Chapitre 6.pdf

# Definition and evolution of services This section details the concept of tertiary activities, their increasing significance in developed economies, and the various ways the service sector is classified [2](#page=2). ### 1.1 Defining tertiary activities Tertiary activities encompass all pursuits that are not directly involved in producing raw materials (primary sector) or transforming them (secondary sector). These activities have seen a continuous rise in employment, moving from representing half of the total workforce in developed countries in 1975 to two-thirds by 2000. For instance, in France, the tertiary sector accounted for slightly over 50% of active individuals in 1975, increasing to 73% in 2001 (with over 81% in the Île-de-France region) and reaching 80% by 2022 [2](#page=2). ### 1.2 Statistical definition of services The National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE) defines a service activity as one primarily characterized by the provision of technical or intellectual capacity. Unlike industrial activities, service activities cannot be fully described by the tangible goods acquired by the customer. In a broad sense, services cover a wide spectrum of activities including commerce, administration, transport, financial and real estate activities, scientific and technical services, administrative and support services, education, health, and social action. This broad definition is commonly used by Anglo-Saxons [3](#page=3). #### 1.2.1 French statistical classification In French statistical practice, this broad range of activities is termed "tertiary activities". These are further divided into [3](#page=3): * **Tertiary market sector:** This includes transport, commerce, services to businesses, services to individuals, real estate, and financial activities [3](#page=3). * **Non-market tertiary sector:** This comprises education, health, social action, and administration [3](#page=3). The term "service sectors" is often used more restrictively to refer only to services provided to businesses and individuals [3](#page=3). ### 1.3 Detailed classification of tertiary activities The French nomenclature of activities (NAF, revised in 1993) breaks down tertiary activities into the following categories [4](#page=4): * Commerce and repair * Hotels and restaurants (HORECA: Hotels, Restaurants, Cafés) * Transport and telecommunications * Financial activities * Real estate, rentals, and services to businesses * Public administration * Education * Health and social action * Collective, social, and personal services * Domestic services #### 1.3.1 Challenges in classification A significant issue with this nomenclature is the fragmentation of certain integrated activities. For example, tourism involves elements of transport, hotels and restaurants, rentals, and commerce, making it difficult to categorize neatly [4](#page=4). ### 1.4 Services and geography Geographers face challenges with service activities because some are localized, meaning they are performed at a specific point, raising questions of location. Others are not localized as their very nature involves movement of people, goods, or ideas through space, leading to inquiries about identifying, measuring, and explaining exchange flows [5](#page=5). #### 1.4.1 Urban concentration and dispersion These activities are predominantly concentrated in cities, with P. George noting that they are profoundly urban and contribute to urban growth. However, some services are also found in rural areas, such as itinerant traders, and in villages with local providers like school teachers and bakers-grocers. Large temporary gatherings like fairs and markets also host service activities. Furthermore, the recent advancement of telecommunications has enabled the establishment of tertiary activities in isolated areas (deep rural settings) that are connected via the internet, such as distance selling (VPC) and publishing houses [5](#page=5). ### 1.5 Heterogeneity of service sector employment The employment opportunities within the service sector are highly diverse. Due to this disparity, many authors prefer to classify service sector jobs based on their associated living standards rather than their specific functions. This classification includes categories like businessmen, merchants, retailers, intermediaries, employees, and handlers, among others [6](#page=6). ### 1.6 Geographical research on tertiary activities Geographers have conducted extensive research on various sub-sectors within tertiary activities. Key areas of focus and notable researchers include [7](#page=7): * **Administration, Army, Health:** Research by R. Séchet, S. Fleuret, and others [7](#page=7). * **Education:** Contributions from R. Hérin, V. Veschambre, and others [7](#page=7). * **Religion:** Work by JR Bertrand, JB Humeau, and others [7](#page=7). * **Art** [7](#page=7). * **Commerce:** Significant work by J. Soumagne, B. Mérenne-Schoumaker, R-P Desse, N. Lemarchand, A. Gasnier, J-A Rio Fernandes, T. Barata-Salgeiro, L. Guillemot, and others [7](#page=7). * **Transport:** Research by JJ Bavoux, F Beaucire, L Chapelon, and P Zembri (author of "Géographie des transports," 2005). Other influential figures include P. Merlin, E. Mérenne, and J. Varlet [7](#page=7). * **Maritime