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# Computer fundamentals and hardware
A computer is an electronic machine that processes data into information according to programmed instructions [12](#page=12).
## 1. Computer fundamentals and hardware
### 1.1 Basics of a computer
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data, stores it, and processes it according to instructions (programs) to produce results (information). The word "computer" originates from "compute," meaning to calculate [12](#page=12).
#### 1.1.1 Data and Information
* **Data:** Raw, unorganized facts that require processing [12](#page=12).
* **Information:** Processed, organized, structured, or presented data in a context to make it useful [12](#page=12).
#### 1.1.2 Basic parts of a computer
The fundamental components of a computer system include:
* **System Unit:** A case housing essential components like the motherboard, CPU, and RAM [12](#page=12).
* **Monitor:** An output device that displays graphical or text output [12](#page=12).
* **Keyboard:** An input device for entering text, characters, and commands [12](#page=12).
* **Mouse:** An input device used for pointing, clicking, and moving objects on the screen [12](#page=12).
The overall flow of data and information within a computer can be visualized as: Input Devices $\rightarrow$ System Unit (Processor, RAM, Storage Devices) $\rightarrow$ Output Devices [12](#page=12).
### 1.2 Classifications of computers
Computers are classified based on their size, power, and capability [13](#page=13).
#### 1.2.1 Personal computer (or Microcomputer)
These are designed for individual use.
* **Desktop Computer:** Designed to sit on a desk, consisting of a system unit, keyboard, mouse, and monitor [13](#page=13).
* **Laptop Computer:** A portable computer with an integrated screen and keyboard, powered by a battery [13](#page=13).
* **Tablet Computer:** A handheld, portable computer that uses a touch-sensitive screen for interaction instead of a keyboard and mouse [13](#page=13).
* **Smartphone:** A powerful mobile phone with a touch-sensitive screen, capable of internet connectivity, web browsing, email, and gaming [13](#page=13).
#### 1.2.2 Server
A server is a hardware or software device that responds to requests made over a network. The device making the request is known as a client [13](#page=13).
#### 1.2.3 Mainframe Computer
These are very large, expensive computers capable of supporting hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They can support more simultaneous programs than supercomputers, but supercomputers execute single programs faster [14](#page=14).
#### 1.2.4 Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the fastest and most powerful computers, used for specialized applications requiring extensive mathematical calculations, such as weather forecasting and nuclear research [14](#page=14).
### 1.3 Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer [14](#page=14).
#### 1.3.1 Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board where most computer parts and peripherals are connected. It houses the CPU, RAM, ROM, and other components [15](#page=15).
#### 1.3.2 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU, also known as the microprocessor or processor, is the "brain" of the computer. It receives data and instructions, processes them, and produces results. Common processor manufacturers include Intel and AMD [15](#page=15).
##### Processor speed
CPU speed, measured in Hertz (Hz), determines computer performance. One Hertz equals one cycle per second. A processor speed of 3.8 GHz means 3.8 billion cycles per second. Multi-core processors (dual-core, quad-core) enhance performance by having multiple processors on a single integrated circuit [15](#page=15).
##### Parts of the processor
* **Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):** Performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logic (comparison) operations [16](#page=16).
* **Control Unit (CU):** Directs operations within the CPU, fetching instructions, passing them to the ALU, and sending results to programs [16](#page=16).
* **Register:** Temporary storage areas within the CPU that hold data being processed. Register size is measured in bits (e.g., 32-bit or 64-bit) [16](#page=16).
##### How a processor works: The Machine Cycle
The CPU repeats a four-operation machine cycle for each instruction:
1. **Fetching:** Retrieving the instruction or data from memory [16](#page=16).
2. **Decoding:** Translating the instruction into executable computer signals [16](#page=16).
3. **Executing:** Carrying out the command [16](#page=16).
4. **Storing:** Writing the result back to memory [16](#page=16).
#### 1.3.3 Memory
Memory, also known as primary memory, consists of electronic chips that store the operating system, system software, application programs, data being processed, and resulting information [17](#page=17).
##### RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM is the main memory where the operating system and loaded applications reside. Larger RAM capacity allows more programs to run simultaneously and improves performance. RAM is volatile, meaning its contents are lost when the power is turned off. The CPU directly accesses RAM [17](#page=17).
##### ROM (Read-Only Memory)
ROM is a permanent, non-volatile memory chip on the motherboard containing essential software for the computer to operate with the operating system. Its contents cannot be changed by the user [17](#page=17).
#### 1.3.4 Input Devices
Input devices are hardware peripherals that provide data and instructions to the computer [17](#page=17).
* **Keyboard:** Used for entering text and characters via keys, typically with a QWERTY layout and around 104 keys [18](#page=18).
* **Pointing Devices:**
* **Optical Mouse:** Uses LEDs or lasers to track movement on a surface for on-screen cursor control [18](#page=18).
* **Trackball:** A pointing device with an exposed ball that detects rotation on two axes [18](#page=18).
* **Touchscreen:** A display that accepts input directly from a finger or stylus, common in PDAs, tablets, and smartphones [18](#page=18).
* **Game Controller:** Used for input in video games and entertainment systems, including gamepads, joysticks, and steering wheels [18](#page=18).
* **Image Scanner:** Captures images, text, or handwriting from paper and converts them into digital formats [19](#page=19).
* **Webcam:** A low-resolution video camera for visual input, easily transferred over the internet [19](#page=19).
* **Digital Camera:** Captures pictures or video, storing them on a memory card that can be transferred to a computer [19](#page=19).
* **Fingerprint Scanner:** Identifies and authenticates individuals using fingerprints for access control [19](#page=19).
* **Microphone:** Converts sound into electrical signals for audio input [19](#page=19).
* **Bar Code Reader:** Reads barcodes, often used in retail for product identification and pricing [19](#page=19).
* **Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):** A technology using special magnetized ink for character recognition, primarily used in banking for security [19](#page=19).
* **Optical Character Reader (OCR):** Converts images of letters or typed text into data the computer can understand [20](#page=20).
* **QR (Quick Response) Code:** A two-dimensional barcode with high storage capacity, scannable by smartphone apps to retrieve information or link to websites [20](#page=20).
#### 1.3.5 Output Devices
Output devices communicate the results of data processing to the user [20](#page=20).
* **Monitor or Visual Display Unit (VDU):** Displays information in a human-understandable format. Modern monitors are typically flat-screen LCD or LED, replacing older CRT technology [20](#page=20).
* **Printers:** Produce hard copies of information on paper. Types include Dot-Matrix, Ink-Jet, and Laser printers, with laser printers being common in organizations for speed and quality [20](#page=20).
* **Plotters:** Similar to printers but designed for printing larger images [21](#page=21).
* **3D Printer:** Creates physical objects from digital models by layering materials [21](#page=21).
* **Speakers:** Generate sound output from the computer [21](#page=21).
* **Projector:** Projects images or videos onto a surface [21](#page=21).
#### 1.3.6 Storage Devices
Storage devices, also known as secondary memory, are non-volatile and store data for long-term access. They are not directly accessed by the processor [21](#page=21).
* **Hard Disk Drive (HDD):** The primary large data storage within a computer, storing the operating system, applications, and user data using spinning platters and a magnetic head. Capacities range from gigabytes (GBs) to terabytes (TBs) [21](#page=21).
* **Solid State Drive (SSD):** Uses flash memory chips for data storage, making them faster, quieter, and more energy-efficient than HDDs, with no moving parts. Capacities range from GBs to TBs [22](#page=22).
* **Tape Drive:** Reads and writes data on magnetic tape, used for long-term storage and backups, with capacities up to 100 TB [22](#page=22).
