Theatre History Criticism

# The Spanish Golden Age and its historical context The Spanish Golden Age, spanning roughly from 1540 to 1680, emerged from a complex historical backdrop shaped by centuries of Arabic occupation, profound religious shifts, and a vast imperial expansion followed by decline [3](#page=3) [7](#page=7). ### 1.1 Precursors to the Golden Age The Iberian Peninsula experienced approximately 500 years of Arabic/Muslim occupation, from the 8th to the 13th centuries. This period fostered significant cultural influences on Spain, marked by the coexistence of Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Key events that set the stage for a unified Spain and its subsequent imperial endeavors include [3](#page=3): * **1479:** The union of Aragon and Castile through the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon [3](#page=3). * **1480:** The establishment of the Spanish Inquisition [3](#page=3). * **1492:** The expulsion of Arabs and Jews who did not convert to Christianity. In the same year, Christopher Columbus reached the New World, marking the beginning of Spain's extensive colonial empire [3](#page=3). ### 1.2 The Zenith of Spanish Power The latter half of the 16th century, particularly under the reign of Philip II, saw Spain rise to become a significant global empire with vast territories. This era was also characterized by the Counter-Reformation, a Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation, with the Council of Trent playing a pivotal role. The Jesuit order was instrumental in education during this period [3](#page=3). ### 1.3 The Decline and the Golden Age Despite its peak, the seeds of decline were sown as early as the mid-17th century, partly as a consequence of the expansive policies of Philip II. The period referred to as the Siglo de Oro (Golden Age) is broadly dated from approximately 1540 to 1680. This era, therefore, encompasses both the height of Spanish imperial power and the initial signs of its eventual decline, all within a context profoundly shaped by its unique history of religious and cultural interaction and its ambitious expansionist policies [3](#page=3) [7](#page=7). --- # European context at the beginning of the 17th century The early 17th century in Europe was a period of profound crisis and transformation, marked by widespread societal disruptions, religious conflicts, and the nascent development of a new scientific worldview. ### 2.1 Widespread crises and societal turmoil Europe at the turn of the 17th century was plagued by a series of interconnected crises that destabilized societies and economies. These included [4](#page=4): * **Agricultural failures:** Recurring poor harvests led to widespread shortages of essential goods [4](#page=4). * **Economic hardship:** The absence of goods, coupled with rising prices, resulted in significant poverty. This was exacerbated by monetary tightness [4](#page=4). * **Demographic decline:** High mortality rates were a consequence of famines and epidemics [4](#page=4). * **Social unrest:** These conditions fueled social unrest, leading to uprisings and rebellions. The state's response was often characterized by harsh repressive measures [4](#page=4). * **Skepticism:** The pervasive instability fostered a climate of skepticism [4](#page=4). * **Decline of Mediterranean Europe:** This era witnessed a decline in the prominence of Mediterranean European regions [4](#page=4). > **Tip:** The confluence of these crises created a deep questioning of the established value systems that had been formed in the late 15th and early 16th centuries [4](#page=4). ### 2.2 Religious conflicts and the Thirty Years' War Religious disputes were a major source of conflict during this period, culminating in the devastating Thirty Years' War. * **Religious disputes:** These were a significant contributing factor to the widespread conflicts [4](#page=4). * **Thirty Years' War (1618-1648):** This major European conflict primarily took place in the regions of Central Europe. The war and other European conflicts filled the public consciousness with "noise and fury" [4](#page=4) [6](#page=6). ### 2.3 The emergence of a new scientific discourse Despite the turmoil, the early 17th century also laid the groundwork for a new era of intellectual and scientific development. * **Foundation of European scientific discourse:** Key figures like Galileo and Descartes contributed to the establishment of a new scientific way of thinking [4](#page=4). * **Shift in cultural paradigm:** A new world was emerging from the tumultuous century spanning 1560 to 1660. While rooted in Humanism and the Renaissance, its characteristics were fundamentally distinct from the