transport:** J. Guillaume, J. Marcadon, and the Nantes team are noted [7](#page=7). * **Rail, road, and air transport:** Research is often published under the appellation "aménagement" (development and planning) and within technical study dossiers from services like CEREMA (formerly CETE) and DATAR [7](#page=7). * **Tourism and Leisure:** Contributions from R. Knafou, P. Violier, P. Duhamel, and numerous studies on tourist spaces. This also includes research on entertainment and the "festive city" by M. Gravari-Barbas [7](#page=7). --- # Administration and public services This section examines the administration and public services sector, focusing on employment figures in France, the demographic profile of public servants, and the diverse types and geographical distribution of state functions. ### 2.1 Employment in the French public sector In developed industrial nations, administrative personnel often equal or surpass those in industry. In France, as of December 31, 2017, the public sector employed 5.7 million individuals (5.61 million as of December 31, 2019). Approximately 20% of employed individuals in France worked within one of the three branches of public service at the end of 2018 [8](#page=8). #### 2.1.1 Breakdown of public service branches in France The employment within the French public sector is distributed across three main branches [8](#page=8): * **State public service (FPE):** Accounts for 44.2% of employees and includes institutions like the National Education system, the Ministry of the Interior, and the Ministry of Justice [8](#page=8). * **Territorial public service (FPT):** Represents 34.8% of employees and covers regional governments, departments, and intercommunal structures [8](#page=8). * **Hospital public service (FPH):** Employs 21.0% of public sector workers [8](#page=8). The proportion of civil servants within these branches varies: 61.8% in the FPE (excluding military personnel), 74.5% in the FPT, and 69.5% in the FPH [8](#page=8). > **Tip:** The document notes a reduction in subsidized contracts within the public sector since 2017 [14](#page=14). #### 2.1.2 Regional disparities in public sector employment Certain regions, such as Corsica and overseas departments (DOM), have a significantly higher number of civil servants compared to other areas, excluding Paris which concentrates national ministries. This disparity is attributed to territorial specificities and national policies aimed at supporting the economies of these regions [21](#page=21). ### 2.2 Demographic characteristics of public servants in France Public sector personnel in France are characterized by several key demographic and professional attributes [29](#page=29): * **Gender:** The public sector is highly feminized, with women constituting 63% of the workforce [29](#page=29) [30](#page=30). * **Employment status:** Women are three times more likely to work part-time than men within the public sector [31](#page=31). * **Recruitment:** The primary recruitment method is through competitive examinations (concours), which serve as a selection process [29](#page=29) [32](#page=32). * **Job security and career progression:** Public servants benefit from job security, with career advancement partly based on seniority and salaries determined by standardized pay scales ("grilles"), supplemented by occasional bonuses [29](#page=29). * **Mobility:** The system generally favors remaining in the same post, with exceptions for sectors like the military and gendarmerie [29](#page=29). > **Example:** The emphasis on competitive examinations highlights a meritocratic approach to public service recruitment in France [32](#page=32). ### 2.3 Types of state functions and their organization Public administration encompasses various functions, broadly categorized as follows [33](#page=33): * **Regalian functions:** These are core sovereign duties, including defense, diplomacy, maintaining public order, and the justice system [33](#page=33). * **Welfare services:** These services aim to benefit the population and include healthcare, education, social services, and postal and telecommunications, some of which can be offered by the private sector as well [33](#page=33). * **Control and oversight functions:** These involve supervising and regulating private sector activities in areas such as agriculture, industry, and transportation [33](#page=33). Historically, there has been a distinction between countries with planned economies, where administration nationalized activities, and more liberal economies that maintain certain activities under public supervision. The state may also intervene in specific economic sectors through nationalization, particularly in cases of significant failures or for strategic industries, and may later divest through privatization [33](#page=33). #### 2.3.1 Geographical distribution of administrative activities The geographical concentration of administrative activities varies depending on a country's political structure, specifically whether it is a centralized or federal state [34](#page=34). * **Centralized states:** Often concentrate administrative functions within the capital region (e.g., France, leading to debates on defining new regional capitals) [34](#page=34). * **Federal states:** Tend