* **Compact Disc (CD):** Removable media with a storage capacity of 700 megabytes (MB), suitable for music and data [22](#page=22).
* **Digital Versatile Disc (DVD):** Removable media with a larger storage capacity than CDs; single-layer DVDs store 4.7 GB, and dual-layer DVDs store 8.5 GB [22](#page=22).
* **Blu-ray Disc (BD) Drive:** Optical disc storage media with single-layer (25 GB) and dual-layer (50 GB) discs, capable of storing high-definition video [22](#page=22).
* **Universal Serial Bus (USB) Flash Drive:** A small, portable, rewritable flash memory storage device integrated with a USB connector, with capacities from hundreds of megabytes to tens of gigabytes [22](#page=22).
* **External Hard Disk:** Connects via USB, offering slower transfer rates than internal HDDs, with capacities ranging from 500 GB to 10 TB [23](#page=23).
#### 1.3.7 Units used to measure memory capacity
The smallest unit of data is a bit, which can be a 0 or 1 [23](#page=23).
* **1 Bit:** 0 or 1 [23](#page=23).
* **1 Byte:** 8 Bits [23](#page=23).
* **1 Kilobyte (KB):** 1,024 Bytes [23](#page=23).
* **1 Megabyte (MB):** 1,024 KB [23](#page=23).
* **1 Gigabyte (GB):** 1,024 MB [23](#page=23).
* **1 Terabyte (TB):** 1,024 GB [23](#page=23).
---
# Software and basic computer operations
Software comprises the instructions that enable a computer to function, stored on various media like hard disks, CDs, DVDs, or USB drives, and loaded into RAM when needed. Regular software updates are crucial for fixing issues and improving features, with auto-update options available for most applications [24](#page=24).
### 2.1 Types of software
Software is broadly categorized into system software and application software [24](#page=24).
#### 2.1.1 System software
System software consists of programs that automatically load upon computer startup, managing the computer's operations and devices [24](#page=24).
* **Operating system:** This system software allows users to run other applications and facilitates communication with hardware and file storage management. Examples include MS-DOS, Windows 10, Linux, Mac OS, Android, and iOS [24](#page=24).
* **Utilities software:** These programs enhance computer functionality or performance, including antivirus, backup, disk repair, file management, and file compression tools. Some are integrated into the operating system, while others are installed separately [25](#page=25).
* **Device driver:** A critical system software that enables interaction between a hardware device and the operating system or applications. Without it, the hardware cannot function. Examples include drivers for printers, graphic cards, sound cards, network cards, and modems [25](#page=25).
#### 2.1.2 Application software
Application software is designed to enhance user productivity and assist with personal tasks. Examples include Microsoft Word, Calculator, Microsoft Excel, Web browsers, Microsoft Access, Adobe Photoshop, Microsoft PowerPoint, and games [25](#page=25).
### 2.2 Installing and uninstalling software
The installation process varies based on the operating system, device, and specific program [26](#page=26).
#### 2.2.1 Installing software
* **From a disc or USB flash:** Insert the CD-ROM or connect the USB drive. For USB, open "This PC" or "File Explorer," navigate to the USB drive, and double-click the "setup" or executable file [26](#page=26).
* **From the web:** After downloading a program from a website, open the downloads folder and double-click the file. If the file is compressed (e.g.,.zip,.Rar), extract its contents before starting the setup [26](#page=26).
#### 2.2.2 Uninstalling software applications
In Windows 10, software can be uninstalled via:
* **Control Panel:** Navigate to `Control Panel` > `Programs and Features`, select the program, and click "Uninstall" [26](#page=26).
* **Settings:** Navigate to `Settings` > `Apps` > `Apps and features`, select the program, and click "Uninstall" [27](#page=27).
### 2.3 Software copyright
Software is often protected by licenses based on user numbers, user types, computer counts, and institutional size. Copyright is used by proprietary software companies to prevent unauthorized copying, and open-source licenses also rely on it to enforce terms [28](#page=28).
#### 2.3.1 End-User License Agreement (EULA)
A EULA is a legal contract between the software manufacturer and the end-user, outlining acceptable use and restrictions. Users typically must accept the EULA by clicking an "Accept" button to install the software, often without reading it [28](#page=28).
#### 2.3.2 Shareware
Proprietary software provided on a trial basis, which may cease to function after the trial period until a license is purchased. Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop are examples [28](#page=28).
#### 2.3.3 Freeware
Fully functional software available indefinitely at no cost. Authors typically restrict rights to copy, distribute, or create derivative works. Examples include Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome [29](#page=29).
#### 2.3.4 Proprietary software
Software that is copyrighted and has restrictions on use, distribution, and modification imposed by its publisher or developer [29](#page=29).
#### 2.3.5 Open source software
Software developed collaboratively and distributed with full rights granted to use, modify, and share it in both original and modified forms. Community development is fostered by software freedom. Open Office is an example. An initiative for Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) was launched in Oman in 2010 to promote FOSS as an alternative to proprietary software and develop IT solutions based on it [29](#page=29).
### 2.4 Basic computer operations
This section covers fundamental operations when using Windows 10 [34](#page=34).
#### 2.4.1 Starting the computer
Ensure all cables are securely connected. Locate and press the power switch. If nothing appears on the screen, check that the monitor is switched on [35](#page=35).
#### 2.4.2 Shutting down the computer
Save any open files, close all applications, and then use the "Shut Down" command from the Start button. Do not switch off the machine's power until the computer has completely shut down [35](#page=35).
#### 2.4.3 Restarting the computer
Never switch off a Windows-based computer directly. Always use the "Shut Down" command. To restart the computer immediately after shutting it down, select the "Restart" option from the power menu [35](#page=35).
#### 2.4.4 Signing in and signing out from a computer network
In a network environment (e.g., colleges, companies), signing in connects you to the network, while signing out disconnects you [36](#page=36).
* **To sign in:** On the welcome screen, select "Other User" (usually bottom left), enter your assigned username and password, then press Enter or click "Submit" [36](#page=36).
* **To sign out:** Click the Start button, click your profile, and select "Sign out" [36](#page=36).
* **To switch accounts:** Click the Start button, click your profile, and select "Switch Account" [36](#page=36).
#### 2.4.5 System configuration
System properties can be viewed by right-clicking "This PC" on the Desktop and selecting "Properties" from the popup menu. This displays information such as the Windows edition, CPU type, and installed RAM [37](#page=37).
#### 2.4.6 Desktop and icons
The Desktop is the initial screen displayed after logging into a Windows 10 user account. It includes the taskbar with the Start button and icons, which can be system icons (e.g., Recycle Bin), application shortcut icons, folder icons, or file icons [38](#page=38).
#### 2.4.7 Desktop configuration
Right-clicking on the Desktop opens a popup menu from which you can adjust settings like screen resolution, themes, and background pictures by selecting "Display Settings" or "Personalize" [38](#page=38).
#### 2.4.8 Creating a desktop shortcut
To create a desktop shortcut, click the Start button, select the desired application icon, then drag that icon from the Start Menu directly onto the Desktop. The shortcut icon will then appear on the Desktop [39](#page=39).
#### 2.4.9 Common parts of a window
Windows have several common components: Title Bar, Toolbar, Menu Bar, Status Bar, and Scroll Bar [40](#page=40).
* **Minimizing a window:** Click the Minimize icon [40](#page=40).
* **Maximizing a window:** Click the Maximize icon [40](#page=40).
* **Restoring a maximized window:** Click the Restore icon [40](#page=40).
* **Closing a window:** Click the Close button [40](#page=40).
