page=7). * **Compare to:** Used for figurative or metaphorical comparison [7](#page=7). * **Example:** Her voice was compared to a nightingale [7](#page=7). * **Compare with:** Used for analytical comparison of similar items [7](#page=7). * **Example:** Let’s compare the new model with the old one [7](#page=7). --- # UK and US legal professions and court systems This section details the distinct legal professions and intricate court systems present in both the United Kingdom and the United States, highlighting their structures, roles, and jurisdictions. ### 2.1 Legal professions in the UK The UK legal profession is broadly divided, with specific roles and jurisdictions within England and Wales, and Scotland [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.1 Solicitor * **Jurisdiction:** England, Wales, Scotland [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Works directly with clients, performing preparatory legal work such as drafting documents, providing legal advice, and preparing cases [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** Usually pleads only in lower courts [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.2 Solicitor advocate * **Jurisdiction:** England and Wales [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** A solicitor who has obtained extended rights of audience through additional qualification [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** May plead in higher courts [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.3 Barrister / Advocate (Scotland) * **Jurisdiction:** England and Wales (Barrister); Scotland (Advocate) [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Instructed by a solicitor; specialises in advocacy and courtroom representation [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** Pleads in higher courts [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.4 King’s Counsel * **Jurisdiction:** United Kingdom [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Highly specialised senior barristers appointed as recognition of professional excellence and expertise; holds a prestigious status [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** Appears in the most complex and high-profile cases; commonly referred to as “taking silk” [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.5 Prosecutor (England and Wales) * **Jurisdiction:** England and Wales [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** A public prosecutor acting on behalf of the state, working within the Crown Prosecution Service [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.6 Prosecutor (Scotland) * **Jurisdiction:** Scotland [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Public prosecutor responsible for criminal prosecutions and investigations, known as the Procurator Fiscal [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.7 Judge * **Jurisdiction:** United Kingdom [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Professional, legally trained judge [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** Presides over court proceedings and delivers judgments [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.8 Sheriff * **Jurisdiction:** Scotland [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Professional judge within the Scottish legal system [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** Handles civil and criminal cases in Scotland [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.9 Senator of the College of Justice * **Jurisdiction:** Scotland [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Senior member of the Scottish judiciary [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** Sits in Scotland’s supreme courts [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.10 Magistrate / Justice of the Peace * **Jurisdiction:** United Kingdom [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Volunteer role; no legal background required [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** Handles mainly criminal and family cases [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.11 Notary * **Jurisdiction:** United Kingdom [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Specialist lawyer responsible for document authentication [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.12 Paralegal * **Jurisdiction:** United Kingdom [8](#page=8). * **Key Characteristics:** Supportive legal role assisting qualified lawyers [8](#page=8). * **Court Role/Function:** Does not plead in court [8](#page=8). ### 2.2 Legal professions in the US The US legal profession is structured around licensed attorneys, with specific roles for prosecutors and judges at both state and federal levels [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.1 Attorney * **Jurisdiction:** United States (state-based) [9](#page=9). * **Key Characteristics:** A licensed lawyer admitted to a State Bar, who must pass the bar exam to practice law [9](#page=9). * **Court Role/Function:** Represents clients in legal matters and court proceedings [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.2 Prosecutor * **Jurisdiction:** District / State / Federal [9](#page=9). * **Key Characteristics:** Represents the government in criminal cases and brings charges on behalf of the state [9](#page=9). * **Court Role/Function:** Prosecutes criminal offences [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.3 District Attorney * **Jurisdiction:** Local or district level [9](#page=9). * **Key Characteristics:** Chief public prosecutor within a specific jurisdiction [9](#page=9). * **Court Role/Function:** Oversees and conducts criminal prosecutions [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.4 Attorney-General (Federal) * **Jurisdiction:** Federal level [9](#page=9). * **Key Characteristics:** Chief legal officer of the federal government [9](#page=9). * **Court Role/Function:** Represents the United States in legal matters [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.5 Judge (State level) * **Jurisdiction:** State courts [9](#page=9). * **Key Characteristics:** May be appointed or elected depending on the state [9](#page=9). * **Court Role/Function:** Presides over trials and delivers judgments [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.6 Judge (Federal level) * **Jurisdiction:** Federal courts [9](#page=9). * **Key Characteristics:** Always appointed, includes Supreme Court Justices [9](#page=9). * **Court Role/Function:** Interprets federal law and the Constitution [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.7 Magistrate Judge * **Jurisdiction:** Federal courts [9](#page=9). * **Key Characteristics:** Appointed by District Court Judges; not appointed by the President [9](#page=9). * **Court Role/Function:** Handles pre-trial matters and various judicial proceedings [9](#page=9). #### 2.2.8 Notary Public * **Jurisdiction:** United States [9](#page=9). * **Key