to distribute these activities among provincial capitals (e.g., Germany, the United States) [34](#page=34). #### 2.3.2 Privatization of public services The extent to which public services are "privatized" or handled by private entities varies significantly from one country to another [35](#page=35). --- # Commerce and its urban transformations Commerce is a vital sector that has undergone significant spatial and functional transformations within urban areas, driven by economic shifts, societal changes, and municipal interventions. ### 3.1 The nature and organization of commerce Commerce, as a sector of economic activity, plays a crucial role within the services industry, often employing over 10% of the active workforce outside of transportation, typically within small enterprises averaging 5.5 employees. The retail sector accounts for more than half of these jobs and approximately two-thirds of all businesses, followed by wholesale trade (30%) and the hotel-café-restaurant (HORECA) sector (20%). Markets, whether tangible (involving goods or samples) or abstract, can operate at local, regional, national, or international scales. They can also be permanent or periodic, such as fairs and markets, and vary in their specialization, from livestock or book fairs to flea markets [36](#page=36). In planned economies, the number of retail outlets was deliberately limited and often managed by central administration, in stark contrast to liberal economies with a greater prevalence of independent merchants. The organization of retail trade differs significantly across countries, but its importance generally correlates with the level of economic prosperity. However, in affluent nations over recent decades, a trend towards the concentration of both retail locations and financial organization has led to a decrease in the overall number of outlets. This shift mirrors the development of large supermarkets in continental Europe from the 1960s onwards, following models already established in the United Kingdom and the United States. This is also comparable to the earlier historical transition from itinerant trade to fixed commerce in villages, towns, and cities. A contemporary trend involves the strategic placement of "drive-through" services, either standalone or attached to shopping centers, where customers collect pre-ordered online purchases [37](#page=37). ### 3.2 Spatial reorganization of urban commerce The period between 1850 and 1950 saw urban growth concentrated in peripheral belts for housing and industry, with limited commercial development, except for some spontaneous establishments of local shops. A notable innovation during this era was the invention of covered passages at the end of the 18th century, which experienced a boom, for example in Paris between 1820 and 1850. These passages saw a decline in the latter half of the 20th century, coinciding with the shift in pedestrian circulation patterns towards automobile use. Some of these historic buildings are now protected, preventing modifications to shopfronts or building facades. During this period, there was a progressive specialization of commercial activity based on location, with squares hosting cafés and restaurants, and narrower streets accommodating clothing and shoe shops [38](#page=38). > **Tip:** Covered passages emerged as a response to the needs of the burgeoning industrial and commercial bourgeoisie for new spaces of sociability and representation, offering a novel retail environment for "new products" and a spectacle for the public. This era also coincided with the rise of "flânerie," a mode of engaging with the city both intellectually and sensually, characterized by curiosity and critical observation of the changing urban landscape [40](#page=40). The period from 1950 to 1975 was marked by the construction of large housing estates, which were initially planned without any commercial facilities. Commercial developments began to appear from the late 1950s, primarily as small establishments at the base of apartment buildings, before the subsequent establishment of central commercial blocks to serve the local needs of these new neighborhoods [43](#page=43). ### 3.3 Municipal interventions and the revitalization of city centers Municipalities became increasingly concerned with the commercial vitality of city centers, especially in response to the decline caused by competition from large supermarkets located in peripheral areas. This led to measures such as limiting the creation of new large supermarkets and restricting traffic in certain streets. The first pedestrian street was established in Rotterdam in 1955-56, followed by the first in France in Rouen in 1966-67. The gradual development of pedestrian streets, while often following a standardized model, has been a key strategy for revitalizing city centers. This strategy, through pedestrianization, serves not only as a form of public representation but also facilitates the reappropriation of city centers by younger populations [45](#page=45). > **Example:** The Rue du Gros Horloge in Rouen, created in 1966-67, is recognized as the first pedestrian street in France. Similarly, Rue Sainte-Catherine in Bordeaux is a 1,250-meter long pedestrian street and the main commercial artery of the