#### 2.4.10 Moving between open windows
You can switch between open application windows by clicking their icons on the taskbar. Alternatively, use the Task View icon on the taskbar or the keyboard shortcuts Alt + Tab or Windows Key + Tab [41](#page=41).
#### 2.4.11 Opening, modifying, saving, and closing application programs
To open an application like WordPad, use the search box on the Start Menu and type "WordPad" [41](#page=41).
#### 2.4.12 Saving a file in a folder
To save a file, click the Save icon in the toolbar or use the shortcut Ctrl+S. In the "Save As" dialog box, choose the save location, type a file name, and select the file type [42](#page=42).
#### 2.4.13 Saving a file in a different format
When saving, you can change the file type in the "Save As" dialog box using the "Save as type" option. Common formats include Rich Text Format (RTF), Office Open XML Document, Open Document Text, Text Document, Text Document – MS-DOS Format, and Unicode Text Document. The operating system opens files with specific extensions using the corresponding application; for instance, a.html file will open in a web browser like Edge, not Microsoft Word [42](#page=42) [43](#page=43).
#### 2.4.14 Closing the editing application
Click the Close icon in the top right corner of the application window, or press Alt+F4 [43](#page=43).
---
# File management and system utilities
This section details how to manage files and folders within Windows 10, covering essential operations, file properties, data compression, and basic printing functions [44](#page=44).
### 3.1 Understanding files and folders
A **folder** acts as a container for files, shortcuts, and subfolders. A **subfolder** is simply a folder nested within another folder. Folders can store various file types like documents, music, pictures, videos, and programs. Windows provides tools to easily browse and manage these stored items [44](#page=44).
Files are represented by icons reflecting their content type, such as a document with a "W" for a Word file, while folders are consistently depicted with a yellow icon [44](#page=44).
### 3.2 Windows Explorer
Windows Explorer is the primary file management application in Windows. It can be accessed by clicking the File Explorer icon on the taskbar or by double-clicking any folder on the desktop [44](#page=44).
The Windows Explorer window comprises several key components:
1. **Navigation Pane:** Allows users to view the computer's file and folder hierarchy and access specific locations [45](#page=45).
* **OneDrive:** A free cloud storage service offered by Microsoft [45](#page=45).
* **This PC:** Encompasses all folders, hard disk partitions, external drives, USB flash drives, CD/DVD drives, and network locations [45](#page=45).
* **Network:** Provides access to folders stored on a network if the computer is connected [45](#page=45).
2. **Address Bar:** Displays the current path of the selected folder [45](#page=45).
3. **Search Box:** Enables searching for subfolders or files within the current folder [45](#page=45).
4. **Frequent folders:** Lists folders that are accessed most often [45](#page=45).
5. **Recent files:** Shows files that have been opened recently [45](#page=45).
### 3.3 Files and folders operations
#### 3.3.1 Creating a new folder/file
To create a new folder or subfolder:
* Open File Explorer by clicking the folder icon on the Taskbar [45](#page=45).
* Navigate to the desired drive or folder [45](#page=45).
* Right-click in the right pane and select "New," then "Folder" from the submenu. The new folder will be named "New Folder" by default and can then be renamed [45](#page=45).
* Alternatively, click the "Home" ribbon and then click "New Folder" [45](#page=45).
#### 3.3.2 Renaming a folder/file
To rename a folder or file:
* Right-click the item and select "Rename" from the context menu, then type the new name and press Enter [46](#page=46).
* Alternatively, select the item, click "Home" ribbon, then click "Rename," type the new name, and press Enter [46](#page=46).
> **Tip:** You cannot rename a file or folder if it is currently open [46](#page=46).
#### 3.3.3 Selecting a folder/file
* **Single item:** Click directly on the folder/file [46](#page=46).
* **All items:** Press `CTRL + A` or use the mouse to select all items [46](#page=46).
* **Several items (non-contiguous):** Hold down the `CTRL` key while clicking each item individually [46](#page=46).
* **Several items (contiguous):** Click the first item, then hold down the `SHIFT` key while clicking the last item [46](#page=46).
* **Using the Home ribbon:** Utilize "Select all," "Select none," or "Invert selections" options [46](#page=46).
#### 3.3.4 Copying a folder/file
* Right-click the folder/file and choose "Copy" from the menu. To move, choose "Cut" instead [46](#page=46).
* Right-click in the destination folder and choose "Paste" [46](#page=46).
* Alternatively, select the item, click "Copy to" or "Move to" on the "Home" ribbon, and then choose the destination folder [47](#page=47).
#### 3.3.5 Deleting a folder/file
* Right-click the folder/file and select "Delete" from the menu, or press the `Delete` key on the keyboard [47](#page=47).
* A confirmation message will appear; click "Yes" to confirm deletion or "No" to cancel [47](#page=47).
* Alternatively, select the item, click "Delete" on the "Home" ribbon [47](#page=47).
#### 3.3.6 Changing views of files and folders
The appearance of files and folders in Windows Explorer can be customized using various views accessible via the "View" ribbon, specifically within the "Layout" section. Available views include [47](#page=47):
* Extra Large Icons
* Large Icons
* Medium Icons
* Small Icons
* List
* Details
* Tiles
* Content
The "Details" view is particularly useful as it displays columns for Name, Date Modified, Type, and Size [47](#page=47).
#### 3.3.7 Searching for files and folders
Windows 10 offers multiple search methods:
* **Cortana's Search Feature:** This can be faster than File Explorer for general searches, capable of searching the PC and the web from the taskbar for help, apps, files, and settings [48](#page=48).
* **Start Menu Search Box:** Typing a word or part of a word into the search box on the Start menu will display matching files, folders, programs, and email messages as you type [48](#page=48) [49](#page=49).
* **File Explorer Search Box:** Located at the top of an open window, this box filters the current view based on typed text. The search considers both the file name and its contents. As you type, search results appear [49](#page=49).
> **Tip:** If you cannot recall the exact file name, use wildcards in the search. For instance, `*.docx` searches for files with the `.docx` extension, and `ex*.docx` searches for files starting with "ex" and having a `.docx` extension [49](#page=49).
After typing in the search box and pressing Enter, a "Search" ribbon appears. This ribbon allows refining search results by criteria such as kind, size, date modified, and other properties. For example, selecting a "Size" option like "Medium (1-128MB)" narrows the search to files within that size range [49](#page=49).
### 3.4 File and folder properties
Right-clicking a file or folder and selecting "Properties" reveals detailed information. This includes [50](#page=50):
* File/Folder name
* Type of File and Folder
* Opens with
* Location
* Size
* Size on Disk
* Created date
* Modified date
* Accessed date
* Attributes:
* Read only (not editable) [50](#page=50).
* Hidden [50](#page=50).
Properties also allow renaming files/folders, viewing their location and size, and seeing the number of files and subfolders within a folder. Attributes define characteristics like making a file or folder read-only or hidden [50](#page=50).
### 3.5 Different types of files with their extensions
Files are distinguished by their extensions, which indicate the application used to create them [51](#page=51).