Characteristics:** Government official who authenticates signatures and documents; not a lawyer [9](#page=9). ### 2.3 Branches of law and court systems #### 2.3.1 Legal Systems * **Civil Law:** Belgium [10](#page=10). * **Common Law:** UK and US [10](#page=10). * **Mixed System:** Scotland [10](#page=10). #### 2.3.2 Public Law * **Definition:** Governs relationships between individuals and the state [10](#page=10). * **Includes:** Constitutional, administrative, criminal, human rights, and tax law [10](#page=10). #### 2.3.3 Private Law * **Definition:** Governs relationships between individuals and organisations [10](#page=10). * **Includes:** Contract, tort or delict, family, property, succession, company, and employment law [10](#page=10). #### 2.3.4 Mixed or Trans-systemic Law * **Definition:** Combines elements of public and private law [10](#page=10). * **Examples:** EU law, intellectual property law, evidence, and international law [10](#page=10). #### 2.3.5 Application of Branches of Law * **Traffic accident:** Criminal law and tort [10](#page=10). * **Share sale with non-compete:** Company law and contract [10](#page=10). * **Refusal of permit:** Administrative law [10](#page=10). * **Divorce:** Family law [10](#page=10). * **Song plagiarism:** IP law and contract [10](#page=10). ### 2.4 Court systems in the United Kingdom The UK has distinct court structures for England and Wales, and Scotland. #### 2.4.1 England and Wales England and Wales share a unified court system based on common law [26](#page=26). ##### 2.4.1.1 Lower Courts * **Magistrates’ Courts:** Deal with less serious criminal cases [26](#page=26). * **Crown Court:** Handles more serious criminal offences [26](#page=26). ##### 2.4.1.2 Higher Courts * **High Court:** * **Function:** Court of first instance for high-value civil claims and appellate court for civil and criminal cases [26](#page=26). * **Divisions:** * King’s Bench Division: Contract, tort, judicial review [26](#page=26). * Chancery Division: Equity, trusts, company law [26](#page=26). * Family Division: Family law matters [26](#page=26). * **Court of Appeal:** * **Function:** Hears appeals only [26](#page=26). * **Divisions:** Civil Division (appeals from High Court and County Court) and Criminal Division (appeals from Crown Court) [26](#page=26). * **Supreme Court of the United Kingdom:** * **Function:** Final court of appeal for civil cases from England, Wales, and Northern Ireland [26](#page=26). * **Judges:** 12 permanent justices [26](#page=26). * **Appointment:** By the Lord Chancellor [26](#page=26). ##### 2.4.1.3 Court Jurisdiction Summary * **Magistrates’ Court:** All criminal cases start here [26](#page=26). * **County Court:** Most civil cases [26](#page=26). #### 2.4.2 Scotland Scotland operates a mixed legal system, combining civil law and common law [27](#page=27). ##### 2.4.2.1 Lower Courts * **Justice of the Peace Courts:** Handle less serious summary criminal cases [27](#page=27). * **Sheriff Courts:** Hear summary and solemn criminal cases, and most civil cases. Solemn cases are heard by a judge and a jury [27](#page=27). ##### 2.4.2.2 Appeal Courts * **Sheriff Appeal Court:** Hears appeals for most civil and criminal cases [27](#page=27). * **High Court of Justiciary:** Serves as both a criminal appeal court and the first instance for serious criminal cases [27](#page=27). * **Court of Session:** * **Outer House:** First instance for high-value civil cases [27](#page=27). * **Inner House:** Civil appeal court [27](#page=27). * **Supreme Court of the UK (Scotland):** Final court of appeal for civil cases only. Criminal appeals generally conclude in Scotland, with exceptions for devolution or human-rights issues, and are limited to points of law [27](#page=27). ##### 2.4.2.3 Distinctive Feature of the Scottish System Scotland employs a three-verdict system in criminal trials: Guilty, Not guilty, and Not proven [27](#page=27). ### 2.5 Court systems in the United States The US features a dual court system, comprising federal and state courts, each with distinct jurisdictions [28](#page=28). #### 2.5.1 Dual Court System * **Federal Courts:** Limited jurisdiction [28](#page=28). * **State Courts:** General jurisdiction [28](#page=28). * **U.S. Supreme Court:** Holds the final authority on federal law, irrespective of the case's origin [28](#page=28). #### 2.5.2 Federal Court System * **Jurisdiction of Federal Courts:** * Federal question cases (arising under federal law) [28](#page=28). * Diversity jurisdiction cases [28](#page=28). * Cases where the U.S. is a party [28](#page=28). * Jurisdiction must be granted by Congress and the Constitution [28](#page=28). * **Structure of Federal Courts:** * **U.S. District Courts:** Trial courts; 94 judicial districts [28](#page=28). * **U.S. Courts of Appeals:** 12 regional circuits plus 1 Federal Circuit [28](#page=28). * **Supreme Court of the United States:** Highest federal court [28](#page=28). * **The Federal Circuit:** Hears specialised cases, such as patents and international trade [28](#page=28). * **All federal appeals are record-based** [28](#page=28). #### 2.5.3 State Court Systems * **Structure:** All 50 states have their own court systems, based on state constitutions and laws. They handle most civil and criminal litigation [29](#page=29). * **Levels:** * **Limited jurisdiction trial courts:** Handle small claims, traffic, family, and juvenile matters [29](#page=29). * **General jurisdiction trial courts:** Hear serious civil cases and felonies [29](#page=29). * **Intermediate appellate courts:** Review legal errors [29](#page=29). * **State Supreme Court:** Final authority on state law. Some states have separate high courts for civil and criminal cases [29](#page=29). #### 2.5.4 Federal Review of State Cases If a case raises a federal question, the losing party may petition the U.S. Supreme Court [29](#page=29). #### 2.5.5 Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) * **Position:** Highest federal court [29](#page=29). * **Review:** Federal law and the Constitution [29](#page=29). * **Original Jurisdiction:** Narrow, for example, disputes between states [29](#page=29). * **Judges:** Nine justices, appointed for life [29](#page=29). * **Certiorari Procedure:** 1. Petition for a writ of certiorari [29](#page=29). 2. Rule of Four: Four justices must agree [29](#page=29). 3. Submission of briefs [29](#page=29). 4. Oral arguments [29](#page=29). 