city, often cited as the longest commercial pedestrian street in Europe [46](#page=46) [47](#page=47). National measures were introduced between 1973 and 1996 by successive right-wing governments, under pressure from the retail lobby, to protect small businesses from large retail chains; however, these legislative efforts proved largely ineffective as large retail companies consistently found ways to circumvent the laws. Large retail entities also leveraged competition between municipalities within urban agglomerations to establish themselves where they desired. While the management of commercial development has improved since the late 1990s through the coordination of activities at the agglomeration or inter-municipal community level (via commercial development or planning schemes), similar challenges have re-emerged with hard-discounters and, more recently, with "drive-through" services. The composition of the Departmental Commission for Commercial Development (CDAC), revised in early 2015, features a majority of elected officials, giving less weight to experts in planning and sustainable development and consumer representatives, leading to political choices often driven by employment concerns rather than sound planning logic [48](#page=48). ### 3.4 Evolution of retail spaces Examples of retail spaces include small, "classic" shopping centers, such as the one in Savigneux. Larger commercial centers have also been developed, like Espace Anjou in Angers, opened in 1970, located between the eastern ring road and a main route into the city center. More recent developments, such as Atoll, a large shopping center in the western periphery of Angers, opened in April 2012, demonstrate the continued trend of large-scale retail expansion in suburban areas [49](#page=49) [50](#page=50) [51](#page=51). --- # Transportation, telecommunications, and tourism Transportation, telecommunications, and tourism are interconnected sectors significantly influencing global emissions, trade, economies, and societal behaviors, with evolving trends demanding sustainable practices. ### 4.1 Transportation Transportation is a rapidly expanding sector, with globalization leading to a multiplication of travel and trade routes [52](#page=52). #### 4.1.1 Modes of transport Various modes of transport exist, including maritime, fluvial, pipeline, rail, road, and air. Key developments include the expansion of containerization in maritime transport and the diversification of supply networks to mitigate risks from local crises, such as the construction of new pipelines in response to supply concerns [52](#page=52). #### 4.1.2 Transportation and CO2 emissions The transportation sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, ranking as the second-largest behind energy and electricity production, with 13.41 gigatonnes of CO2 emitted globally in 2016. Emissions are influenced by factors such as total distance traveled, passenger capacity per vehicle, fuel type, and the nature of the journey. The increasing number of vehicles on the road, the surge in air traffic, and global merchandise trade exacerbate these emissions. This has prompted discussions about promoting local supply chains and seasonal produce [58](#page=58). Road transport, encompassing trucks, buses, and cars, accounted for three-quarters of transport-related emissions, generating 5.85 gigatonnes of CO2 in 2016, a 77% increase since 1990. Air transport is the second-largest contributor, responsible for 0.91 gigatonnes annually and approximately 2.8% of total global CO2 emissions [59](#page=59). Maritime transport is generally considered the least CO2-intensive mode of transport. However, the shipping sector, responsible for 90% of global merchandise transport, currently accounts for about 2.5% of total global emissions. Without mitigation efforts, and with rising traffic, these emissions could increase by 250% by 2050, potentially reaching one-fifth of the total volume, equivalent to 200 coal-fired power plants. The International Maritime Organization is tasked with developing a roadmap to reduce emissions from this sector, which is not covered by the Paris Agreement [54](#page=54) [62](#page=62). The vast majority of commercial vessels still use heavy fuel oil (HFO), a highly polluting energy source. HFO emits sulfur quantities 3,500 times higher than the diesel used by automobiles, and its carbon dioxide emissions are also greater. For sulfur emissions, one cruise ship can be equivalent to one million cars [63](#page=63). #### 4.1.3 Impact of international events and trends Economic crises, such as the COVID-19 crisis, have led to a decrease in trade and, consequently, a reduction in transport activity. The rising cost of energy is driving research into more fuel-efficient transport modes for both aircraft and ships, as well as the development of new equipment like cargo planes for high-volume routes [69](#page=69). #### 4.1.4 "Flying shame" movement The concept of "flying shame" or "flygskam" has gained traction, particularly in Sweden, reflecting a growing awareness of the CO2 emissions associated with air travel and a desire to reduce flying. This movement encourages people to opt for ground-based travel, with rail travel becoming increasingly popular [64](#page=64). ### 