**File Extension:** The name appearing after the dot at the end of a file name. To display extensions for all files [51](#page=51):
1. Open File Explorer [51](#page=51).
2. Click the "File" menu, then "Options" [51](#page=51).
3. In the "Folder Options" dialog box, click the "View" tab [51](#page=51).
4. Uncheck the option "Hide extension for known file types" [51](#page=51).
The following table lists common file types and their extensions:
| Extension | File Type | Application Used |
| :-------- | :--------------- | :----------------------- |
| `.txt` | Text file | Notepad |
| `.rtf` | Text file | WordPad |
| `.docx` | Document file | MS Word |
| `.xlsx` | Spreadsheet | MS Excel |
| `.pptx` | Presentation | MS PowerPoint |
| `.accdb` | Database | MS Access |
| `.bmp` | Image file | MS Paint |
| `.jpeg` | Image file | Windows Picture viewer |
| `.zip` | Compressed file | WinZip |
| `.rar` | Compressed file | WinRAR |
| `.html` | Web Pages | Any Web Browser |
| `.wav`, `.mp3` | Sound File | Any Media Player |
| `.mov`, `.avi`, `.mp4` | Movie Files | Any Media Player |
| `.tmp`, `.temp` | Temporary File | None |
### 3.6 Formatting removable drives
Formatting a removable drive erases all data and prepares it for use. This is typically done to remove viruses, clear unnecessary files, or when the drive is not functioning correctly [53](#page=53) [54](#page=54).
To format a removable drive:
1. Open File Explorer [53](#page=53).
2. Right-click the selected drive and choose "Format" from the popup menu [53](#page=53).
3. In the format dialog box, click "Start" [53](#page=53).
4. A warning message will appear stating that all data will be erased. Click "OK" to proceed or "Cancel" to abort [53](#page=53).
5. Upon completion, a "Format complete" message will appear. Click "OK". The drive is then ready for use [54](#page=54).
### 3.7 Data compression and extraction
**Data Compression** is a technique to reduce the storage space required for data. **Data Extraction** is the process of restoring compressed data to its original size [54](#page=54).
* **Compress a file or folder:** Right-click the item and select "Add to [item name.rar" (or similar, depending on the compression software). This creates a compressed archive [54](#page=54).
* **Extract a file or folder:** Right-click a compressed file or folder and select "Extract Here". This restores the original file or folder [55](#page=55).
Data compression and extraction can be performed using programs like WinRAR and WinZip [55](#page=55).
### 3.8 Printing from an installed printer
Printing is typically initiated from within an application, such as Microsoft Word [55](#page=55).
* **To print:** Click the "File" command, then select "Print," or use the keyboard shortcut `CTRL + P` [55](#page=55).
#### 3.8.1 Changing the default printer
1. Click the Start icon, then select "Settings" > "Devices" > "Printers & Scanners" [55](#page=55).
2. To change the default printer, click on a printer that is not currently the default [55](#page=55).
3. Click "Manage" [55](#page=55).
4. Select "Set as Default" [55](#page=55).
#### 3.8.2 Printing any document
1. Open the document or text file [55](#page=55).
2. Click "File" > "Print" or use `CTRL + P` [55](#page=55).
3. Select the desired options from the print dialog box [55](#page=55).
#### 3.8.3 View a print job’s progress
* **From the status bar:** Double-click the small printer icon that appears in the status bar when printing [56](#page=56).
* **From Settings:** Click the Start icon, then "Settings" > "Devices" > "Printers & Scanners". Select the printer receiving the job, then click "Open queue" to view the progress of sent print jobs [56](#page=56).
### 3.9 Using Get Help
To access Windows Help and Support:
1. Click the Start icon [56](#page=56).
2. Select "Get Help" [56](#page=56).
3. Type your search query into the dialog box and follow the prompts [56](#page=56).
---
# Internet, World Wide Web, and email
This module explores the foundational concepts of computer networking, the Internet, the World Wide Web, and electronic mail, along with related technologies like web browsers, search engines, social networking, and cloud storage [59](#page=59).
### 3.1 Computer network
A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers that allows for resource, data, and application sharing between them. It facilitates communication and resource sharing among two or more computers. Network types are categorized by their geographical coverage [60](#page=60).
#### 3.1.1 Computer network types
* **PAN (Personal Area Network):** Used for personal-level tasks, such as transferring small files wirelessly via technologies like Bluetooth or IR [60](#page=60).
* **LAN (Local Area Network):** Connects computers and peripheral devices within a limited geographical area, such as a school, laboratory, home, or office building [60](#page=60).
* **WAN (Wide Area Network):** A computer network that spans a large geographical area, essentially connecting multiple LANs [61](#page=61).
* **MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):** Connects multiple LANs across a large area, such as an entire city or college campus, but is smaller in scope than a WAN [61](#page=61).
### 3.2 Internet
The Internet is a global wide area network that interconnects computer systems worldwide, enabling users to perform various data operations such as sending, receiving, collecting, storing, and updating information [62](#page=62).
#### 3.2.1 What we can do on the Internet?
The Internet offers a wide range of functionalities, including:
* Email for communication and information sharing [62](#page=62).
* Social media for connecting with others and building online communities [62](#page=62).
* Accessing news and online shopping [62](#page=62).
* Managing finances, learning new skills, and entertainment [62](#page=62).
#### 3.2.2 History of the Internet
The Internet's origins trace back to the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), funded by the U.S. Department of Defense, which began on October 29, 1969. January 1, 1983, is recognized as the official birth date of the Internet. The World Wide Web (WWW), invented by computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1990, significantly popularized the Internet and made information more accessible to the public [62](#page=62).
### 3.3 World wide web
The World Wide Web, often shortened to "the Web," is a collection of websites accessible through the Internet. A website comprises related text, images, and other resources, and can serve various purposes, from news platforms and advertisements to online libraries, image-sharing forums, and educational sites. Websites can mimic traditional media or offer interactive experiences unique to computing [62](#page=62).
### 3.4 Web browser
A web browser is application software that enables users to access and view websites on the Internet [63](#page=63).
#### 3.4.1 Common web browsers
Popular web browsers include Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Safari, Microsoft Edge, Opera, and Mozilla Firefox [63](#page=63).
#### 3.4.2 URLs and the address bar
A URL (Uniform Resource Locator), also known as an internet address or web address, is a unique address for each website used to locate it. Typing a URL into a browser's address bar and pressing Enter directs the browser to load the corresponding web page [63](#page=63).
#### 3.4.3 Navigation buttons
* **Back and Forward buttons:** Allow users to move through previously visited websites. A click-and-hold action on these buttons reveals recent history [64](#page=64).
* **Refresh button:** Reloads the current web page, useful if a site is not loading correctly [64](#page=64).
* **Tabs:** New blank tabs can be created by clicking the button to the right of open tabs, and tabs can be closed by clicking the 'X' icon [64](#page=64).
#### 3.4.4 Bookmarks and history
* **Bookmarks (Favorites):** Allow users to save websites for easy revisiting by selecting a star icon [65](#page=65).
* **History:** Browsers maintain a record of visited sites, accessible through browser settings, typically by clicking an icon in the upper-right corner and selecting "History" [65](#page=65).
### 3.5 Search engine
Search engines, such as Google, Yahoo!, and Bing, allow users to find information online [66](#page=66).
#### 3.5.1 Performing a search
To perform a search, users enter one or more keywords (search terms) into the search engine and press Enter. The results displayed are relevant websites matching the search terms, known as search results. Many browsers also permit web searches directly from the address bar by typing search terms and pressing Enter [66](#page=66) [67](#page=67).
### 3.6 Electronic mail
Email, or "electronic mail," is a widely used Internet feature that enables sending and receiving messages globally to anyone with an email address [67](#page=67).
#### 3.6.1 Email addresses
An email address is essential for receiving emails and typically comprises a user name, the "@" symbol, and the email provider's domain. The user name is chosen by the individual for identification. Email service providers host email accounts. Businesses and organizations may use email addresses with their own domains, such as `@ict.edu.om` for UTAS-Ibra students and staff. Domain suffixes can include `.gov`, `.edu`, or `.org` [67](#page=67) [68](#page=68) [69](#page=69).