early 16th century. This shift occurred partly because the changing circumstances brought an end to a period of optimism where everything seemed achievable [6](#page=6). * **Artistic and literary expression:** The era's sensibility reflected this profound upheaval, expressing intense emotions and vitality characteristic of the Baroque style in art and literature [6](#page=6). * **Emphasis on experience and reason:** European culture, moving beyond admiration for the Ancients, began to champion a scientific culture that recognized the primacy of experience and logic [6](#page=6). * **The "Age of Reason":** Within the context of the Baroque century, marked by civil wars and European conflicts, the "Europe of reason" was born. This period, extending into the late 16th and early 17th centuries, is described as a true golden age [6](#page=6). --- # Religious and secular theater in Spain This topic differentiates between religious theater (autos sacramentales) and secular theater (comedias), examining their origins, characteristics, and performance contexts in Spain, particularly during its Golden Age. ### 3.1 Religious theater: Autos sacramentales *Autos sacramentales*, translating to "sacred acts" or "holy plays," were a significant form of religious theater in Spain that flourished from approximately 1500 until 1765. These plays were deeply rooted in a combination of mystery plays and morality plays, aiming to explore theological concepts and doctrines [8](#page=8). #### 3.1.1 Performance and context Following the mid-16th century, the performance of *autos sacramentales* transitioned to professional acting troupes, with civic authorities taking responsibility for organizing these celebrations. While previously performed within religious spaces, after this period, the performances were typically held outdoors. These plays were presented in public theaters in Madrid, particularly during important religious festivals like Easter and Corpus Christi, and also in provincial towns. The performances catered to both royalty and the general public. A key feature of their staging involved the use of mobile stages, known as *carros*, which were arranged to create the theatrical setting. Actors would also present interludes or short dances as part of the performance [8](#page=8). ### 3.2 Secular theater: Comedias and early forms Secular theater in Spain, particularly the *comedia*, developed alongside religious performances, drawing influences from Italian theater and classical studies, especially Roman comedy. Early forms of secular drama were utilized by Jesuit monks as an educational tool. During the first half of the 16th century, Spanish and Italian secular texts were staged at the Spanish court. Although this early secular drama was primarily aimed at an aristocratic audience and had a limited direct impact on professional theater, it established a foundation recognized by later Spanish playwrights [9](#page=9). > **Tip:** While *autos sacramentales* focused on religious doctrine and allegory, the *comedia* explored a broader range of human experiences and societal themes. #### 3.2.1 The Comedia The *comedia* emerged as the most characteristic dramatic genre of Spain's Golden Age. This term was used for elaborate plays, typically structured into three acts, which could be either serious or comedic in tone. The *comedia* encompassed a variety of subgenres, distinguished by their content and characters [11](#page=11): * *Comedias de capa y espada* (plays of cloak and dagger) [11](#page=11). * *Comedias heroicas* (heroic plays) [11](#page=11). * *Comedias de costumbres* (plays of customs or manners) [11](#page=11). * *Comedias mitologicas* (mythological plays) [11](#page=11). * *Comedias pastoriles* (pastoral plays) [11](#page=11). * *Comedias de ruido* (plays of situation) [11](#page=11). The common themes explored in these *comedias* included honor, love, and religion. Performances typically commenced with a *prólogo* (prologue), also known as a *loa*, which served as a form of address or compliment to the audience [11](#page=11). ### 3.3 Prominent playwrights and their contributions A multitude of playwrights contributed to the rich theatrical landscape of Spain. Among the significant figures are: * Fernando de Rojas (c. 1465–c. 1551), author of *La Celestina* (The Comedy of Calisto and Melibea) [10](#page=10). * Lope de Rueda (c. 1510–c. 1565) [10](#page=10). * Juan de la Cueva (1550–1610) [10](#page=10). * Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616) [10](#page=10). * Lope Félix de Vega y Carpio (Lope de Vega, 1562–1635) [10](#page=10). * Tirso de Molina (1579–1648), author of *El burlador de Sevilla* (The Trickster of