5. Decision [29](#page=29). * **Possible Opinions:** Majority opinion, concurring opinions, dissenting opinions, per curiam opinions [29](#page=29). * **Judicial Philosophies:** Include judicial activism and judicial restraint [29](#page=29). --- # UK politics, government, and voting systems This section outlines the UK's constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, detailing the roles of the monarch and prime minister, the structure of Parliament, devolved administrations, major political parties, and the First-Past-the-Post electoral system. ### 3.1 UK government overview The United Kingdom operates as a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. The King serves as the Head of State, while the Prime Minister is the Head of Government. Legislative power resides with Parliament, and the monarch's role is primarily symbolic and ceremonial [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.1 Executive power The executive branch is headed by the Prime Minister, who is the political leader. This is supported by a Cabinet of approximately 20 senior ministers. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is specifically responsible for public finances and the budget. Government departments, staffed by the politically neutral Civil Service, implement policy. Certain governmental powers have been devolved to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Prime Minister's official residence and office is located at 10 Downing Street [17](#page=17). #### 3.1.2 Parliament Parliament is a bicameral legislature located at the Palace of Westminster. Its two chambers are the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Legislative debates can originate in either chamber [17](#page=17). ##### 3.1.2.1 House of Commons The House of Commons comprises 650 Members of Parliament (MPs), with each MP representing a single constituency. In the parliamentary layout, the government and the opposition sit opposite each other. The Speaker of the House is a neutral official elected by the MPs, responsible for presiding over debates, maintaining order, and protecting the House from procedural abuse [18](#page=18). ##### 3.1.2.2 Voting in the House of Commons The voting process in the House of Commons is known as "the House divides". MPs initially vote by shouting "aye" or "no," with the Speaker announcing the winning side. If a vote is contested, a formal division is called, triggering division bells that ring for two minutes across Westminster. MPs then proceed to the aye or no lobbies, and the chamber is locked after eight minutes [18](#page=18). ##### 3.1.2.3 House of Lords The House of Lords has a non-fixed membership consisting of Lords Spiritual (26 members) and Lords Temporal. The Lords Temporal include 92 hereditary peers and an unlimited number of life peers/peeresses. Members of the House of Lords are not elected, and the presiding officer is the Lord Speaker [18](#page=18). ### 3.2 Devolved parliaments and assemblies Devolution has transferred specific governmental powers to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland [17](#page=17). #### 3.2.1 Scottish Parliament The Scottish Parliament, known as Pàrlamaid na h-Alba, is located in Edinburgh and has 129 Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs). The current First Minister is John Swinney, and the governing party is the Scottish National Party (SNP) [19](#page=19). #### 3.2.2 Welsh Parliament The Senedd Cymru, located in Cardiff, has 60 members. Its electoral system comprises 40 members elected via the first-past-the-post system and 20 through proportional representation. The First Minister is Eluned Morgan, who is noted as the first female First Minister of Wales [19](#page=19). #### 3.2.3 Northern Ireland Assembly The Northern Ireland Assembly is located at Stormont in Belfast and has 108 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs). Its electoral system is based on proportional representation, and its core principle is power-sharing between British Unionists (primarily the DUP) and Irish Nationalists (primarily Sinn Féin). The current First Minister is Michelle O’Neill, representing Sinn Féin, whose political aim includes Irish reunification [19](#page=19). ##### 3.2.3.1 Suspension and restoration of the Northern Ireland Assembly Power-sharing in Northern Ireland has been frequently suspended. For instance, it was suspended in March 2022 for two years due to issues arising from post-Brexit trade rules, specifically the Northern Ireland Protocol and the Windsor Framework. The Assembly was restored in February 2024 [19](#page=19). ### 3.3 Political parties in the UK The UK has several major political parties, each with distinct ideologies and support bases. #### 3.3.1 Labour Party The Labour Party is positioned left-of-centre, advocating for social justice and equality of opportunity. Internal divisions exist regarding Europe and economic policy, with a spectrum from "Blairites" (centrist economic policy) to "Corbynites" (state ownership and economic planning). Its support base includes the working and middle classes, with traditionally strong links to trade unions. The Labour Party boasts the largest membership of any political party [20](#page=20). #### 3.3.2 Conservative Party (Tories) The Conservative Party, often referred to as the Tories, is right-of-centre. Their economic stance favours free markets and privatisation, and they are largely anti-Europe. Their platform includes a tough approach to law and order, and they value personal, social, and economic freedom. Their support base typically includes business interests and the middle and upper classes. It is considered a national party [20](#page=20). #### 3.3.3 Liberal Democrats The Liberal Democrats position themselves as centre to left-of-centre. They are strongly pro-Europe and focus on areas like local government and constitutional reform, while valuing civil liberties [20](#page=20). #### 3.3.4 Scottish National Party (SNP) The Scottish National Party (SNP) is left-of-centre and pro-Europe. Its core aim is an independent Scotland. Its electoral scope is limited to Scotland, where it is regionally dominant and the second-largest party by membership [20](#page=20). #### 3.3.5 Other parties Several other parties operate in the UK political landscape, including Reform UK (led by Nigel Farage), the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP, led by Gavin Robinson), and Sinn Féin (led by Michelle O’Neill) [20](#page=20). ### 3.4 Political landscape – key concepts Understanding specific terminology is crucial in UK politics [21](#page=21). * **Great Britain:** Refers to England, Scotland, and Wales [21](#page=21). * **United Kingdom:** Encompasses Great Britain plus Northern Ireland [21](#page=21). * **European Union (EU):** A political and economic union [21](#page=21). * **Brexit:** The UK's withdrawal from the EU [21](#page=21). * **Article 50:** The legal mechanism used to initiate withdrawal from the EU [21](#page=21). * **Devolution:** The transfer of powers to devolved bodies [21](#page=21). * **Civil Service:** A neutral administrative body [21](#page=21). ### 3.5 Voting in the UK The UK primarily uses the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system for general elections. #### 3.5.1 First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system FPTP operates with 650 single-member constituencies, where one MP is