British Drama

# Introduction to literary and cultural studies This section introduces the foundational elements of the course, including the instructor, term dates, and the overall scope of literary and cultural studies [1](#page=1) [53](#page=53). ### 1.1 Course overview The course "Introduction to Literary and Cultural Studies" is taught by Dr. Denise Burkhard during the winter term of 2025/2026. The initial pages of the document serve as a direct introduction to the course structure and its academic context [1](#page=1) [53](#page=53). ### 1.2 Instructor information The instructor for this course is Dr. Denise Burkhard [1](#page=1) [53](#page=53). ### 1.3 Term dates The course is scheduled for the winter term of 2025/2026 [1](#page=1) [53](#page=53). > **Tip:** Familiarizing yourself with the instructor's name and the course term is essential for administrative purposes and for establishing a clear academic timeline for your studies. ### 1.4 Setting the stage for academic content The introductory material is designed to prepare students for the in-depth academic content that will follow throughout the course. It establishes the framework within which literary and cultural studies will be explored [1](#page=1) [53](#page=53). > **Tip:** Pay close attention to how the introductory sections frame the subject matter, as this often provides clues about the course's key themes and methodological approaches. --- # Poetic and dramatic texts This topic explores the analysis of poetic and dramatic texts, focusing on Victorian poetry through "My Last Duchess" and Oscar Wilde's "The Importance of Being Earnest" as a prime example of dramatic writing [12](#page=12) [2](#page=2). ### 2.1 Poetic texts: Victorian poetry #### 2.1.1 "My Last Duchess" as a dramatic monologue "My Last Duchess" exemplifies the characteristics of a dramatic monologue. This form features a single speaker who narrates the entire piece, with no other voices present. Through this single voice, insights into the speaker's personality, attitudes, motives, and desires are revealed. In "My Last Duchess," the Duke's possessiveness, jealousy, and pride are key aspects of his character that ultimately serve as the motive for his former wife's murder. The monologue is addressed to a listener, who appears to be an envoy from a Count, negotiating a potential future marriage for the Duke [10](#page=10) [11](#page=11). > **Tip:** The dramatic monologue relies on the reader inferring information and understanding the speaker's unreliability or bias. #### 2.1.2 Poetic features and their effect in "My Last Duchess" The poetic features employed in "My Last Duchess" significantly underscore the character of the Duke. The poem utilizes iambic pentameter, which contributes to a conversational tone. Frequent enjambments are used, creating a sense of flow that mimics natural speech. The poem also employs rhyming couplets, which can provide a sense of closure to lines or ideas. There are no distinct stanzas, further contributing to the unbroken narrative of the Duke's speech. The use of caesuras (pauses within a line) are noted as important for performance, suggesting deliberate pacing and emphasis by the speaker [8](#page=8) [9](#page=9). ### 2.2 Dramatic texts: Oscar Wilde's "The Importance of Being Earnest" #### 2.2.1 Characteristic elements of dramatic texts Dramatic texts operate through a communication model involving both external and internal communication. Externally, the author acts as the sender of the dramatic text, which is the message, to the reader as the recipient. Internally, within the text itself, characters communicate with each other [14](#page=14) [17](#page=17). The distinction between "on page" and "on stage" is crucial. "On page," the author is the sender, the text is the message, and the reader is the recipient. "On stage," the theatre apparatus is the sender, the multimedia performance is the message, and the audience is the recipient. This involves verbal encoding and decoding on the page, and audiovisual encoding and decoding on the stage [15](#page=15) [17](#page=17). > **Tip:** Always consider whether you are analyzing the text as a script to be read or as a performance to be seen. #### 2.2.2 Discrepant awareness Discrepant awareness refers to the gap between the internal and external levels of communication within a dramatic text. Characters within the play are typically unaware that they are part of a theatrical work, while the reader or audience is cognizant that they are observing a play and may possess prior knowledge of its content or genre. This difference in informational levels constitutes discrepant awareness [19](#page=19). #### 2.2.3 Structure of dramatic texts: Closed vs. Open form Dramatic texts can follow either a closed or an open form [22](#page=22) [32](#page=32). **The