Seville) [10](#page=10). * Pedro Calderón de la Barca (1600–1681) [10](#page=10). By 1700, the total number of plays written was estimated to be in the tens of thousands, potentially as many as 30,000 [10](#page=10). ### 3.4 Pedro Calderón de la Barca: A key figure Pedro Calderón de la Barca (1600–1681) was a prolific playwright who wrote *autos sacramentales*, *comedias*, serious dramas, and *zarzuelas* (musical plays), particularly for the court after 1652 [13](#page=13). #### 3.4.1 Calderón's Comedias Calderón's *comedias* often dealt with themes of love, jealousy, and honor. Notable examples include [13](#page=13): * *La vida es sueño* (Life is a Dream), written around 1636, a philosophical allegory exploring the nature of life, reality, and perception (appearance vs. being) [13](#page=13). * *El alcalde de Zalamea* (The Mayor of Zalamea), written around 1642 [13](#page=13). #### 3.4.2 Calderón's Autos Sacramentales Calderón also penned significant *autos sacramentales*, such as: * *El gran teatro del mundo* (The Great Theater of the World), written in 1645 [13](#page=13). * *El príncipe constante* (The Constant Prince), written in 1629 [13](#page=13). --- # Key playwrights of the Spanish Golden Age This section delves into the significant contributions of major playwrights to Spanish theater during its Golden Age, focusing on Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de la Barca [10](#page=10). ### 4.1 Lope de Vega (1562-1635) Lope Félix de Vega y Carpio was a prolific playwright known for his vibrant life and prolific output. His plays, often dealing with themes of honor and passionate love, typically conclude with a happy ending. Vega demonstrated versatility by employing a variety of poetic meters and language, and by incorporating characters from all social strata into his works [12](#page=12). #### 4.1.1 Major Works and Contributions * **Fuenteovejuna (The Sheep Well)** (circa 1614): This is one of his most celebrated plays [12](#page=12). * **Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (The New Art of Writing Comedies in this Time)**: In this influential treatise, Vega outlined his theories and practices for writing comedies. He advocated for writing for a broad audience and departed from classical unities, favoring a more dynamic and engaging dramatic structure [12](#page=12) . > **Tip:** Lope de Vega's emphasis on accessible themes and varied characters contributed significantly to the popularity and widespread appeal of Spanish theater during the Golden Age. ### 4.2 Pedro Calderón de la Barca (1600-1681) Pedro Calderón de la Barca was another towering figure of Spanish drama, renowned for his profound philosophical dramas and courtly entertainment. His prolific career spanned serious dramas, comedies, and later, *zarzuelas* for the royal court [13](#page=13). #### 4.2.1 Comedias Calderón's *comedias* frequently explored themes of love, jealousy, and honor [13](#page=13). * **La vida es sueño (Life is a Dream)** (circa 1636): This philosophical allegory is one of his most iconic works, delving into the nature of life, reality, and perception (appearance vs. being) [13](#page=13). * **El alcalde de Zalamea (The Mayor of Zalamea)** (circa 1642): Another significant *comedia* [13](#page=13). #### 4.2.2 Autos sacramentales Calderón also excelled in writing *autos sacramentales*, religious allegorical plays typically performed during the Corpus Christi festival. * **El gran teatro del mundo (The Great Theater of the World)**: A renowned example of his *autos sacramentales* [13](#page=13) . * **El príncipe constante (The Constant Prince)**: This is another notable work, often categorized as a drama but sharing thematic depth with his allegorical pieces [13](#page=13) . > **Tip:** Calderón's works often possess a greater degree of philosophical depth and formal complexity compared to Lope de Vega's, reflecting a shift in dramatic sensibilities towards the latter half of the Golden Age. ### 4.3 The scale of Spanish Golden Age theater The sheer volume of theatrical output during this period was immense, with estimates suggesting that tens of thousands of plays, possibly as many as 30,000, were written by 1700. This highlights the vibrant and prolific nature of Spanish theater during its Golden Age [10](#page=10). --- # Baroque aesthetics and theatricality Baroque aesthetics profoundly influenced Spanish theater, emphasizing theatricality and viewing the world and life itself as a stage where reality and illusion converge [14](#page=14). ### 5.1 The Baroque style: definition and characteristics The Baroque style originated in Italy in the early 17th century and subsequently spread across Europe, influencing