4.2 Telecommunications Telecommunications refers to the transport of information through various channels such as telephone, television, cable, and telematics, requiring substantial investments in network infrastructure. The development of new technologies like "5G" has raised concerns regarding cybersecurity and the potential involvement of foreign companies, such as Huawei, due to suspicions of espionage [65](#page=65). The telecommunications industry is characterized by significant consolidation and acquisitions. For instance, Patrick Drahi's group Altice has grown into a telecommunications giant through numerous acquisitions, including SFR, Portugal Telecom, and Cablevision in the United States. These acquisitions aim to secure strong positions in internet service provision, even as traditional cable television faces competition from streaming and on-demand services [66](#page=66). Network coverage for major telecommunications providers like Bouygues and Orange is extensive, as indicated by maps from 2021 and 2022 [67](#page=67) [68](#page=68). ### 4.3 Tourism and leisure Tourism and leisure activities, once considered niche and exclusive, are increasingly important sectors within national economies, though their growth was impacted by the COVID-19 crisis. These activities have significantly altered landscapes, particularly coastal areas and mountains, often more so than industrial development. They also generate substantial population movements, with tourists and seasonal workers traveling from urban centers to coastal, mountainous, or rural regions [70](#page=70). #### 4.3.1 Economic impacts Tourism significantly impacts the building sector through the construction of residential and recreational infrastructure, including new port and airport facilities. However, these infrastructures are often underutilized outside of peak seasons, and rapid changes in trends and equipment can lead to them becoming obsolete quickly. The industrial sector also experiences increased international competition, notably in shipbuilding for cruise liners and the aviation industry [71](#page=71). #### 4.3.2 Global tourism trends and destinations In 2024, the principal recipient countries for international tourist flows were France, Spain, the United States, Turkey, Italy, and China. Emerging destinations like Croatia, Costa Rica, Minorca, and Japan have also become popular. International tensions can have a notable effect on tourism, as seen with the impact of the Arab Spring crisis on the tourism sectors in Egypt and Tunisia [72](#page=72) [73](#page=73) [74](#page=74). Global tourism experienced variations between 2016 and 2017. The recent development of Chinese tourism is also a significant trend [77](#page=77) [78](#page=78). #### 4.3.3 Cruise tourism Cruise tourism is a notable segment of the industry, with major destinations including the Mediterranean, Caribbean, and Northern Europe [84](#page=84) [85](#page=85). #### 4.3.4 Evolving trends in tourism There is a growing consideration for "sustainable tourism," which emphasizes environmental, economic, and social impacts. This includes a greater awareness of distances traveled and a search for relative proximity and "ecomobility," influenced by the "flying shame movement" [86](#page=86). New modes of tourism are developing, such as the increased use of camper vans, the growth of "low-cost" airlines potentially democratizing travel, carpooling, couchsurfing, and homestays [86](#page=86). --- # Concepts of degrowth, resilience, and circular economy This section explores contemporary concepts related to sustainable development, including degrowth as a critique of perpetual economic growth, resilience as a system's capacity to adapt to perturbations, and the circular economy model focused on resource efficiency and waste reduction [88](#page=88) [89](#page=89). ### 5.1 Degrowth Degrowth is a neologism that emerged in 1979, representing a political, economic, and social concept. It challenges the idea that perpetual global demographic and economic growth are beneficial. Instead, proponents argue that such growth poses dangers to the environment, peace, and potentially human survival as a species, contrasting with sustainable development which often incorporates a notion of "sustainable or continuous growth" [90](#page=90). #### 5.1.1 Ecological and social problems associated with growth The concept of degrowth is closely linked to several pressing ecological and social issues [91](#page=91): * **Energy resource depletion:** Projections indicate that peak oil production may occur by 2040, with natural gas having an estimated 70 years of reserves, uranium between 50 and 220 years, and coal approximately 200 years remaining at current consumption rates [91](#page=91). * **Increasing extraction costs:** As resources become scarcer, the cost of extraction rises, demanding greater energy and material investment than in the past [91](#page=91). * **Scarcity of other mineral resources:** Many essential minerals like indium, nickel, cobalt (used in certain steels), copper, gold, zinc, and lead are also facing depletion [91](#page=91). * **Environmental degradation:** This includes the greenhouse effect, climate disruption, loss of biodiversity, various forms of pollution, and