elected per constituency. Each party can nominate one candidate per constituency. The winning condition is a plurality (the most votes), not necessarily a majority. The national result is determined by the sum of seats won by each party. Government formation typically relies on a party securing a majority in the Commons; a coalition is required if no single party achieves this (a minimum of 326 seats is needed for a majority) [21](#page=21). #### 3.5.2 Effects of First-Past-the-Post FPTP tends to result in two large dominant parties, encourages tactical voting, often leads to single-party governments, and can create disproportionality between vote share and seats won [21](#page=21). #### 3.5.3 Safe seats and swing seats * **Safe seats:** Constituencies that are consistently won by a single party [22](#page=22). * **Swing seats (Marginal constituencies):** Constituencies with small majorities, which are therefore highly contested and receive intensive campaigning and strategic voting efforts [22](#page=22). #### 3.5.4 Redistribution Electoral boundaries are periodically redrawn to prevent malapportionment. In the UK, this redistribution occurs every five years, whereas in the US, it typically happens every ten years [22](#page=22). #### 3.5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of FPTP **Advantages:** * Quick counting [22](#page=22). * Leads to stable governments [22](#page=22). * Provides clear outcomes [22](#page=22). **Disadvantages:** * Low overall support for winning candidates (can win with less than 50% of the vote) [22](#page=22). * Significant number of "lost votes" for unsuccessful candidates and their supporters [22](#page=22). * Penalises dispersed parties, making it difficult for smaller parties to gain representation unless their support is concentrated geographically [22](#page=22). ##### 3.5.5.1 Criticisms of the system Critics argue that FPTP does not achieve proportional representation and unfairly disadvantages smaller parties [22](#page=22). > **Tip:** When studying FPTP, consider the concept of a "wasted vote." Think about how a vote for a candidate who has no chance of winning, or a vote for a candidate who wins by a large margin, can be seen as less impactful than a vote in a marginal constituency. --- # Cohesion and coherence in writing Cohesion and coherence are essential principles for constructing clear and effective texts by ensuring logical connections between ideas and grammatical links between sentences and clauses [41](#page=41). ### 4.1 Core concepts #### 4.1.1 Cohesion versus coherence * **Cohesion** refers to the grammatical and lexical connections that hold a text together, making sentences and clauses "stick" through devices like pronouns, relative clauses, conjunctions, and linking words [41](#page=41). * **Coherence** refers to the logical flow and overall understandability of a text. A coherent text is easy to follow because its argument is well-structured, and each idea naturally progresses from the previous one. A text can be cohesive (grammatically linked) but not coherent if its ideas are poorly organized [41](#page=41). #### 4.1.2 Sentences versus clauses A **clause** is a fundamental grammatical unit that contains at least a subject and a predicate (or a verb, possibly with an object) [41](#page=41). * **Independent clause:** This type of clause can stand alone as a complete sentence [41](#page=41). * Example: John is in Antwerp. * **Dependent clause:** This type of clause cannot stand alone and must be attached to an independent clause to form a complete thought [41](#page=41). * Example: Although it was cold, she went swimming. ### 4.2 Mechanisms for cohesion #### 4.2.1 Relative pronouns Relative pronouns are crucial for connecting sentences, avoiding repetition, and enhancing cohesion [41](#page=41). * **Function:** They introduce relative clauses, which provide additional information about a noun [41](#page=41). * Without a relative clause: He’s got a new girlfriend. She works in a supermarket. * With a relative clause: He’s got a new girlfriend who works in a supermarket. The latter is more cohesive and sounds more natural in academic English [41](#page=41). * **Key relative pronouns and their uses:** * **Who and Whom:** * `Who` is used in both formal and informal English [42](#page=42). * `Whom` is more formal and typically used when the pronoun is in an object position [42](#page=42). * Example: The man whom she marries will have to be pretty rich. * When a preposition precedes the pronoun, `whom` is obligatory [42](#page=42). * Example: To whom it may concern. * Example: Dr Johnston is a surgeon on whom we can always rely. * In less formal styles, the preposition can be moved to the end, making `who` or `whom` acceptable [42](#page=42). * Example: Dr Johnston is a surgeon who(m) we can always rely on. * **Omitting Object Pronouns in Defining Relative Clauses:** In defining relative clauses, object pronouns can often be omitted, particularly in informal English [42](#page=42). * Example: The man she marries will have to be pretty rich. * **Important Restriction:** Omission is *not* possible in non-defining relative clauses [42](#page=42). * **Whose:** This is a possessive relative word used before a noun, replacing possessive structures like `his` or `her` [42](#page=42). * Example: I saw a man whose hair came down to his waist. * **Which:** This pronoun can refer to a specific noun or an entire preceding clause [42](#page=42). * Example: He married at the age of 60, which surprised everybody. * `Which` in this context cannot be replaced by `what` or `that` [42](#page=42). * **Quantifying Determiners with Non-Defining Clauses:** In non-defining clauses, quantifiers can be used with `of whom`, `of which`, and `of whose` [43](#page=43). * Example: They picked up five boatloads of refugees, some of whom had been at sea for several months. * Example: We’ve tested three hundred types of boot, none of which is completely waterproof. #### 4.2.2 Conjunctions Conjunctions are key tools for cohesion as they connect parts of sentences [43](#page=43). * **Coordinating Conjunctions:** These connect elements of equal rank (words, phrases, or clauses) [43](#page=43). * Common examples: `but`, `or`, `yet`, `for`, `and`, `nor`, `so`. * **Subordinating Conjunctions:** These connect clauses of unequal rank (dependent + independent) [43](#page=43). * Common examples: `if`, `because`, `after`, `since`, `when`, `while`, `until`, `unless`, `although`. * **Correlative Conjunctions:** These function in pairs [43](#page=43). * Common patterns: `both … and`, `not only … but also`, `not … but`, `either … or`, `neither … nor`, `whether … or`, `as … as`. #### 4.2.3 Linking words Linking words help create logical connections within a single sentence or across sentences [44](#page=44). * **Linking within one sentence:** Words like `and`, `but`, `so`, `because`, `then`, `until`, `such as` often link