#### 3.6.2 Email providers
Leading webmail providers include Yahoo!, Microsoft's Outlook.com (formerly Hotmail), and Google's Gmail. Many individuals also have email addresses hosted by their employers, schools, or organizations for professional use [68](#page=68).
#### 3.6.3 Email features
An email interface typically includes:
* **Inbox and Sent Panes:** The inbox displays received emails, while the sent folder stores outgoing messages. Emails are listed with the sender's name, subject, and reception date/time [69](#page=69).
* **Message Pane:** Displays the content of a selected email, allowing users to read and respond [70](#page=70).
* **Compose Pane:** Used to create new email messages. It requires the recipient's address and a subject line. Users can attach files, add formatting, and reply or forward messages from this pane [70](#page=70).
### 3.7 Social networking
Social networking involves using social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter to connect with others who share similar interests. It is prevalent globally, particularly among younger demographics. Social media helps connect people and businesses, promoting brand awareness. However, disadvantages include the spread of misinformation and the cost of maintaining profiles [71](#page=71).
### 3.8 Essential concepts of cloud storage
#### 3.8.1 What is cloud storage?
Cloud storage is a model within cloud computing where data is stored on the Internet via a provider who manages and offers data storage as a service. It allows data to be saved off-site and accessed through the public internet or a private network connection [72](#page=72).
#### 3.8.2 Cloud storage applications
* **File storage:** Enables storing various information, including files and emails, accessible from any internet-connected device. Popular services include Dropbox and Google Drive [73](#page=73).
* **File sharing:** Simplifies sharing files with multiple people simultaneously, for instance, sharing photos via services like Flickr or iCloud Photos [73](#page=73).
* **Data Backup:** Used to back up business data and applications onto cloud servers. Apps like Carbonite automate cloud data backups [73](#page=73).
### 3.9 Effects of IT in society
Information technology significantly impacts how individuals communicate, learn, and think, with both positive and negative societal consequences [73](#page=73).
#### 3.9.1 Positive impacts
* **Education:** IT enhances the effectiveness and productivity of the education process, improving student performance through methods like replacing books with tablets and laptops [73](#page=73).
* **Communication:** IT has revolutionized global communication, making it easier and faster, especially through mobiles and emails for urgent messages [73](#page=73).
* **Healthcare:** Technological advancements in health include innovative apps for constant health monitoring [73](#page=73).
#### 3.9.2 Negative impacts
* **Social Interaction:** Mobile communication can negatively affect sociability and face-to-face interactions, potentially decreasing interpersonal relationships and personal time [73](#page=73).
* **Distraction:** Mobile technology can be a distraction from academic work [73](#page=73).
* **Privacy:** Loss of privacy is a concern, as individuals can be located at any time [73](#page=73).
> **Tip:** The overall impact of technology is a balance of positive and negative aspects. Responsible and ethical use is key to maximizing benefits and minimizing harm [73](#page=73).
---
# Information security and data protection
This topic explores the principles and practices of safeguarding information and computer systems from various threats, covering malware, network vulnerabilities, strong security measures, and relevant Omani legislation [77](#page=77).
### 5.1 Information security principles
Information security is defined as the protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. The core objectives of information security are [78](#page=78):
* **Confidentiality:** Ensuring that only authorized users have the right to access information [78](#page=78).
* **Integrity:** Guaranteeing that information remains unchanged and accurate [78](#page=78).
* **Availability:** Ensuring that information is accessible when needed by authorized users [78](#page=78).
### 5.2 Computer network security risks
Computer security risk refers to actions or events that could lead to the loss or damage of computer hardware, software, information, data, or processing capabilities, indicating the likelihood of a hazard or dangerous threat [78](#page=78).
#### 5.2.1 Risks to personal and organizational data
Information privacy is the right of individuals and companies to deny or restrict the collection and use of information about them. Security risks are associated with system, power, network, and physical losses, necessitating the protection of data in all forms and consideration of these risks during security design and implementation [78](#page=78).
#### 5.2.2 Computer malware
Malware, or malicious software, is designed to damage computers without the user's consent. It encompasses various threats to computer safety [79](#page=79):
* **Virus:** A malicious software designed to take control of system operations, destroy files, or damage the computer itself. Viruses can replicate and spread through downloaded files, email attachments, CDs, and flash drives once activated by a user [79](#page=79).
* **Worm:** A self-replicating program that consumes system and network resources. It repeatedly makes copies of itself, infecting additional computers, potentially consuming all available resources and causing the computer or network to shut down [79](#page=79).
* **Trojan horse:** A program that does not replicate or copy itself to other computers but causes damage or compromises security. It can enter a computer disguised as a virus or hide within or appear as a legitimate program [79](#page=79).
* **Spyware:** A program installed on a computer without the user's consent or knowledge that can capture information such as web browsing habits, email messages, usernames, passwords, and credit card information [79](#page=79).
#### 5.2.3 Security issues with electronic mails
Electronic mail (email) is a widely used communication channel, but it also presents significant opportunities for cybercrimes. A prominent threat is phishing, a form of social engineering where attackers send official-looking emails from reputable sources (e.g., banks) to trick victims into revealing personal and financial information [80](#page=80).
### 5.3 Safeguards against computer malware
While no method can guarantee absolute safety from malicious software, users can implement several precautions to protect their computers [80](#page=80).
#### 5.3.1 Strong password practices
A password is a private combination of characters associated with a username, granting access to specific computer resources. To create strong passwords [81](#page=81):
* **Adequate length:** Passwords should be at least eight characters long, and preferably longer, to resist brute-force attacks [81](#page=81).
* **Adequate character mix:** A mix of letters (uppercase and lowercase) and numbers is recommended, forming a meaningless combination [81](#page=81).
* **Avoid identifiable information:** Passwords should not include easily guessable information like family members' names, pet names, or other personal details [81](#page=81).
> **Example:** Weak passwords like "orange," "97435333," or "alabri" are easily crackable. Stronger examples include "OraNge@3241" or "Al#Abri@4429." [81](#page=81).
#### 5.3.2 Backup and recovery
Backup is the process of copying selected files or an entire hard disk to another storage medium, such as an external hard drive, optical disc, USB flash drive, or tape. This method is crucial for preventing data loss due to system failure, hardware or software issues, or theft [81](#page=81).
In Windows 10, backing up files involves inserting a storage drive, navigating to "Settings," then "Update & Security," and finally selecting "Backup." [82](#page=82).
Recovery is a tool containing system files that can restart a computer when it fails to boot from its hard disk. This process resets the system, allowing it to function as if newly installed. To reset a Windows 10 system, go to "Settings," "Update & Security," and then "Recovery." [82](#page=82) [83](#page=83).
#### 5.3.3 Regular software updating
No software is perfect, and regular updates are essential for security [83](#page=83).
* **Security updates:** These are designed to protect software and computers from harmful programs, viruses, and exploits [83](#page=83).
* **Application updates:** These add functionality, fix problems, or enhance software performance [83](#page=83).
* **Operating system updates:** Keeping operating system applications updated improves overall performance and stability [83](#page=83).
#### 5.3.4 Digital certificates
A digital certificate is a notice that verifies the legitimacy of a user or a website. Web browsers often display warnings if a website lacks a valid digital certificate [84](#page=84).
> **Example:** Visiting the Bank Nizwa website (https://www.banknizwa.om/) and clicking the "view certificate" link allows viewing its digital certificate, issued by DigiCert ShA2 Secure Server CA [84](#page=84).
#### 5.3.5 Encryption and decryption
* **Encryption:** A security technique that converts readable data (plaintext) into unreadable characters (ciphertext) to prevent unauthorized access [85](#page=85).
