vptgm-samenvatting-van-plant-tot-geneesmiddelontwikkeling.pdf

# Plant-derived medicinal compounds Plant-derived medicinal compounds are natural products or their synthetic derivatives sourced from various botanical origins, classified chemically, and utilized for their diverse therapeutic applications [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). ### 1.1 Introduction to plant-derived compounds Plants have historically served as a crucial source of medicines, with many modern pharmaceuticals originating from or being inspired by natural compounds found in flora. These compounds exhibit a wide range of biological activities, making them valuable in treating various ailments [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). ### 1.2 Carbohydrate-based compounds Carbohydrates, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides, are derived from plants and have significant medicinal or industrial applications [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). #### 1.2.1 Monosaccharides * **Glucose (Dextrose, druivensuiker):** A fundamental sugar used as an energy source [2](#page=2). * **Fructose:** Used as a sweetener, particularly for individuals with diabetes [2](#page=2). * **Mannose (D-mannose):** Utilized in preventing and treating urinary tract infections [2](#page=2). #### 1.2.2 Disaccharides * **Lactose:** A sugar found in milk, with intolerances managed by lactase supplements [2](#page=2). * **Lactulose (semi-synthetic):** A laxative used to treat constipation [2](#page=2). #### 1.2.3 Oligosaccharides * **Acarbose:** Derived from *actinoplanes*, this compound inhibits alpha-glucosidase, reducing glucose absorption in the body, and can cause flatulence and diarrhea [2](#page=2). #### 1.2.4 Polysaccharides * **Dextran:** A glucose polymer used as a plasma expander to increase blood volume [2](#page=2). * **Cellulose:** An important precursor for the synthesis of various derivatives [2](#page=2). * **Hyaluronic acid:** A polymer of N-acetyl-glucosamine and glucuronic acid found in connective tissues and the eye, used in cosmetics for hydration and in eye drops [2](#page=2). * **Heparin:** A complex polysaccharide derived from animal tissues, used as an anticoagulant to prevent and treat deep vein thrombosis; low molecular weight heparins like enoxaparine and nadroparine are also used [2](#page=2). * **Gums:** Plant gums from sources like *Aloe Vera*, tragacanth, acacia gum, and agar are used as thickeners, stabilizers, swelling agents, binders, adhesives, and culture media components [3](#page=3). * **Alginic acid and alginates:** Derived from brown algae, used as thickening agents and to form a protective layer against gastro-oesophageal reflux [3](#page=3). * **Mucilage:** Obtained from plants like *Althaea officinalis* (marshmallow root), used in cough preparations to soothe the airways [3](#page=3). * **Psyllium and Flaxseed:** Seeds from *Plantago* and *Linum usitatissimum* respectively, act as bulk-forming laxatives when consumed with sufficient water [3](#page=3). ### 1.3 Flavonoids Flavonoids, characterized by a C6-C3 structure with acetate units, are found in fruits and vegetables and possess antioxidant properties, contributing to the prevention of cardiovascular diseases and cancer [3](#page=3). ### 1.4 Terpenes Terpenes are a class of compounds with significant medicinal applications, particularly in oncology [3](#page=3) [5](#page=5). * **Paclitaxel (Taxol):** Isolated from *Taxus brevifolia* and *Taxus baccata*, it is an antitumoral drug that inhibits mitosis by stabilizing microtubules. Synthetic derivatives and precursors include 10-deacetyl-baccatin III, docetaxel, and cabazitaxel [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). * **Artemisinin:** Found in *Artemisia annua* (sweet wormwood), it is highly effective against malaria. Derivatives such as dihydro-artemisinin, artemether, arteether, and artesunate are also used [5](#page=5). ### 1.5 Alkaloids Alkaloids are a diverse group of nitrogen-containing organic compounds with potent physiological effects [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). #### 1.5.1 Opium alkaloids Derived from the opium poppy (*Papaver somniferum*), these include morphine, codeine, thebaine, noscapine, papaverine, and heroin [4](#page=4). * **Morphine:** A potent analgesic and narcotic, used for severe pain, especially in terminal cancer patients, and has effects similar to endorphins and enkephalins [4](#page=4). * **Codeine:** A weaker analgesic and cough suppressant derived from morphine, with potential for addiction and constipation [4](#page=4). * **Thebaine:** A precursor for semi-synthetic analgesics like oxycodone (Oxycontin) and buprenorphine, an addiction treatment [4](#page=4). * **Noscapine:** A