Closed Form of Drama:** * Characterized by a clear order: beginning, development, and resolution [22](#page=22). * Often structured into five acts [22](#page=22). * Features a resolution of the problem or conflict, frequently through poetic justice [22](#page=22). * Adheres to the 'three unities': action, time, and place [23](#page=23) [24](#page=24). * **Action:** A single, coherent plot [24](#page=24). * **Time:** The events of the play ideally occur within a 24-hour period [24](#page=24). * **Place:** The action is confined to a single location [24](#page=24). * The typical arc of a closed form includes: introduction/exposition, complication/rising movement, climax, fall/reversal, and dénouement/catastrophe [27](#page=27) [31](#page=31). * Exposition can be either initially isolated (e.g., a prologue) or integrated into the dialogue and action [28](#page=28) [30](#page=30). **The Open Form of Drama:** * More prevalent in modern forms of drama [33](#page=33). * Rejects the strict structure of the closed form as artificial and restrictive [33](#page=33). * Generally disregards the three unities [33](#page=33). * Scenes are often episodic and loosely connected [33](#page=33). * The ending typically lacks a definitive resolution of the plot [33](#page=33). "The Importance of Being Earnest" follows the closed form of drama. Act I, for instance, covers the introduction/exposition and the exciting force, leading into the complication/rising movement [34](#page=34) [61](#page=61) [62](#page=62). > **Example:** Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" uses an initially isolated exposition in its prologue [29](#page=29). #### 2.2.4 Oscar Wilde and "The Importance of Being Earnest" Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) was an Irish poet, playwright, and novelist renowned for his wit and distinctive style. "The Importance of Being Earnest" was written between 1894 and 1895 and premiered in London in February 1895, achieving immediate success. It is classified as a comedy of manners, characterized by witty dialogues and a satire of Victorian society. The play remains one of Wilde's most celebrated works [35](#page=35) [36](#page=36). #### 2.2.5 The Late Victorian Period context The late Victorian period (1870s-1901) was a society marked by strong class consciousness, significant technological advancements, and the rise of social reform movements (e.g., child labour, working conditions, women's suffrage). It was also a time of imperial expansion and increasing urbanization. The period is known for its rigid norms and values, which faced growing criticism towards the end of the century, a phase termed "Fin de Siècle". This era of transition was characterized by decadence, a preoccupation with decline (moral, aesthetic, and social), and themes of excess and sensual pleasures, reflecting insecurity and pessimism due to rapid societal changes [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39). #### 2.2.6 Characterisation techniques Manfred Pfister distinguishes between two primary techniques of characterisation in dramatic texts: figural and authorial [55](#page=55) [57](#page=57). * **Figural Characterisation:** This is characterisation conveyed *through* the characters themselves. * **Implicit:** Revealed through non-verbal cues like costume, behaviour, physiognomy, stature, gesture, masks, properties, locale, and behaviour, as well as verbal elements such as voice-quality, verbal behaviour, idiolect, sociolect, dialect, register, and stylistic texture [55](#page=55) [57](#page=57). * **Explicit:** Conveyed through self-commentary (in soliloquies or dialogues) or through commentary by other characters in dialogue or soliloquy, either before or after the character's first appearance, and while they are present or absent [55](#page=55) [57](#page=57). * **Authorial Characterisation:** This is characterisation provided directly by the author. * **Implicit:** Achieved through correspondence and contrast between characters, or through implicitly characterising names [56](#page=56) [57](#page=57). * **Explicit:** Provided through direct description in the secondary texts (like the preface or dramatis personae) or through telling names [56](#page=56) [57](#page=57). ##### 2.2.6.1 Jack and Algernon Jack and Algernon are introduced as two bachelors who both intend to marry. Both employ second identities to escape societal commitments and lead more independent lives. Jack, unaware of his family origins (having been found by Mr. Thomas Cardew), uses the persona of "Ernest" in the city. Algernon, a self-proclaimed 'Bunburyist,' uses his invented invalid friend, Bunbury, to avoid tedious social events and engagements. This practice of "Bunburying" is a fictional, humorous term coined by Wilde, representing a false persona and