* **Decryption:** The inverse process of encryption, allowing only authorized parties with the necessary information to read encrypted files [85](#page=85).
#### 5.3.6 Privacy issues
Privacy concerns on the internet arise from cookies, spyware, browser tracking, and access to internet provider records, which can be used to monitor user behavior or gain access to PCs [85](#page=85).
#### 5.3.7 Firewall
A firewall is a hardware and/or software component that protects a network's resources from intrusion from other networks, such as the internet. It filters and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic, deciding what to allow and what to block. Organizations use firewalls to secure network resources from external threats and to restrict employee access to sensitive data [85](#page=85).
#### 5.3.8 Antivirus software
Antivirus software is a utility program designed to protect computers from viruses by scanning and removing any detected threats in memory, on storage devices, or in incoming files. Most antivirus software also offers protection against worms, Trojans, and spyware [86](#page=86).
### 5.4 Security features in Windows 10
Windows 10 includes several tools to protect computers from threats like viruses and malware. The three primary security tools are [86](#page=86):
* User Account Control [86](#page=86).
* Windows Defender [86](#page=86).
* Windows Firewall [86](#page=86).
#### 5.4.1 User Account Control (UAC)
User Account Control is a tool that alerts users when changes are attempted to the computer system settings. It helps protect the computer from accidental modifications or malicious software altering settings. UAC settings can be configured to [86](#page=86):
* **Low:** Never notify the user [86](#page=86).
* **Moderate:** Notify only when an application attempts to make changes to the computer [87](#page=87).
* **High:** Notify when programs or the user tries to make changes to the computer [87](#page=87).
To adjust UAC settings:
1. Open the Control Panel by searching for it [87](#page=87).
2. Select "User Accounts." [87](#page=87).
3. Click on "Change User Account Control settings." [87](#page=87).
4. Move the slider to the desired level. Windows 10 provides a summary of how the system will behave at each level [88](#page=88).
#### 5.4.2 Windows Defender
Windows Defender is an integrated antivirus and malware protection service within the Windows operating system. It enables users to scan their computer for malicious software and checks each file or program that is opened [88](#page=88).
To configure Windows Defender:
1. Go to SETTINGS and select Update & security [88](#page=88).
2. In the UPDATE & SECURITY window, select Windows Security [88](#page=88).
3. Click on "Virus & threat protection." [89](#page=89).
4. Click on Manage settings [90](#page=90).
Here, users can:
a) Turn real-time protection on or off [90](#page=90).
b) Turn cloud-delivered protection on or off, allowing Defender to send security threat information to Microsoft [90](#page=90).
#### 5.4.3 Windows Firewall
Windows Firewall prevents unauthorized external access to a computer. To customize Firewall settings [91](#page=91):
1. Open the Control Panel by searching for it [91](#page=91).
2. Choose Windows Firewall [91](#page=91).
3. In the Windows Firewall window, users can turn it on or off or select when it protects the computer [92](#page=92).
### 5.5 Oman data protection legislation
Oman's primary legislation concerning data protection includes the Electronic Transactions Law and the Cyber Crimes Law. Additional provisions relating to confidentiality and personal data protection are found in The Banking Law, circulars from the Central Bank of Oman (CBO), and Insurance Regulations issued by the Capital Market Authority (CMA) [92](#page=92).
#### 5.5.1 The Electronic Transactions Law
Article 43 of this law addresses the protection of private data, specifically within the context of e-commerce. It provides safeguards and imposes criminal sanctions for the illegal use of such data [92](#page=92).
#### 5.5.2 The Cyber Crimes Law
Chapter 2 of the Cyber Crimes Law pertains to violations of data and system safety and confidentiality. Penalties for hacking crimes may be increased if they involve the misuse of personal data [92](#page=92).
---
# Productivity software: Word processing, presentations, and spreadsheets
*Summary generation failed for this topic.*
---
## Common mistakes to avoid
- Review all topics thoroughly before exams
- Pay attention to formulas and key definitions
- Practice with examples provided in each section
- Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts
Glossary
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Computer | An electronic machine that accepts data, stores and processes it according to instructions (programs) to produce results (information). |
| Data | Raw material and unorganized facts that require processing to become useful. |
| Information | Processed, organized, structured, or presented data in a given context to make it useful. |
| System Unit | A case containing the essential components of the computer, including the motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), and random access memory (RAM). |
| Monitor | An output device that displays graphical or text output from the computer. |
| Keyboard | An input device used to enter text, characters, and commands into a computer by pressing keys. |
| Mouse | An input device used to point to objects on the screen, click them, and move them. |
| Personal Computer (Microcomputer) | A computer designed for individual use, including desktop, laptop, tablet, and smartphone types. |
| Server | A software or hardware device that accepts and responds to requests made over a network; the device making the request is a client. |
| Mainframe Computer | A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously, often processing multiple programs concurrently. |
| Supercomputer | The fastest and most powerful type of computer, used for specialized applications requiring immense mathematical calculations. |
| Hardware | The physical components of a computer system, including input devices, output devices, central processing unit (CPU), motherboard, power supply, and memory. |
| Motherboard | The main circuit board of a computer where most parts and peripherals are connected, holding components like the CPU and RAM. |
| Central Processing Unit (CPU) | The central component of a computer system, also known as a microprocessor or processor; it is the 'brain' of the computer responsible for executing instructions. |
| Processor Speed | A primary factor determining computer performance, measured by the number of cycles per second (Hertz) at which the processor operates. |
| Hertz | A unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second, used to measure processor speed. |
| Multi-core processor | A processor with two or more independent processing units on a single integrated circuit, such as dual-core or quad-core processors, to enhance speed. |
| Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) | The part of a CPU that performs arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logic operations (comparison). |
| Control Unit (CU) | Directs operations within a computer's processor by receiving instructions, passing them to the ALU, and sending results back to the program. |
| Register | Temporary storage areas within a computer processor that hold data currently being processed; their size is measured in bits (e.g., 32-bit or 64-bit). |
| Machine Cycle | The sequence of four operations (fetching, decoding, executing, and storing) that the CPU repeats for every instruction. |
| Fetching | The process of retrieving an instruction or data from memory by the CPU. |
| Decoding | The process of translating an instruction into signals that the computer can execute. |
| Executing | The process of carrying out a command or instruction. |
| Storing | The process of writing the result of a CPU operation back to memory. |
| Memory (Primary Memory) | Electronic chips that hold the operating system, system software, application programs, and data being processed. |
| RAM (Random Access Memory) | The main memory where the operating system and applications are loaded; its capacity affects how many programs can run simultaneously. It is volatile memory. |
| ROM (Read-Only Memory) | A non-volatile memory chip on the motherboard containing essential software that cannot be changed, used to start the computer. |
| Input Devices | Peripheral hardware equipment used to provide data and send instructions to the computer. |
| Output Devices | Computer hardware used to communicate the results of data processing to the user. |
| Storage Devices (Secondary Memory) | Non-volatile and persistent devices used for long-term data storage, not directly accessed by the processor. |
| Hard Disk Drive (HDD) | The main, large data storage area within a computer, storing the operating system, applications, and user data. |
| Solid State Drive (SSD) | A storage device that uses flash memory chips, offering faster speeds and no moving parts compared to HDDs. |
| Tape Drive | A device that reads and writes data on magnetic tape, primarily used for long-term storage and backups. |
| Compact Disc (CD) | A type of removable media with a storage capacity of around 700 MB, commonly used for music and data. |
| Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) | A removable media with higher storage capacity than CDs (4.7 GB single-layer, 8.5 GB dual-layer), popular for digital video and data storage. |