clauses within the same sentence [44](#page=44). * **Linking between sentences:** Words like `Furthermore`, `Moreover`, `Nevertheless`, `In conclusion` are often used to link across sentences [44](#page=44). * **Flexibility:** Most linking words can either start a sentence or be placed inside it, with the choice dependent on style and clarity [44](#page=44). ### 4.3 Common errors and specific connectors #### 4.3.1 `Also` and `Already` Do not start a sentence with `also` or `already` [44](#page=44). * Incorrect: Also the language is a big barrier. * Correct alternatives: The language, too, is a big barrier. #### 4.3.2 `Hence` and `Thus` `Hence` is very formal and indicates a necessary deduction. It should be used when the second sentence follows logically and strongly from the first [44](#page=44). * Example: The trade imbalance is likely to rise again in 2011. Hence a new set of policy actions will be required soon. #### 4.3.3 `Beside` versus `Besides` * `Beside` means "next to" [44](#page=44). * `Besides` means "in addition to" [44](#page=44). * Example: The boy was sitting beside the bus driver. * Example: She has many good qualities besides being very beautiful. #### 4.3.4 Causal connectives `So` is the most general and informal causal connector. In written academic English, prefer more formal options such as `accordingly`, `consequently`, `hence`, `therefore`, `so that`, or `with the result that` [45](#page=45). * Informal: I heard a noise so I got out of bed and turned on the light. * Formal: Tax revenues were low. Consequently, the government ended up with a budget deficit. #### 4.3.5 `Though`, `Although`, `Even though` All three are followed by a clause [45](#page=45). * `Although` must join two clauses and can appear at the start or in the middle [45](#page=45). * Example: She was arrested, although she had claimed her innocence. * Example: Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday. * `Though` is more informal and can appear at the end of a sentence [45](#page=45). * Example: The house isn’t very nice. I like the garden though. * `Even though` is stronger than `although` [45](#page=45). #### 4.3.6 Contrast: `Whereas`, `While`, `But`, `However` * `Whereas` and `while` are used to balance contrasting facts that do not contradict each other, especially when the contrast is not surprising [45](#page=45). * Example: Whereas/While Conservatives voted in favour of the bill, Labour and the Liberals voted against. * `But` contrasts clauses within a single sentence [45](#page=45). * Example: I like going to the beach, but I never go at midday. * `However` is generally used between sentences and is more formal [45](#page=45). * Example: I’ve always enjoyed going to the beach. However, I never go there at midday. #### 4.3.7 `For` versus `Since` * **For:** * Focuses on duration [45](#page=45). * Used in most tenses [45](#page=45). * Followed by a period of time [45](#page=45). * Example: They stayed in Barcelona for two weeks. * **Since:** * Used only with perfect tenses [45](#page=45). * Followed by a point in time [45](#page=45). * Implies the situation continues until the present [45](#page=45). * Example: They’ve been in Barcelona since last Friday. ### 4.4 Exercises (Model Answers and Key Points) #### 4.4.1 Linking and contrast * Men must wear a tie, while women must wear a dress. * Key point: `while` contrasts two rules [46](#page=46). * John succeeded wonderfully, even though the test was difficult. * Key point: `even though` expresses strong concession [46](#page=46). * It’s a word I’ve often heard, yet I can’t find it in the dictionary. * Key point: `yet` signals unexpected contrast [46](#page=46). * Malnutrition is a serious problem. Consequently, the government should recognise its responsibility. * Key point: `consequently` is a formal causal connector [46](#page=46). #### 4.4.2 Relative clauses * This is Mr Rogers, who(m) you met last year. * Key point: object position; `whom` is optional in informal style [46](#page=46). * Is the offer which you made last week still open? * Key point: defining relative clause [46](#page=46). * It was a boring meeting which purpose I didn’t understand. * Key point: incorrect structure; the correct form would require `whose` or `of which` (depending on intended meaning) [46](#page=46). * I would like to see the students who want to follow an additional course. * Key point: `who` refers to people as a subject [46](#page=46). --- # Major political developments in modern Britain This topic explores the significant political events and policy shifts that have profoundly shaped contemporary Britain. ### 5.1 The industrial crisis of the 1970s and the decline of trade unions The 1970s in Britain were marked by significant industrial unrest, largely driven by economic challenges and the assertive role of trade unions. The 1973 petroleum crisis, triggered by an Arab oil embargo following the Yom Kippur War, led to soaring inflation, reaching 24% and making Britain's inflation rate the highest among OECD countries [30](#page=30). The Labour government, elected in 1974, faced internal divisions over economic policy. A proposed wage increase cap of 5% in 1978 was met with strong resistance from unions, culminating in the "Winter of Discontent" during 1978-1979. This period saw widespread public sector strikes, including those by Ford workers demanding a 17% pay rise, which led to disruptions in services such as rubbish collection and hospital care, and even picketing by gravediggers [30](#page=30) [31](#page=31). Trade unions, many of which are affiliated with the Trade Union Congress (TUC), traditionally aimed to improve socio-economic conditions for working men through collective bargaining, protecting real wages, preventing unfair dismissal, improving working conditions, and safeguarding pension rights. However, their influence began to wane due to restrictive legislation [30](#page=30). ### 5.2 The Thatcher Revolution The Conservative victory in the 1979 general election, led by Margaret Thatcher, ushered in a period of significant political and economic reform, often termed the "Thatcher Revolution". The Conservative platform promised individual independence, privatisation, reduced public spending, monetarism, and legal restrictions on trade unions [31](#page=31). **Impact on Trade Unions:** The Thatcher government implemented measures to curb union power, including: * Banning the closed shop [31](#page=31). * Mandating strike ballots [31](#page=31). * Prohibiting sympathy strikes [31](#page=31). * Establishing union liability for damages [31](#page=31). A key example of this confrontation was the 1984 miners' strike, which ultimately collapsed after nearly a year without concessions from the government [31](#page=31). **Impact on the Economy:** The economic policies of the Thatcher era had mixed results: * **Positive effects:** Privatisation of state-owned industries, an expansion