non-addictive cough suppressant with a different structure than morphine [4](#page=4). * **Papaverine:** A musculotropic spasmolytic that relaxes smooth muscles, historically used for cramps and vasodilation but less common now [4](#page=4). * **Heroin (diacetylmorphine):** A highly lipophilic derivative of morphine that rapidly enters the central nervous system, making it a potent and addictive drug [4](#page=4). * **Laudanum:** An opium tincture with saffron, formerly used as an antidiarrheal and antispasmodic [4](#page=4). #### 1.5.2 Tropane alkaloids * **Hyoscyamine (atropine) and Hyoscine (scopolamine):** Found in *Atropa belladonna* (deadly nightshade), these are parasympatholytics that relax smooth muscles, used for gastrointestinal and urinary cramps, asthmatic conditions, and scopolamine for motion sickness. Synthetic derivatives include ipratropium bromide and butyl-scopolamine [5](#page=5). * **Cocaine:** Derived from the coca plant (*Erythroxylon coca*), it is a stimulant and highly addictive drug [5](#page=5). #### 1.5.3 Other alkaloids * **Colchicine:** From *Colchicum autumnale* (meadow saffron), used to treat acute gout attacks [5](#page=5). * **Vinblastine and Vincristine:** Iridoid-indol alkaloids from *Catharanthus roseus* (periwinkle), used in cancer therapy [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). * **Campothecine:** From the Chinese ornamental tree *Campotheca acuminata*, with semi-synthetic derivatives like topotecan and irinotecan being important anticancer drugs that inhibit DNA replication and transcription [6](#page=6). * **Kina alkaloids (Quinine):** From the cinchona tree (*Cinchona pubescens*), it was the first antimalarial drug, with derivatives like chloroquine and mefloquine also used [6](#page=6). * **Ergotamine:** Derived from the ergot fungus (*Claviceps purpurea*), used for acute migraine attacks. LSD, a strong hallucinogen, is also a derivative [6](#page=6). * **Ephedrine:** A simple alkaloid with a stimulating effect similar to adrenaline, found in nasal drops for vasoconstriction. Related compounds include pseudoephedrine, amphetamine, and MDMA [6](#page=6). * **Nicotine:** From the tobacco plant (*Nicotiana tabacum*), it has digestive, appetite-suppressing, and anti-diuretic effects, causes vasoconstriction and hypertension, but is not responsible for lung cancer [6](#page=6). ### 1.6 Polyketides, phenylpropanoid derivatives, and their combinations * **Statins:** Natural products like mevastatin and lovastatin, originally from oyster mushrooms (*Pleurotus ostreatus*), have led to the development of synthetic statins such as simvastatin and pravastatin, used to lower cholesterol and treat cardiovascular diseases [4](#page=4). * **Salicylic acid:** Found in willow bark (*Salix* species) as salicin, which is converted to salicylic acid in the liver. Its synthetic derivative, acetylsalicylic acid (aspirine), is used for pain relief, fever reduction, and anti-inflammation [5](#page=5). * **Naphthoquinones:** Lawsone, a red-orange dye from *Lawsonia inermis* (henna), is the basis for atovaquone, an antimalarial drug [5](#page=5). * **Lignans:** Composed of two C6C3 building blocks, they exhibit inhibitory effects on mitosis but are too toxic. Semi-synthetic derivatives like etoposide and teniposide are important anticancer drugs that inhibit DNA replication and transcription [5](#page=5). ### 1.7 Heart glycosides * **Digoxin:** A "heart-active glycoside" derived from foxglove plants (*Digitalis purpurea* and *Digitalis lanata*), it strengthens heart contractions and is used for heart insufficiency [5](#page=5). > **Tip:** When studying plant-derived medicinal compounds, pay close attention to the plant source, the chemical class of the compound, its mechanism of action, and its therapeutic applications, as well as any significant semi-synthetic derivatives [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). > **Example:** For Paclitaxel, note its origin from *Taxus* species, its classification as a terpene, its mechanism of inhibiting mitosis by stabilizing microtubules, and its use as an antitumoral drug, along with its synthetic relatives [3](#page=3) [4](#page=4). --- # Carbohydrate classifications and applications Carbohydrates are a diverse class of biomolecules with varied structures and significant applications in medicine, industry, and everyday life. This section categorizes carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides, detailing their natural sources and functional uses [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ### 2.1 Carbohydrate classification Carbohydrates can be classified based on their molecular size and complexity [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). #### 2.1.1 Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit [2](#page=2). * **Glucose** (also known as dextrose or grape sugar) [2](#page=2). * **Fructose** is used as a sweetener for individuals with diabetes [2](#page=2). * **Mannose** (specifically D-mannose) is used in the treatment of urinary tract infections, often sold under brand names like Femannose® [2](#page=2). #### 2.1.2 Disaccharides Disaccharides are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide units [2](#page=2). * **Lactose** is commonly associated with lactose intolerance, which can be managed with lactase enzyme supplements [2](#page=2). * **Lactulose** is a semi-synthetic disaccharide with a laxative effect, available under brand names such as Duphalac® and Bifiteral® [2](#page=2). #### 2.1.3 Oligosaccharides Oligosaccharides are composed of a short chain of monosaccharide units [2](#page=2). * **Acarbose** is an oligosaccharide derived from the actinomycete *Actinoplanes*. It acts as an inhibitor of alpha-glucosidase, reducing glucose absorption in the body. Potential side effects include flatulence and diarrhea [2](#page=2). #### 2.1.4 Polysaccharides Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide units [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). ##### 2.1.4.1 Glucose polymers * **Dextran** is a glucose polymer used as a plasma expander to increase blood volume [2](#page=2). * **Cellulose** is an important component in the synthesis of derivatives and is found in sources like flax fibers and cotton [2](#page=2). ##### 2.1.4.2 Polymers of N-acetylglucosamine and glucuronic acid * **Hyaluronic acid** is a polymer found in connective tissue and the vitreous humor of the eye. It is utilized in cosmetics for its hydrating properties and in eye drops [2](#page=2). ##### 2.1.4.3 Polymers of uronic acids, D-glucosamine, and sulfate groups * **Heparin** is derived from animal sources such as bovine lungs and swine intestines. It acts as an anticoagulant, preventing and treating deep vein thrombosis. Modern preparations often involve hydrolysis products like low molecular weight heparins, such as enoxaparin (Clexane®) and nadroparin (Fraxiparine®) [2](#page=2). ##### 2.1.4.4 Gums Gums are a class of polysaccharides often used as thickening and stabilizing agents [3](#page=3). * **Tragacanth gum** is used as a swelling agent to create suspensions and prevent precipitation [3](#page=3). * **Gum arabic** (Acacia gum) serves as a swelling agent for suspensions, a binder, and an adhesive (e.g., in postage stamps) [3](#page=3). * **Agar** (agar-agar), derived from red algae, is used as a culture medium in bacteriology [3](#page=3). * **Alginic acid and alginates**, sourced from brown algae, are used as thickening agents in the food industry. They also form a protective layer to alleviate gastro-esophageal reflux when combined with antacids, as seen in products like Gaviscon® [3](#page=3). ##### 2.1.4.5 Mucilages Mucilaginous preparations are used for their soothing properties. * **Marshmallow root** (*Althaea officinalis*) yields a mucilage when macerated with cold water, used in cough preparations to soothe the respiratory tract [3](#page=3). * **Psyllium seeds** (from *Plantago* species) are used as a bulk-forming laxative, requiring consumption with sufficient water [3](#page=3). * **Flaxseed** (*Linum usitatissimum*) has similar applications to psyllium seed as a laxative [3](#page=3). ### 2.2 Applications of specific plant-derived compounds Beyond simple carbohydrate structures, various plant compounds and their derivatives have significant medicinal and industrial applications [2](#page=2) [3](#page=3). #### 2.2.1 Horse tails and ferns * **Horsetail** (*Equisetum arvense*) is rich in minerals and possesses diuretic and wound-healing properties [2](#page=2). * **Brake fern** (*Pteridium aquilinum*) is a common plant, with its young leaves (fiddleheads) being edible [2](#page=2). #### 2.2.2 Ginkgo biloba and sundew * **Ginkgo biloba** (Japanese nut tree) is a symbol of longevity and is associated with improved blood circulation and potential benefits against age-related dementia [2](#page=2). * **Sundew** (*Drosera*) contains compounds like droserone, structurally similar to atovaquone, which is a drug used to treat malaria (e.g., Malarone®). The plant's epidermal hairs are adapted for catching insects as a food source [2](#page=2). #### 2.2.3 Chamomile and devil's claw * **German chamomile** (*Matricariae flos*) contains chamazulene carboxylic acid, structurally related to ibuprofen. Its dried flower heads are used in anti-inflammatory creams, teas for gastrointestinal issues, and cosmetics (e.g., to lighten hair) [2](#page=2). * **Devil's claw** (*Harpagophytum procumbens*) root is used for treating inflammation and rheumatism [2](#page=2). #### 2.2.4 