| Blu-ray Disc (BD) Drive | A digital optical disc storage medium capable of storing large amounts of data, including High-Definition and Ultra High-Definition video, with capacities of 25 GB (single-layer) and 50 GB (dual-layer). |
| USB Flash Drive | A small, lightweight, removable, and rewritable flash memory storage device with a USB connector, varying in capacity from megabytes to tens of gigabytes. |
| External Hard Disk | A portable hard disk drive that typically connects via USB, offering slower data transfer rates but large storage capacities (500 GB to 10 TB). |
| Bit | The smallest unit of data in a computer, representing a single binary value (0 or 1). |
| Byte | A unit of digital information consisting of eight bits, often representing a single character. |
| Kilobyte (KB) | A unit of digital information equal to 1,024 Bytes. |
| Megabyte (MB) | A unit of digital information equal to 1,024 Kilobytes. |
| Gigabyte (GB) | A unit of digital information equal to 1,024 Megabytes. |
| Terabyte (TB) | A unit of digital information equal to 1,024 Gigabytes. |
| Software | Instructions (programs) that make a computer work; it can be stored on disks or other media and loaded into RAM. |
| System Software | Programs that control or maintain the operations of a computer and its devices, including operating systems, utility programs, and device drivers. |
| Operating System | System software that allows a user to run applications, communicates with hardware, and manages file storage (e.g., Windows 10, Linux, macOS). |
| Utility Software | System software that adds functionality to a computer or improves its performance, such as antivirus, backup, and file compression tools. |
| Device Driver | System software designed to enable interaction between a hardware device and the operating system or programs using it. |
| Application Software | Software designed to make users more productive and assist them with personal tasks (e.g., word processors, spreadsheets, web browsers). |
| Installing Software | The process of adding software applications to a computer system, often from a disc, USB, or the web. |
| Uninstalling Software | The process of removing a software application from a computer system. |
| Software Copyright | Legal protection granted to software creators to prevent unauthorized copying, distribution, or modification. |
| End-User License Agreement (EULA) | A legal contract between the software manufacturer and the end-user, detailing terms of use and restrictions. |
| Shareware | Proprietary software provided on a trial basis without initial payment, requiring a license purchase after the trial period. |
| Freeware | Software that is fully functional for an unlimited time at no cost, though rights to copy, distribute, or modify may be restricted by the author. |
| Proprietary Software | Software that is copyrighted and has restrictions on its use, distribution, and modification imposed by the developer. |
| Open Source Software | Software whose source code is made available for anyone to use, modify, and share, fostering community development. |
| Ergonomics | The science of designing jobs, equipment, and workplaces to fit the worker to prevent injuries and optimize well-being. |
| Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) | An injury caused by repetitive movements or prolonged awkward postures, often associated with computer use. |
| Computer Network | A collection of computers and devices linked together to share resources, data, and applications. |
| PAN (Personal Area Network) | A computer network used on a personal level, typically for transferring small files wirelessly (e.g., using Bluetooth). |
| LAN (Local Area Network) | A group of computers and peripherals connected within a limited area like a school, office, or home. |
| WAN (Wide Area Network) | A computer network that extends over a large geographic area, often connecting multiple LANs. |
| MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) | A computer network connecting multiple LANs across a city or large campus, smaller in scope than a WAN. |
| Internet | A global wide area network connecting computer systems worldwide, enabling data exchange and communication. |
| World Wide Web (WWW) | A collection of websites and web pages accessible through the Internet, forming a vast information space. |
| Website | A collection of related text, images, and other resources hosted on a server and accessible via a URL. |
| Web Browser | An application software used to access and view websites on the Internet (e.g., Chrome, Firefox, Edge). |
| URL (Uniform Resource Locator) | The unique address of a website or web page on the Internet. |
| Bookmarks (Favorites) | Saved website addresses that allow users to easily revisit them. |
| History | A record of websites visited by a user, stored by the web browser. |
| Search Engine | A website or tool that searches the Internet for information based on keywords (e.g., Google, Bing, Yahoo!). |
| Electronic Mail (Email) | A system for sending and receiving messages and files electronically over a computer network. |
| Email Address | A unique identifier for an email account, consisting of a username, the '@' symbol, and the email provider's domain. |
| Email Provider | A service that hosts email accounts, allowing users to send and receive emails (e.g., Gmail, Outlook.com, Yahoo! Mail). |
| Inbox | The section of an email client where received emails are stored and managed. |
| Compose Pane | The area in an email client used for writing and sending new email messages. |
| Attachment | A file (document, image, etc.) sent along with an email message. |
| Social Networking | The use of Internet-based social media platforms to connect with friends, family, or people with shared interests. |
| Cloud Storage | A model of data storage where digital data is stored on the Internet through a cloud computing provider, accessible via a network. |
| File Sharing | The practice of distributing or providing access to digital files to others, often facilitated by cloud storage services. |
| Data Backup | The process of copying files or an entire system to another storage medium to prevent data loss. |
| Information Security | The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disruption, modification, or destruction, ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and availability. |
| Confidentiality | Ensuring that information is accessible only to authorized individuals. |
| Integrity | Ensuring that information is accurate, complete, and has not been altered without authorization. |
| Availability | Ensuring that information and systems are accessible and usable when needed. |
| Computer Security Risk | An action or event that could cause loss or damage to computer hardware, software, information, or processing capability. |
| Information Privacy | The right of individuals and companies to control the collection and use of information about them. |
| Malware | Malicious software designed to damage computers or gain unauthorized access without the user's consent. |
| Virus | A malicious software program that replicates itself and can damage or destroy files on a computer. |
| Worm | A self-replicating program that spreads across networks and consumes system resources, often without user intervention. |
| Trojan Horse | A malicious program disguised as legitimate software that can compromise computer security or cause damage. |
| Spyware | Software that secretly gathers information about a user's computer activities without their knowledge or consent. |
| Phishing | A type of email-based social engineering attack where attackers impersonate reputable sources to obtain sensitive information. |
| Password | A private combination of characters used to authenticate a user and grant access to computer resources. |
| Backup | A copy of selected files or an entire hard disk stored on another medium for data recovery purposes. |
| Recovery | A process or tool used to restart a computer or restore data after a system failure or data loss. |
| Digital Certificate | A notice that verifies the legitimacy of a user or a website, often used in secure online transactions. |
| Encryption | A security technique that converts readable data (plaintext) into unreadable code (ciphertext) to prevent unauthorized access. |
| Decryption | The process of converting encrypted data (ciphertext) back into its original readable form (plaintext). |
| Firewall | Hardware or software that protects a network's resources from unauthorized access by filtering and controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic. |
| Antivirus Software | A utility program designed to detect, prevent, and remove computer viruses and other malicious software. |
| User Account Control (UAC) | A security feature in Windows that warns users when programs attempt to make changes to system settings. |
| Windows Defender | An antivirus and malware protection program included in the Windows operating system. |
| Windows Firewall | A firewall feature integrated into Windows to protect the computer from unauthorized network access. |
| Word Processing | The creation, editing, formatting, and printing of documents using software like Microsoft Word. |
| Word Processor | Software application used for creating and editing text documents. |