of share ownership, and the sale of public housing [31](#page=31). * **Negative effects:** A substantial rise in unemployment, from 1.3 million to over 3 million, inflation exceeding 20%, a decline in manufacturing, and increasing social tensions [31](#page=31). **The Falklands War:** The conflict with Argentina over the Falkland Islands in 1982 resulted in a significant British military victory. This success provided a major boost to Thatcher's popularity and contributed to the largest Conservative electoral victory in nearly 50 years [32](#page=32). ### 5.3 Euroscepticism Euroscepticism, or a critical view of European integration, became a significant theme in British politics, with roots in the Thatcher era. Margaret Thatcher's stance on Europe involved reducing the UK's contribution to the EU budget, opposing deeper integration, and resisting the adoption of a single currency. Her position contributed to divisions within the Conservative Party and laid the groundwork for future Euroscepticism [32](#page=32). The long-term impacts of this Euroscepticism included the continued decline of trade unions, the growth of financial services, a renewed sense of military confidence, and a shift towards a more globalist foreign policy [32](#page=32). The history of Euroscepticism in Britain can be traced through several key periods: * **1970s-1980s:** Labour was initially more Eurosceptic, and a referendum was held in 1975 following the UK's accession to the European Community in 1973. Despite divisions within Labour, 67.2% voted to remain. The UK also opted out of the European Monetary System in 1979 [59](#page=59). * **1990s:** Thatcher's resignation in November 1990 was partly attributed to Euroscepticism. The Maastricht Treaty in 1993, which formed the European Union, led to a divisive ratification vote within the Conservatives. This period saw the rise of Eurosceptic parties, notably the UK Independence Party (UKIP), which gained European Parliament seats in 1999, 2004, and 2014 [59](#page=59). * **Cameron and the Referendum:** In 2015, pressure from UKIP and Conservative Eurosceptics led Prime Minister David Cameron to promise an EU membership referendum if re-elected. Following the Conservative win in 2015, the European Union Referendum Act was passed. Cameron's renegotiation goals included protecting the single market, reducing red tape, securing an exemption from "ever-closer union," and restricting immigration from the EU. Negotiations concluded in February 2016, setting the referendum date for 23 June 2016 [59](#page=59). ### 5.4 Austerity measures Austerity, a fiscal policy focused on deficit reduction through sustained cuts in public spending and tax rises, was prominently implemented in the UK by Coalition and Conservative governments from 2010 to 2019, and again from 2021 onwards, with a temporary interruption for COVID-19 spending. The policy aimed to reduce the role of the welfare state, although the NHS and education were intended to be protected. Despite these intentions, over thirty billion pounds in spending cuts were made between 2010 and 2019, affecting welfare payments, housing subsidies, and social services [52](#page=52). David Cameron popularised the phrase "Age of Austerity" to frame this era, linking it to his "Big Society" programme, which sought to reduce government intervention and encourage grassroots organisations, charities, and private companies to deliver services more efficiently [52](#page=52). **Economic and Social Effects of Austerity:** * **Economy:** Wages remained stagnant, and when adjusted for inflation, declined to 2005 levels by 2023. UK productivity stagnated, performing worse than other advanced economies [53](#page=53). * **Arts and Culture:** Local government funding for arts and culture fell sharply, with an 20% decline from 2010 to 2020. Hundreds of public libraries and museums closed, and visitor numbers decreased significantly [53](#page=53). * **Housing:** Investment in new affordable homes was cut by 60% in 2010, leading to a sharp decline in social rent schemes. The "Affordable Homes Programme" introduced "affordable rent" at up to 80% of market rent, often making it unaffordable compared to social rent. Rough sleeping doubled between 2010 and 2016 [53](#page=53). * **Homelessness:** Homelessness rose rapidly, with a significant increase in families in temporary accommodation, many of whom were working. Rising rents, frozen housing benefits, and a shortage of social housing were key drivers [54](#page=54). * **Poverty:** Over one-fifth of people were in poverty in 2021/2022, with child poverty rising significantly. Children's reliance on food banks tripled, and overall food bank use doubled between 2013 and 2017. Policy mechanisms included reductions and freezes in working-age social security payments and increased sanctions for claimants [54](#page=54). * **Health:** Austerity was linked to increased mental health problems, depression, and a rise in suicide attempts and deaths. Reduced funding impacted health and social care, leading to an estimated increase in preventable deaths. Life expectancy gains slowed between 2010 and 2017, particularly for poorer groups [54](#page=54). ### 5.5 The London riots . The London riots of 2011 represented a significant outbreak of civil disorder, with various interpretations regarding their causes and political meaning [55](#page=55). **Causes:** * **Austerity-related:** The riots were more likely to occur in deprived areas, and the significant cuts to youth service budgets (up to 73% by 2020) in many affected areas contributed to this [55](#page=55). * **Policing-related:** Higher stop-and-search rates were associated with a greater likelihood of riots. While overall numbers had declined historically, they increased again, disproportionately affecting Black individuals [55](#page=55). **Effects:** * **Government Framing:** The government, under David Cameron, dismissed the riots as "criminality pure and simple" and did not initiate an official inquiry [55](#page=55). * **Legal and Policing Consequences:** The riots led to more aggressive policing tactics during protests, the establishment of anti-protester legal precedents, and a more punitive and authoritarian approach. This approach intensified during the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests, with descriptions of "emergency justice" involving more prosecutions, faster trials, and longer sentences [55](#page=55). * **Long-term Narrative:** The riots were largely forgotten, but the underlying circumstances were seen as remaining ripe for future unrest [55](#page=55). ### 5.6 The Scottish independence referendum . The Scottish independence referendum in 2014 was a pivotal moment in the UK's political landscape, with a complex lead-up, distinct campaigns, and significant aftermath [55](#page=55). **Lead-up:** The process began with the Scottish National Party (SNP) becoming the