Flavanoids and terpenoids * **Flavanoids**, found abundantly in fruits and vegetables, are C6C3 compounds with three acetate units. They are recognized for their "healthy" properties, acting as antioxidants and contributing to the prevention of cardiovascular diseases and cancer [3](#page=3). * **Terpenoids** include compounds like Paclitaxel (Taxol®), originally derived from *Taxus brevifolia* and *Taxus baccata*. Derivatives and precursors, such as 10-deacetyl-baccatin III, are also significant. Paclitaxel is an antitumoral drug that inhibits mitosis by stabilizing microtubules. Related drugs include docetaxel (Taxotere®) and cabazitaxel (Jevtana®) [3](#page=3). #### 2.2.5 Aloe Vera * **Aloe Vera** contains parenchyma tissue with mucilaginous compounds. It is widely used in cosmetics for sunburn and other skin conditions [3](#page=3). #### 2.2.6 Other plant-derived compounds * **Vlassael and psyllium seeds** are both used as bulk-forming laxatives [3](#page=3). * **Flaxseed** (*Linum usitatissimum*) shares similar laxative properties with psyllium seed [3](#page=3). --- # Alkaloids and their pharmacological effects Alkaloids are a diverse group of naturally occurring compounds, primarily derived from plants, which possess a wide array of pharmacological actions and are used in various therapeutic applications [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). ### 3.1 Classification and examples of alkaloids Alkaloids can be broadly classified based on their structural origins and the plant sources from which they are derived [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). #### 3.1.1 Opium alkaloids Opium alkaloids are derived from the opium poppy, *Papaver somniferum*. This class includes significant compounds like morphine, codeine, thebaine, noscapine, papaverine, and the semi-synthetic derivative, heroin [4](#page=4). * **Morphine:** A potent analgesic and highly addictive substance, it mimics the action of endogenous endorphins and enkephalins involved in pain perception. It is commonly used for pain relief in terminal cancer patients [4](#page=4). * **Codeine:** A methylether of morphine, it is a weaker analgesic, a cough suppressant, and a prescription drug with partial addictive potential and an obstipating side effect [4](#page=4). * **Thebaine:** A precursor to semi-synthetic analgesics like oxycodone (e.g., OxyContin®), which is stronger than morphine. It is also a precursor to buprenorphine (e.g., Temgesic®), used as a withdrawal management agent for addicts [4](#page=4). * **Noscapine:** A structurally different opium alkaloid, it acts as a cough suppressant without being addictive or narcotic [4](#page=4). * **Papaverine:** Also structurally distinct, it functions as a musculotropic spasmolytic, relaxing smooth muscle cells. It was historically used for intestinal cramps and vasodilation but is no longer commonly used [4](#page=4). * **Heroin (diacetylmorphine):** A highly lipophilic derivative of morphine, allowing rapid entry into the central nervous system, making it a potent and highly addictive drug [4](#page=4). * **Laudanum:** An older preparation, it is an opium tincture with saffron, historically used as an astringent for diarrhea and as a spasmolytic, but is no longer in use [4](#page=4). #### 3.1.2 Tropane alkaloids Tropane alkaloids are derived from plants like *Atropa belladonna* (deadly nightshade). Key examples include hyoscyamine (atropine) and hyoscine (scopolamine) [5](#page=5). * **Hyoscyamine (atropine):** A prototype parasympatholytic, it causes relaxation of smooth muscle cells. It is used for spasms in the gastrointestinal tract or urinary tract and for asthmatic conditions [5](#page=5). * **Hyoscine (scopolamine):** Primarily used for motion sickness [5](#page=5). * **Examples of medications:** Ipratropium bromide (Atronase®) for chronic bronchitis and butylscopolamine (Buscopan®) for intestinal cramps are derived from tropane alkaloids [5](#page=5). * **Cocaine:** Derived from the Coca plant (*Erythroxylon coca*), it is a stimulant, addictive drug [5](#page=5). #### 3.1.3 Alkaloids derived from L-tyrosine This group includes alkaloids with a structure originating from the amino acid L-tyrosine [5](#page=5). * **Colchicine:** Obtained from *Colchicum autumnale* (meadow saffron), it is used to treat acute gout attacks [5](#page=5). #### 3.1.4 Irido-indol alkaloids These alkaloids, such as vinblastine and vincristine from *Catharanthus roseus* (Madagascar periwinkle), are crucial in cancer therapy by inhibiting DNA replication and transcription. Etoposide and teniposide, semi-synthetic derivatives related to lignans, also act as important anticancer agents through similar mechanisms [5](#page=5) [6](#page=6). #### 3.1.5 Campothecine and its derivatives