architecture, sculpture, and painting. It adopted classical Renaissance forms but fragmented and recomposed them to achieve ornate, grand, intense, and highly impressive results [15](#page=15). #### 5.1.1 Baroque characteristics in literature and speech In the realm of literary arts, Baroque characteristics include: * An official and pompous style, both in verse and prose [15](#page=15). * Ornate versification [15](#page=15). * Excessive elaboration and refinement of style [15](#page=15). * Exuberant imagination and metaphysical themes [15](#page=15). * Extreme religious emotionalism [15](#page=15). #### 5.1.2 Visual examples of Baroque influence Visual examples illustrate the grandeur and theatricality associated with the Baroque: * The interior of the Teatro Regio in Turin during an opera performance, featuring perspective stage design by Ferdinando Bibiena [17](#page=17). * Giovanni Paolo Panini's painting depicting a musical evening organized by Cardinal La Rochefoucauld at the Argentina Theatre in Rome in 1747 for the wedding of the Dauphin, son of Louis XV [18](#page=18). * The Basilica of Saint Peter in Rome exemplifies Baroque architecture [16](#page=16). ### 5.2 The concept of theatricality #### 5.2.1 The world as a stage (theatrum mundi) During the 17th century, the concepts of *theatrum mundi* (the world as a stage) and *theatrum vitae humanae* (the theater of human life) underwent unprecedented generalization. The theater and the world, or theater and human life, became understood as fundamentally interdependent entities. This mutual correlation was considered essential for proper characterization and understanding. This evolution manifested in two significant processes: the perception of life as a kind of theater (the dramatization of life) and the expansion of theater into a "theater of the world" with a universal character [19](#page=19). > **Tip:** The idea of *theatrum mundi* suggests that human existence is akin to a play, with individuals performing roles assigned to them, all within a grand cosmic drama directed by a higher power. > **Example:** The painting *Las Meninas* by Diego Velázquez is analyzed through the lens of theatricality, with Michel Foucault noting that "the painting as a whole looks at a scene, for which it is in turn a scene". This highlights the self-referential and performative nature of perception and representation [20](#page=20). #### 5.2.2 Theatricality in everyday life and public events Theatricality permeated various aspects of life during the Baroque era: * The daily life of the Royal Court incorporated elements of theatrical performance [21](#page=21). * Religious performances were common in both cities and villages [21](#page=21). * There was a pervasive blend of fantasy and reality, encapsulated by the notion that "the whole world is a stage" [21](#page=21). #### 5.2.3 Calderón's *The Great Theater of the World* Pedro Calderón de la Barca's play *El gran teatro del mundo* (*The Great Theater of the World*) is a seminal work exploring Baroque theatricality: * God is depicted as the director of this cosmic play [21](#page=21). * Life itself is presented as a theater within a theater [21](#page=21). * The play serves as an allegory for life and also underscores the transient and deceptive nature of appearances (the *phainesthai*) [21](#page=21). * The work also addresses contradictions, such as the coexistence of wealth and extravagance with decline and social misery [21](#page=21). #### 5.2.4 Theatricality in public life Theatricality was also evident in public events and ceremonies: * The visit of Charles I, Prince of Wales, to Madrid in 1623 is cited as an example of theatricality in public life. This suggests that such state visits were staged with a strong performative element, akin to theatrical productions, to impress and convey power [22](#page=22). --- # Professional theater and public performance spaces (Corrales) This section details the development of professional theater in Spain, the structure and function of public theaters known as corrales, and the daily life and audience experience within them. ### 6.1 The emergence of professional theater in Spain Professional theater in Spain began to take shape from the 15th century onwards. By 1548, Italian troupes were performing in Valladolid. Lope de Rueda emerged as a prominent actor-manager in the mid-16th century. Following 1570, major cities like Granada, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia, in addition to the capital Madrid, all had theatrical venues [23](#page=23). The three charitable brotherhoods in Madrid initially controlled the theaters, known as corrales. The Corral de la Cruz was established in 1579, followed