a negative impact on human health [91](#page=91). * **Changes in lifestyles:** Current consumption patterns in transport, waste management, and food production contribute to issues like obesity in developed countries and malnutrition in poorer regions [91](#page=91). * **Exploitation of Global South resources:** There is a concern that resources from countries in the Global South are exploited for the benefit of the Global North, encompassing energy, mineral, and agricultural resources (e.g., fodder crops instead of food crops). Some estimates suggest that 3 to 8 Earths would be needed for the global population to live like a European [91](#page=91). * **Unequal distribution of resources:** Wealth and resource access are unequally distributed both within developed countries and between developed and developing nations [91](#page=91). #### 5.1.2 Degrowth and economics The concept of degrowth fundamentally questions economic growth and its primary measurement tool, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Proponents argue that GDP measures only quantitative growth (increased production and sales) and not qualitative development, failing to account for population well-being or ecosystem health. They advocate for alternative development indicators such as the Human Development Index (HDI), ecological footprint, and social health index. Furthermore, they contend that GDP-measured growth is economically flawed because it does not account for the depletion of essential raw materials and fails to recognize the Earth's finite natural resources and its limited capacity to withstand biotope destruction (resilience) [92](#page=92). ### 5.2 Resilience Originally used in physics to describe a material's resistance to impact, the concept of resilience takes on a different meaning in ecology. Traditionally, ecological resilience measured the time a system took to return to equilibrium after a perturbation. Since the 1970s, the definition has evolved, with the commonly accepted definition by Holling defining resilience as a system's capacity to integrate a perturbation into its functioning without fundamentally altering its qualitative structure [93](#page=93). The UNISDR defines resilience as "the capacity of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate and recover from the effects of a hazard... particularly by maintaining and restoring its essential basic structures and functions". Essentially, it represents the ability to "bounce back" or return to an initial state after a shock or crisis [93](#page=93). > **Example:** Research on urban resilience and the role of commerce illustrates this concept [93](#page=93). The term resilience implies that a system maintains its structure and continuity not by preserving a static equilibrium, but by integrating transformations and evolving. In this perspective, change and the perturbations that trigger it are seen as inevitable and sometimes necessary for the system's dynamism and maintenance. Perturbations are not necessarily viewed as traumas but as integral parts of the system's functioning, even if their immediate effects can be difficult for certain components or individuals within the system to assimilate [94](#page=94). This understanding of resilience contrasts with traditional views that assume a single equilibrium state for open systems. Resilience is a concept that aligns with the theoretical framework of dissipative structures and complex, far-from-equilibrium systems, notably developed by the Brussels School. The limitations of equilibrium-based paradigms for open systems and the recognition that systems are rarely in equilibrium for extended periods are now widely accepted. The contemporary understanding posits that multiple possible states exist, including the possibility for a system to operate far from equilibrium without collapsing [94](#page=94). Resilience is increasingly intertwined with the concept of sustainable development. Over the past decade, sustainable development (a political concept) and resilience (primarily used by researchers) are frequently discussed in similar contexts. As sustainable development has gained prominence in national and international political discourse, research on system resilience has expanded [94](#page=94). ### 5.3 Circular economy The linear economic model, prevalent in developed countries, which involves extracting, producing, consuming, and discarding, is no longer a viable approach for a sustainable future. A new model is needed, focused on minimizing waste and increasing resource utilization intensity while reducing environmental impact. This is the aim of the circular economy, which addresses three key areas [95](#page=95): * **Production and supply of goods and services:** [95](#page=95). * **Consumption:** Encompassing demand and consumer behavior (economic or civic) [95](#page=95). * **Waste management:** Prioritizing recycling to close the loop [95](#page=95). The ADEME (French Environment and Energy Management Agency) defines the circular economy as a system of exchange and production that, at all stages of the product lifecycle (goods and services), aims to improve resource efficiency and reduce environmental impact while enhancing individual well-being [95](#page=95). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Tertiary activities | These are economic activities that do not directly produce raw materials or transform them, encompassing sectors like commerce, administration, transportation, and services. | | INSEE | The National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques), the national statistical office of France. | | Tertiary sector | Refers to the economic activities that are neither primary (extraction of raw materials) nor secondary (manufacturing and industry). | | Marchand tertiary sector | Includes commercial services like transportation, trade, services for businesses and individuals, and financial/real estate activities. | | Non-marchand tertiary sector | Encompasses non-commercial services such as education, health, social services, and public administration. | | NAF nomenclature | The French Classification of Activities (Nomenclature d’activités française), used for statistical purposes to categorize economic activities. | | HORECA | An acronym for Hotels, Restaurants, and Cafes, representing a specific segment of the service industry. | | Public services | Services provided by government entities to the public, such as education, healthcare, and administration. | | Fonction publique | Refers to the state administration and civil service in France, divided into different branches like State, Territorial, and Hospital. | | Concurs | A competitive examination or selection process used for recruitment into the French public service, emphasizing merit-based selection. | | Retail trade | The sale of goods directly to consumers for their own use, as opposed to wholesale trade. | | Wholesale trade | The sale of goods in large quantities to retailers or other businesses, rather than directly to the end consumer. | | Drive | A retail service where customers order items online and then pick them up at a designated location, often associated with supermarkets. | | Covered passages | Historically, these were enclosed shopping arcades, particularly popular in the 19th century, offering sheltered spaces for commerce and social interaction. | | Pedestrianization | The process of converting streets or public spaces to exclude motor vehicles, allowing them to be used by pedestrians. | | Commercial development plans | Official documents or strategies that guide the planning and regulation of commercial activities and land use within a specific territory. | | Hard-discounters | Retailers that offer a limited selection of low-cost goods, focusing on efficiency and minimal overhead to achieve low prices. | | Telecommunications | The transmission of information over distances by electronic means, including telephone, internet, and broadcasting. | | 5G | The fifth generation of cellular network technology, promising higher speeds, lower latency, and increased capacity compared to previous generations. | | Cyber-security | The protection of computer systems and networks from theft of or damage to their hardware, software, or electronic data, as well as from disruption or misdirection of the services they provide. | | Transport | The movement of people or goods from one place to another, utilizing various modes such as road, rail, air, and sea. | | Greenhouse gas emissions | Gases in the Earth's atmosphere that trap heat, contributing to global warming and climate change. The transport sector is a significant contributor. | | Conteneurisation | The system of using standardized shipping containers to transport goods, greatly simplifying and speeding up the loading and unloading of cargo. | | Flying shame movement (Flugsham/Flygskam) | A social movement originating in Sweden that encourages people to feel ashamed of excessive air travel due to its significant carbon footprint, promoting alternatives like rail travel. | | Low-cost companies | Airlines or other service providers that offer services at a significantly reduced price by minimizing operational costs and often offering fewer amenities. | | Tourism | Travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring, the business devoted to attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and amusing them. | | Sustainable tourism | Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities. | | Degrowth | A socio-economic concept that advocates for a planned downscaling of production and consumption to achieve environmental sustainability and improve human well-being, challenging the paradigm of perpetual economic growth. | | Resilience | The capacity of a system, community, or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions. | | Circular economy | An economic model aimed at eliminating waste and the continual use of resources. It is regenerative by design, seeking to keep products, components, and materials at their highest utility and value at all times. | | ADEME | The French Environment and Energy Management Agency (Agence de l'environnement et de la maîtrise de l'énergie), which promotes energy efficiency, renewable energies, and waste management. | | PIB (Gross Domestic Product) | A monetary measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced in a specific time period by a country or countries. | | IDH (Human Development Index) | A composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. |