Campothecin, found in the Chinese ornamental tree *Campotheca acuminata*, has derivatives like topotecan and irinotecan, which are used as anticancer drugs. The L-tryptophan structure is not recognizable in campothecin [6](#page=6). #### 3.1.6 Kina alkaloids (quinine) Quinine, isolated from the Cinchona tree (*Cinchona pubescens*), was the first antimalarial drug. Its derivatives, such as chloroquine and mefloquine, are also used to treat malaria. The L-tryptophan structure is not recognizable in quinine [6](#page=6). #### 3.1.7 Ergotamine Ergotamine is derived from the ergot fungus (*Claviceps purpurea*). The L-tryptophan structure is recognizable in ergotamine. It is used to treat acute migraine attacks (e.g., Cafergot®). A derivative, LSD, is a potent hallucinogen and drug [6](#page=6). #### 3.1.8 Simple alkaloids This category includes alkaloids with simpler structures and significant pharmacological effects [6](#page=6). * **Ephedrine:** Exhibits a stimulating effect similar to adrenaline. Pseudoephedrine has a different configuration and is less stimulating, used in nasal drops for vasoconstriction and decongestion. Related compounds include amphetamine and MDMA (ecstasy) [6](#page=6). * **Nicotine:** Found in the tobacco plant (*Nicotiana tabacum*), it stimulates digestion, suppresses appetite, has anti-diuretic effects, causes vasoconstriction, and hypertension. It is not responsible for lung cancer [6](#page=6). ### 3.2 Other natural products with pharmacological effects While the focus is on alkaloids, the document also mentions other natural product classes with significant medicinal applications, such as statins, salicylates, and terpenoids [4](#page=4) [5](#page=5). #### 3.2.1 Polyketides, phenylpropane derivatives, and their combinations * **Statins:** Originally derived from oyster mushrooms (*Pleurotus ostreatus*) as mevastatin and lovastatin, they are now synthetically produced with the same basic structure (e.g., simvastatin, pravastatine). They are cholesterol-lowering drugs used for cardiovascular conditions [4](#page=4). * **Salicylic acid:** Derived from willow bark (*Salix* species) in the form of salicin, which is converted to salicylic acid in the liver after oral intake. Its synthetic derivative, acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin®), is used for its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties [5](#page=5). * **Naphthoquinones:** Lawsone, a red-orange dye from *Lawsonia inermis* (Henna plant), is the basis for atovaquone, a drug used against malaria [5](#page=5). * **Terpenes:** Artemisinin from *Artemisia annua* (sweet wormwood) is highly active against malaria. Derivatives like dihydroartemisinin, artemether, arteether, and artesunate are also used [5](#page=5). #### 3.2.2 Cardiac glycosides Also known as "heart-acting glycosides," these are found in plants like foxglove (*Digitalis purpurea*) and woolly foxglove (*Digitalis lanata*). They have a reinforcing effect on the heart, increasing contractility in cases of heart failure, particularly in the elderly. Digoxin is a well-known example [5](#page=5). --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Heermoes | Also known as horsetail, this plant is rich in minerals and possesses diuretic and wound-healing properties. | | Ginkgo biloba | A tree known as the maidenhair tree, its extract is believed to improve blood circulation and combat age-related dementia, symbolizing longevity. | | Atovaquone | A drug used to treat malaria, derived from the sundew plant (Drosera), which traps insects for nutrients using epidermal hairs. | | Matricariae flos | The dried flower heads of German chamomile, used in anti-inflammatory creams, teas for gastrointestinal problems, and cosmetics for hair lightening. | | Chamazulene | A chemical compound found in German chamomile, structurally related to ibuprofen, contributing to its anti-inflammatory effects. | | Dextrose | Another name for glucose, commonly referred to as grape sugar. | | Lactulose | A semi-synthetic disaccharide with a laxative effect, used in medications like Duphalac and Bifiteral. | | Acarbose | An oligosaccharide derived from the actinomycete Actinoplanes, acting as an inhibitor of alpha-glucosidase, thus reducing glucose absorption in the body. | | Dextran | A glucose polymer used as a plasma expander to increase blood volume. | | Hyaluronic acid | A polymer of N-acetyl-glucosamine and glucuronic acid found in connective tissue and the vitreous humor of the eye, used in cosmetics for hydration and eye drops. | | Heparine | A polysaccharide derived from animal organs, acting as an anticoagulant to prevent and treat deep vein thrombosis; low molecular weight heparins like enoxaparin and nadroparin are derivatives. | | Tragacanth | A type of gum used as