by the Corral del Príncipe in 1583. The development of professional theater was fueled by religious festivals, *autos sacramentales*, the flourishing of secular theater with *comedias*, and courtly entertainments [23](#page=23). ### 6.2 Public performance spaces: Corrales After 1625, while many leading playwrights focused on writing for the court, the majority of theatrical texts were performed in public theaters known as *corrales*. These venues were initially located in the courtyards of large public hospitals. In 17th-century Spain, the term *corrales* became almost synonymous with theater, though they were essentially rectangular or square courtyards enclosed by the walls of private houses, with a stage built on one side [25](#page=25). In Madrid, the three charitable brotherhoods initially managed the *corrales*. They used a portion of the performance revenues to support the basic needs of the poor, the sick, and those requiring financial assistance, providing meals and clothing, and maintaining hospitals. Later, these brotherhoods leased the *corrales* to entrepreneurs before they eventually came under municipal control [25](#page=25). #### 6.2.1 Description of Spanish theaters by François Bertaut . François Bertaut described Spanish theaters in 1659, noting the presence of acting troupes in almost all cities, which he considered comparatively better than their French counterparts, though none were in royal service. Performances took place in courtyards shared with private residences, meaning the windows of adjacent rooms belonged to the house owners, not the actors. Performances occurred during the day without candles, and the theaters lacked the elaborate decoration of French stages. Madrid had two venues called *Corrales*, which were consistently filled with merchants and artisans who left their shops to attend. Some spectators occupied seats near the stage. Women were seated together in a gallery at one end, a space where men were not permitted [26](#page=26). > **Tip:** Bertaut's account provides valuable insight into the practicalities and audience demographics of Spanish theaters in the 17th century, highlighting key differences with contemporary European theatrical practices [26](#page=26). #### 6.2.2 Architectural and functional characteristics of the Corrales The *corrales* were open, multi-story structures adjacent to private homes, utilizing awnings for shade and effect. By 1630, they could accommodate up to two thousand people. These venues featured a stage, trapdoors, dressing rooms, and spaces for theatrical equipment at one end. They shared numerous similarities with Elizabethan theaters in their use of scenery and costumes. Interludes, including dances, music, songs, and masquerades, were performed between acts of *comedias* [27](#page=27). The *corrales* had multiple entrances and offered various seating areas—standing room, benches (*gradas*), and boxes (*aposentos*)—tailored to the social standing and gender of the audience, with different ticket prices for each category. The atmosphere was often noisy, with strong audience reactions, and the consumption of food and drink was common. Performances typically took place daily in the 17th century, excluding Saturdays, Lent, and August. The theaters experienced a closure period between 1646 and 1651, with few changes in theatrical practice continuing until the 18th century [27](#page=27). > **Example:** The structured seating arrangement in *corrales*, with separate areas for different social classes and genders, reflects the hierarchical nature of Spanish society at the time and how this was mirrored in public entertainment spaces [27](#page=27). #### 6.2.3 Layout and features of the Corrales The typical layout of a *Corral de Comedia* included: * **Escenario:** The stage [29](#page=29). * **Patio:** The central courtyard, where the audience often stood or sat on benches [29](#page=29). * **Gradas:** Tiered seating areas [29](#page=29). * **Aposentos:** Private boxes or galleries offering a more exclusive viewing experience [29](#page=29). * **Cazuela:** A specific gallery designated for women [29](#page=29). These venues also featured dressing rooms, trapdoors, and machinery for stage effects [29](#page=29). #### 6.2.4 The Corral de Comedia in Almagro The *Corral de Comedia* in Almagro, dating back to 1628, is unique as it is the only one that continues to operate today, having been renovated in the 1950s [28](#page=28). ### 6.3 Professional theater operations and the role of actors in Spain The control of theatrical life in Spain involved the issuance of permits to troupes and salaried actors, as well as censorship to approve plays. The profession of a playwright