| Ribbon | A user interface element in Microsoft Office applications that contains multiple tabs with groups of commands for performing tasks. |
| Quick Access Toolbar | A customizable toolbar in Microsoft Office applications that provides quick access to frequently used commands. |
| Document | A file created and edited using word processing software. |
| Template | A predesigned document or presentation that can be used as a starting point for new projects. |
| Save As | A command used to save a file with a new name or in a different location or format. |
| Formatting Text | Modifying the appearance of text, such as font, size, color, alignment, and style (bold, italic, underline). |
| Cut, Copy, Paste | Operations used to move (cut and paste) or duplicate (copy and paste) selected text or objects. |
| Font Size | The height of characters in a document, measured in points. |
| Font Style | The typeface used for text, such as Arial, Times New Roman, or Calibri. |
| Font Color | The color applied to text characters. |
| Bold, Italic, Underline | Text formatting styles used to emphasize text. |
| Change Case | A feature that allows changing the capitalization of selected text (e.g., to uppercase, lowercase, sentence case). |
| Highlight Text | Applying a background color to text to draw attention to it. |
| Text Alignment | The arrangement of text on a page relative to the margins (left, right, center, justified). |
| Find and Replace | A feature that searches for specific text within a document and optionally replaces it with different text. |
| Page Layout | The arrangement of content on a page, including orientation, size, and margins. |
| Page Orientation | The direction in which a page is printed (portrait or landscape). |
| Portrait Orientation | A page layout where the page is taller than it is wide. |
| Landscape Orientation | A page layout where the page is wider than it is tall. |
| Page Size | The dimensions of the paper used for a document (e.g., Letter, A4). |
| Margin | The space between the text and the edges of the document page. |
| Printing Documents | The process of producing a hard copy of a document on paper. |
| Print Pane | A view in applications that allows users to configure printing settings and preview the document before printing. |
| Header | Text or graphics that appear at the top margin of each page in a document. |
| Footer | Text or graphics that appear at the bottom margin of each page in a document. |
| Page Number | A sequential number displayed on each page of a document, typically in the header or footer. |
| Pictures | Digital images that can be inserted into documents to illustrate content. |
| Crop an Image | To remove unwanted parts of an image by adjusting its boundaries. |
| Crop to Shape | To reshape an image by fitting it within a selected geometric shape. |
| Picture Border | A line or frame added around an image. |
| Shapes | Geometric figures (lines, squares, circles, arrows, etc.) that can be inserted into documents. |
| Bring to Front/Send to Back | Commands used to control the layering order of overlapping objects or shapes. |
| Resize a Shape | To change the dimensions (width and height) of a shape. |
| Shape Style | A predefined combination of color, effects, and outlines for a shape. |
| Shape Fill | The color or texture used to fill the interior of a shape. |
| Shape Outline | The color, weight, and style of the border of a shape. |
| Table | A grid of cells arranged in rows and columns, used for organizing data. |
| Row | A horizontal set of cells in a table. |
| Column | A vertical set of cells in a table. |
| Cell | The intersection of a row and a column in a table or spreadsheet. |
| Cell Range | A group of contiguous cells in a spreadsheet. |
| Spell Check | A feature that identifies and corrects spelling errors in a document. |
| Grammar Check | A feature that identifies and suggests corrections for grammatical errors in a document. |
| Presentation Program | Software used to create dynamic slide presentations, such as Microsoft PowerPoint. |
| Presentation | A collection of slides displayed in sequence to present information. |
| Slide | A single page within a presentation. |
| Slide Layout | A predefined arrangement of placeholders on a slide for content like text, images, or charts. |
| Placeholder | A designated area on a slide where content can be inserted. |
| Title Slide | The first slide in a presentation, typically containing the presentation title and subtitle. |
| Content Slide | Slides designed to present information, often with placeholders for text, images, charts, etc. |
| Chart | A graphical representation of data, used to visualize trends and comparisons. |
| SmartArt | A feature that allows the creation of visual diagrams (e.g., cycles, lists, processes) to represent information. |
| Duplicate Slide | To create an exact copy of an existing slide. |
| Move Slides | To rearrange the order of slides within a presentation. |
| Delete Slide | To remove a slide from a presentation. |
| Blank Slide | A slide with no pre-defined placeholders, offering maximum flexibility for content placement. |
| Text Box | An object that allows for the insertion and formatting of text on a slide. |
| Slide Notes | Text that accompanies a slide, typically visible only to the presenter, for reference. |
| Play Presentation | To display the presentation in full-screen mode for an audience. |
| Slide Size | The dimensions of a presentation slide. |
| Slide Background | The visual appearance behind the content of a slide. |
| Hide Slide | To exclude a slide from being shown during a presentation. |
| Slide Master | A template slide that controls the formatting and layout of all slides in a presentation. |
| Animation | Visual effects applied to objects or text on a slide to control their appearance and movement. |
| Transition | Visual effects that occur when moving from one slide to the next during a presentation. |
| Animation Pane | A tool that displays and manages all animation effects applied to objects on a slide. |
| Spreadsheet Program | Software used for organizing, analyzing, and calculating data in tabular form, such as Microsoft Excel. |
| Workbook | A file created and saved using spreadsheet software like Excel. |
| Worksheet | A single sheet within an Excel workbook, containing cells arranged in rows and columns. |
| Cell Address | The unique identifier for a cell, formed by its column letter and row number (e.g., A1, C5). |
| Formula Bar | An area in Excel that displays the contents of the active cell, including formulas. |
| Name Box | Displays the cell address of the active cell. |
| Sheet Navigator | Tabs at the bottom of the Excel window that allow users to switch between worksheets. |
| Worksheet Grid Lines | The lines that define the cells in a worksheet. |
| Excel Interface | The visual layout of the Excel application window, including the Ribbon, Formula Bar, and worksheet grid. |
| Formula | A sequence of values, cell references, operators, and functions in a cell that produces a new value. |
| Mathematical Operators | Symbols used in formulas to perform calculations (+, -, *, /, ^). |
| Cell Reference | Using the address of a cell (e.g., A1) within a formula to include its value in the calculation. |
| Point-and-Click Method | Creating formulas by selecting cells with the mouse rather than typing their addresses manually. |
| Excel Functions | Predefined formulas in Excel that perform specific calculations (e.g., SUM, AVERAGE, IF). |
| SUM Function | An Excel function that adds all the numbers in a specified range of cells. |
| AutoSum Function | A quick way to insert the SUM function to calculate the total of a range of cells. |
| MIN Function | An Excel function that returns the smallest value in a set of values. |
| MAX Function | An Excel function that returns the largest value in a set of values. |
| AVERAGE Function | An Excel function that calculates the arithmetic mean of a set of values. |
| IF Function | An Excel function that performs a logical test and returns one value if the test is true, and another if it is false. |
| Formatting Cell Contents | Modifying the appearance of data within cells, including font, color, size, and alignment. |
| Merging Cells | Combining two or more adjacent cells into a single larger cell. |
| Insert Image | Adding a picture or graphic file into a worksheet. |
| Chart/Graph | A visual representation of data used for analysis and presentation. |
| Column Chart | A chart that displays data using vertical bars. |
| Recommended Charts | An Excel feature that suggests appropriate chart types based on the selected data. |
| Chart Elements | Components of a chart, such as titles, legends, and data labels, that enhance readability. |
| Quick Layout | Predefined arrangements of chart elements to quickly format a chart. |
| Chart Style | A predefined visual appearance for a chart, including colors and effects. |
| Switch Row/Column | An option to transpose the data displayed in a chart, swapping rows and columns. |
| Change Chart Type | The ability to convert an existing chart into a different chart type. |
| Move a Chart | To relocate a chart from one location or worksheet to another within a workbook. |
| Handle Sheets | Operations related to managing worksheets within an Excel workbook, such as inserting, deleting, renaming, hiding, and unhiding. |
| Print Area | The specific range of cells designated to be printed from a worksheet. |
| Scaling | Adjusting the size of content to fit within the printable area of a page. |