largest party in Scotland in 2007 and promising a referendum. Consultations and draft referendum bills followed. Initially, four scenarios for Scotland's future were published, ranging from no change to full independence. The referendum bill was withdrawn in 2010 due to limited support. A second phase saw the SNP reaffirm its commitment, securing more powers via the Scotland Act 2012. The SNP's strong performance in the 2011 election paved the way for a referendum, with Prime Minister David Cameron agreeing to a "fair, legal and decisive referendum" in January 2012. The Edinburgh Agreement set the terms in October 2012, and the Scottish Independence Referendum Act provided the legal basis in August 2013, followed by the publication of the "Scotland's Future" white paper in November 2013 [56](#page=56). **Case for YES:** Core arguments for independence included Scotland making its own decisions on wealth, controlling its oil reserves, managing its own welfare spending, opposing nuclear weapons, and conducting independent foreign policy, thereby avoiding wars like the Iraq War. The "democratic deficit" argument suggested Scotland would gain governments it voted for, as it generally leaned left and was often governed by Conservative-led coalitions despite electing few Conservative MPs. Broader motivations included disillusionment with Westminster, anger at austerity, a desire to stop cuts and privatisation, and a vision of a fairer, more socially democratic Scotland with a stronger focus on child poverty and healthcare [56](#page=56). **Case for NO:** Arguments for remaining in the Union focused on economic risks and uncertainty, concerns about currency, doubt over oil reserve reliability, risks to public services and jobs, and uncertainty regarding Scotland's future EU membership. Critics of the "Yes" campaign described its promises as cynical and lacking detail, portraying independence as a "magic wand". The "No" side was accused of scaremongering and lacking a positive vision for the Union, emphasizing devolution achievements and promising further powers [57](#page=57). **Campaigns and Results:** The pro-independence campaign evolved into a grassroots movement beyond the SNP, involving public meetings, arts festivals, and volunteer energy. The "No" campaign was less visible but targeted undecided voters and consolidated its base. The debate was characterised by a lack of uncontested facts, with evidence often used to suit particular interests. The print media was largely pro-union, though some articles in The Guardian supported independence. Social media played a crucial role, becoming an evidence source due to uncertainty and biased media portrayal, particularly for younger supporters. The independence movement broadened beyond nationalism to include campaigns against austerity, poverty, corporate greed, and nuclear weapons. Public opinion shifted significantly in the weeks leading up to the vote, with a narrow "Yes" lead appearing shortly before the "No" camp secured a majority, partly due to last-minute promises of further devolution ("max-devo") from major party leaders. The referendum result was 55.3% for "No" and 44.7% for "Yes" [57](#page=57) [58](#page=58). **Aftermath:** The referendum saw the SNP become dominant in Scottish elections and a significant party in the UK Parliament. Institutional changes included reforms in the House of Commons concerning English-only matters and the 2016 Scotland Act, which devolved more powers to the Scottish Parliament. The anger in Scotland over EU membership following the Brexit vote opened the pathway for calls for a second independence referendum [58](#page=58). ### 5.7 Brexit Brexit, the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union, is a complex event with roots in decades of European integration and growing Euroscepticism [59](#page=59). **Causes:** * **European Integration:** The UK joined the European Community (EC) in 1973. Early attempts to join in 1967 were vetoed by Charles de Gaulle [59](#page=59). * **Euroscepticism:** A significant strand of Euroscepticism persisted throughout the UK's membership, leading to opt-outs from monetary union and divisions within political parties. The rise of UKIP further amplified these sentiments [59](#page=59). * **Cameron and the Referendum:** Facing pressure from Eurosceptics, David Cameron promised a referendum. His renegotiation efforts in early 2016 aimed to secure specific concessions from the EU [59](#page=59). **Referendum Campaigns:** * **Leave Campaign:** Focused on themes of regaining control of borders and immigration, freedom to trade globally, and making UK laws rather than adhering to EU-imposed ones. Their slogan was "Vote Leave, Take Control". A key claim was saving thirty-five million pounds a week for the NHS [60](#page=60). * **Remain Campaign:** Marketed as "Britain Stronger in Europe," it presented a large volume of information and addressed regional differences, focusing on the uncertainty of change. However, it failed to effectively address the Leave campaign's core issues and was accused of fear-mongering, being labelled "Project Fear" [60](#page=60). **Result and Negotiations:** On 23 June 2016, Britain voted to leave the EU. Following the vote, Theresa May invoked Article 50 in March 2017, initiating a two-year negotiation period. Her attempts to secure a deal, including the Chequers Plan for a "soft Brexit," faced significant opposition in Parliament. After May resigned, Boris Johnson became Prime Minister in July 2019, navigating parliamentary suspensions and negotiating a new deal, particularly concerning Northern Ireland. A general election in December 2019 gave Johnson a clear mandate. The UK officially left the EU on 31 January 2020, with the transition period ending on 1 January 2021, marking a complete split [60](#page=60) [61](#page=61). ### 5.8 The 2008 Financial Crisis and its Political Consequences The 2008 financial crisis, stemming from financial deregulation, a rapid expansion of personal debt, and the collapse of a housing bubble, had profound impacts on Britain [40](#page=40). **Impact in Britain:** The crisis led to bank nationalisations and forced mergers, credit shortages, business failures, and rising unemployment [40](#page=40). **Political Consequences:** The economic fallout resulted in a rising budget deficit, public dissatisfaction, and the loss of the 2010 general election by Labour, leading to the formation of a Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government. This period of austerity that followed the crisis is detailed in section 5.4 [40](#page=40). ### 5.9 International Involvement under New Labour and its Consequences New Labour's foreign policy, particularly post-9/11, emphasised ethical intervention and maintained a strong alliance with the US [40](#page=40). **Afghanistan and Iraq:** The UK was involved in the War on Terror, including the invasion of Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The failure to find weapons of mass destruction in Iraq led to the Chilcot Inquiry in 2016 [40](#page=40). **Consequences:** These interventions resulted in a loss of public trust, contributed to social tensions, and were followed by the London bombings in 2005 [40](#page=40). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Remind | To cause someone else to remember something external, often through a trigger. | | Recall | To retrieve information from one's memory, typically used in a formal or academic context. | | Assure | To remove doubt or give confidence to a person. | | Ensure | To make certain that something happens or is the case. | | Insure | To protect against risk, typically in a financial or insurance context. | | Solicitor | A legal professional in the UK who works directly with clients, drafts documents, provides advice, and prepares cases, usually pleading only in lower courts. | | Barrister | A specialized legal advocate in England and Wales, instructed by a solicitor, who focuses on courtroom representation and pleads in higher courts. | | Advocate (Scotland) | The Scottish equivalent of a barrister, specializing in advocacy and courtroom representation in higher courts. | | Prosecutor | A legal professional who represents the government in criminal cases, bringing charges on behalf of the state. | | Judge | A professional, legally trained individual who presides over court proceedings and delivers judgments. | | Attorney | A licensed lawyer in the United States who represents clients in legal matters and court proceedings. | | Notary Public (US) | A government official who authenticates signatures and documents; not necessarily a lawyer. | | Civil Law System | A legal system based on codified statutes and laws, derived from Roman law. | | Common Law System | A legal system where judicial precedent and case law are a primary source of law, characteristic of the UK and US. | | Public Law | The branch of law that governs the relationship between individuals and the state, including constitutional, administrative, and criminal law. | | Private Law | The branch of law that governs relationships between individuals and organizations, including contract, tort, and property law. | | News Literacy | The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media messages in a variety of forms. | | Trustworthy News | News that is based on verifiable sources, plausible conclusions, cited evidence, and sufficient context. | | Untrustworthy News | News that originates from unknown or biased sources, uses outdated research, offers oversimplified conclusions, or has an emotive tone. | | Deepfake | A synthetic media where a person in an existing image or video is replaced with someone else's likeness, often used to spread misinformation. | | Backshifting | The process of moving verb tenses one step back in time when reporting speech, for example, from present simple to past simple. | | Reported Speech | Speech that relays what someone said, without using quotation marks, often involving changes in tense, pronouns, and time/place references. | | Cohesion | The grammatical and lexical linking of sentences and clauses within a text, making it "stick together." | | Coherence | The logical flow of ideas within a text, making it easy to follow and understand. | | Clause | A grammatical unit containing at least a subject and a predicate (verb and its complements). | | Independent Clause | A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence. | | Dependent Clause | A clause that cannot stand alone and must be attached to an independent clause, often introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun. | | Relative Pronoun | A pronoun (who, whom, which, that, whose) that introduces a relative clause and connects it to a noun or pronoun. | | Conjunction | A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses, such as coordinating (and, but, or) and subordinating (if, because, although) conjunctions. | | Linking Words | Words or phrases used to connect sentences or paragraphs, indicating relationships such as addition, contrast, or causality (e.g., furthermore, however, therefore). | | Public International Law | The body of law that governs relationships between states and international organizations. | | Customary International Law | Law derived from the consistent practice of states, accepted as legally binding. | | Pacta sunt servanda | A fundamental principle of international law stating that treaties must be performed in good faith. | | Jus Cogens | Peremptory norms of international law that cannot be derogated from by any state. | | Erga Omnes | Obligations owed by states toward the international community as a whole. | | Jurisdiction | A state's authority to make and enforce laws within its territory or over its citizens. | | Monism | A legal theory where international law and domestic law are considered part of a single legal system. | | Dualism | A legal theory where international law and domestic law are considered separate legal systems, requiring transformation for international law to have domestic effect. | | European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) | An international court that supervises the observance of the rights and freedoms set out in the European Convention on Human Rights. | | Subsidiarity | A principle that matters ought to be handled by the smallest, lowest, or least central competent authority. In human rights law, it means national authorities have primary responsibility. | | Margin of Appreciation | The discretion allowed to member states of the Council of Europe in how they implement and protect certain rights within the scope of the European Convention on Human Rights. | | Qualified Rights | Rights that can be restricted by states under certain conditions, such as for public safety or the protection of the rights of others. | | Proportionality | A legal principle requiring that measures taken must not go further than necessary to achieve a legitimate aim, often assessed using a structured balancing test. | | Refoulement | The practice of returning refugees or asylum seekers to a country where they face danger or persecution. | | Austerity | A set of policies involving sustained reductions in public spending, often implemented to reduce budget deficits. | | First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) | An electoral system where candidates with the most votes are elected, even if they do not win a majority, often leading to disproportionality. | | Devolution | The transfer of powers and responsibilities from a central government to regional or local authorities. | | Euroscepticism | Opposition to or skepticism about the European Union, its policies, or its potential for further integration. | | Brexit | The United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union, following a referendum in 2016. |