a swelling agent to create suspensions and prevent precipitation. | | Acacia gum | Also known as gum arabic, it is a swelling agent for suspensions, a binder, and an adhesive, historically used on postage stamps. | | Alginezuur | An alginic acid derived from brown algae, used as a thickening agent in the food industry and to form a protective layer against gastroesophageal reflux when combined with antacids. | | Heemst | Marshmallow root (althaeae radix) used to prepare mucus solutions through maceration in cold water, acting as an expectorant for cough preparations to soothe the respiratory tract. | | Vlozaad | Plantago seed, also known as psyllium seed, used as a bulk-forming laxative when taken whole with sufficient water. | | Flavanoids | Compounds composed of C6C3 units plus three acetate units found in fruits and vegetables, known for their antioxidant properties and role in preventing cardiovascular diseases and cancer. | | Paclitaxel (Taxol) | An antitumoral drug derived from the yew tree (Taxus brevifolia and Taxus baccata), which inhibits mitosis by stabilizing microtubules. | | Opium alkaloids | A group of alkaloids derived from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), including morphine, codeine, thebaine, noscapine, papaverine, and heroin, with various pharmacological effects. | | Morphine | A potent opium alkaloid with sedative and addictive properties, used for pain relief, particularly in terminal cancer patients, and structurally similar to endorphins. | | Codeine | A weaker analgesic and antitussive derived from morphine, requiring a prescription and having a risk of dependence, with an obstipating side effect. | | Noscapine | An antitussive alkaloid with a different structure from morphine, not causing addiction or sedation. | | Papaverine | An opium alkaloid with musculotropic spasmolytic properties, relaxing smooth muscle cells, historically used for intestinal cramps and vasodilation, though less common now. | | Heroine | Diacetylmorphine, a highly lipophilic derivative of morphine that readily enters the central nervous system, known as a strong and addictive drug. | | Statines | Cholesterol-lowering drugs originally derived from oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), with synthetic versions like simvastatin and pravastatin now widely used. | | Salicylic acid | A compound originally found in willow bark (Salix species) as salicin, which is converted to salicylic acid in the liver; acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) is a synthetic derivative used for pain relief, fever reduction, and anti-inflammatory effects. | | Lawsone | A red-orange dye from the henna plant (Lawsonia inermis), from which atovaquone, an antimalarial drug, is derived. | | Lignans | Compounds composed of two C6C3 building blocks, some semi-synthetic derivatives like etoposide and teniposide are important anticancer agents that inhibit DNA replication and transcription. | | Artemisinine | A potent antimalarial compound derived from Artemisia annua (sweet wormwood), with derivatives like artemether, arteether, and artesunate. | | Digoxine | A cardiac glycoside from foxglove (Digitalis purpurea and Digitalis lanata) that strengthens heart contractions, used in treating heart insufficiency. | | Tropane alkaloids | A class of alkaloids including hyoscyamine (atropine) and hyoscine (scopolamine) from plants like Atropa belladonna, acting as parasympatholytics to relax smooth muscles, used for cramps, asthma, and motion sickness. | | Cocaine | A stimulant and addictive drug derived from the coca plant (Erythroxylon coca). | | Colchicine | An alkaloid from Colchicum autumnale (meadow saffron) used to treat acute gout attacks. | | Vinblastine, Vincristine | Iridoid-indole alkaloids derived from Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle) used in cancer therapy. | | Campothecine | A compound from the Chinese ornamental tree Campotheca acuminata, with derivatives like topotecan and irinotecan used as anticancer drugs that inhibit DNA replication and transcription. | | Kina alkaloids (quinine) | Alkaloids from the Cinchona pubescens tree, historically the first antimalarial drugs, with derivatives like chloroquine and mefloquine also used against malaria. | | Ergotamine | An alkaloid from the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea), used for acute migraine attacks; its derivative LSD is a potent hallucinogen. | | Ephedrine | A simple alkaloid with a stimulating effect similar to adrenaline, found in nasal drops for vasoconstriction and decongestion. | | Nicotine | An alkaloid from the tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum) with effects on digestion, appetite suppression, and vasoconstriction; it is not responsible for lung cancer. |