was particularly lucrative, especially for those writing for the court. Traveling troupes also performed in various locations [30](#page=30). Female actresses appeared from the 15th century, but the first official permit was granted in 1587, which generated considerable opposition. Despite the general lack of prestige associated with the acting profession, the number of actors in Spain was substantial, and their compensation was generally good. Actors were highly sought after at the court of Philip IV [30](#page=30). Between 1610 and 1640, during the peak of theater's popularity, an average licensed troupe consisted of sixteen to twenty actors (including men, women, and apprentices) who performed a repertoire of up to sixty plays. Additionally, troupes employed prompters, wardrobe staff, stage technicians, and treasurers [30](#page=30). > **Tip:** Understanding the administrative aspects like licensing and censorship, as well as the economic factors and social perception of actors, is crucial for grasping the professionalization of theater in Golden Age Spain [30](#page=30). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Siglo de Oro | Translates to \"Golden Age,\" referring to a period of flourishing arts and literature in Spain, roughly from the mid-16th to the late 17th century. | | Autos sacramentales | A specific genre of religious Spanish drama, often allegorical, performed on the feast of Corpus Christi, typically on elaborate mobile stages. | | Comedia | A general term in Spanish theater for a play, often referring to the characteristic dramatic genre of the Golden Age, typically in three acts, covering serious or comic themes. | | Comedias de capa y espada | Plays featuring characters who wear capes and swords, typically involving themes of honor, love, and intrigue, popular in Spanish Golden Age theater. | | Comedias de costumbres | Plays that depict the customs and manners of society, focusing on everyday life and social types. | | Comedias heroicas | Heroic plays that often dealt with epic themes, historical events, or legendary figures, emphasizing valor and noble deeds. | | Comedias mitologicas | Plays based on mythological stories and figures from ancient Greek and Roman myths. | | Comedias pastoriles | Plays set in pastoral or rural environments, often featuring shepherds and shepherdesses, with themes of love and nature. | | Corrales | Public open-air theaters in Spain during the Golden Age, typically located in courtyards surrounded by buildings, with a stage at one end. | | Escenario | The stage area within a corral or theater where performances take place. | | Patio | The central courtyard or open area of a corral, where lower-class spectators might stand. | | Gradas | Tiered seating or bleachers in a corral, providing elevated views of the performance. | | Aposentos | Private boxes or galleries in a theater, offering more exclusive seating for higher-status audience members. | | Cazuela | A specific seating area in Spanish corrales, traditionally reserved for women, located in an upper gallery. | | Loa | A prologue or introductory piece performed before a main play, often serving to entertain the audience or introduce the play's themes. | | Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo | A significant treatise by Lope de Vega, published in 1609, outlining his theories and justifications for the new dramatic art of his time. | | Zarzuela | A Spanish lyric-dramatic genre combining spoken and sung scenes, with a colloquial as well as a dramatic focus. | | Theatrum mundi | A Latin phrase meaning \"the world as a stage,\" a philosophical concept prevalent in the Baroque era, viewing human life as a performance within a grander cosmic play. | | Theatrum vitae humanae | Latin for \"theater of human life,\" this concept, closely related to theatrum mundi, emphasizes the dramatic and performative aspects of human existence. | | Baroque | An artistic and architectural style originating in Italy in the early 17th century, characterized by grandeur, drama, and elaborate ornamentation, which influenced literature and theater. | | Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) | A major conflict in Central Europe, primarily fought between Catholic and Protestant states, which had widespread social and economic repercussions across the continent. | | Counter-Reformation | The period of Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, involving reforms within the Catholic Church and efforts to regain influence. | | Jesuits | A male religious congregation of the Catholic Church, founded in 1540, known for their missionary work, educational endeavors, and significant role in the Counter-Reformation. |