deception to maintain personal freedom [41](#page=41) [63](#page=63) [64](#page=64). > **Tip:** Consider how the characters' speech patterns (idiolect/sociolect) contribute to their characterisation. ##### 2.2.6.2 Cecily and Gwendolen Cecily and Gwendolen are introduced and characterised in Act I through commentary by Algernon and Jack while they are absent. Cecily is partly characterised through an object, a cigarette case, and by being Jack’s protégée, with her last name, Fairfax, offering implicit authorial characterisation. Gwendolen is presented as Jack's marriage interest and Algernon's cousin, with her characterisation being explicit when she is present, appearing charming, smart, and having specific ideas about proposing, particularly her infatuation with the name Ernest. Both women are initially described and commended by Algernon and Jack in dialogue before their appearance [50](#page=50) [58](#page=58) [60](#page=60). #### 2.2.7 The Victorian Gentleman and the Dandy The concept of the Victorian Gentleman is central to understanding the characters. The "Dandy" is a figure particularly prominent in late Victorian and fin de siècle culture, with Oscar Wilde himself often associated with this persona [44](#page=44) [45](#page=45) [47](#page=47). * **Characteristics of the Dandy:** * A male character who places immense importance on appearance, style, and manners, with clothing being a significant aspect [47](#page=47). * Celebrates aestheticism, primarily through fashion [48](#page=48). * Belongs to the upper class [48](#page=48). * Challenges traditional notions of masculinity through a more effeminate appearance [48](#page=48). * Embodies indolence and idleness [48](#page=48). Algernon and Jack can be regarded as late-Victorian dandies, exhibiting these characteristics, particularly in their focus on fashion, their leisured lifestyles, and their use of invented personas to avoid societal obligations [49](#page=49). #### 2.2.8 Critiquing Victorian Society through Bunburying and Double Identities Bunburying and the use of double identities serve as potent critiques of Victorian society. Victorian society was characterized by rigid rules regarding appearance, reputation, and social propriety. Wilde uses the concept of Bunburying to critique this obsession with outward show and reputation, highlighting how individuals often lied and pretended to hide their true feelings and desires due to strict codes of conduct [65](#page=65) [66](#page=66) [67](#page=67). The pitfalls of these double identities include: * A struggle with identity itself, as characters like Jack adopt different personas (Ernest in the city, Jack in the country) requiring them to act accordingly [68](#page=68). * Lying and deceiving loved ones, creating a constant threat of exposure and loss of trust [68](#page=68). * Identities being based on superficial qualities like names or titles, which become the driving force of Wilde's comedic effect [68](#page=68). #### 2.2.9 Humour in double identities Double identities are a primary source of humour in the play. This is exemplified in the tea scene with Cecily and Gwendolen, where both believe they are in love with the same man named "Ernest," leading to highly exaggerated reactions. Other comedic elements include [69](#page=69) [70](#page=70): * Discrepant awareness, where the audience understands the deceptions better than the characters [69](#page=69). * The women's dramatic shifts in demeanor from despising each other (using last names) to embracing as friends (using first names) [69](#page=69). * Algernon and Jack occasionally saying the same things [69](#page=69). * Exaggerated stage directions [69](#page=69). * Humorous visual cues, such as Cecily needing glasses to see Gwendolen properly [69](#page=69). * The use of mock-politeness [69](#page=69). #### 2.2.10 The title as a clever pun The title, "The Importance of Being Earnest," is a clever pun that operates on multiple levels within the context of deception and false identities. The word "earnest" signifies sincerity, seriousness, and genuineness—qualities associated with moral integrity and honesty in Victorian society. The title suggests an exploration of these virtues. However, both male protagonists adopt the name "Ernest" as a fake identity. Jack is "Ernest" in the city, while in the country, he claims to have a younger brother named Ernest; Algernon adopts this persona when Bunburying. Gwendolen and Cecily are particularly drawn to the name "Ernest," associating the virtues of being "earnest" with the name itself, revealing a superficiality where the name becomes more important than the person [71](#page=71) [72](#page=72) [73](#page=73). #### 2.2.11 Lady Bracknell: Embodiment of Victorian values Lady Bracknell embodies and exaggerates the values of Victorian society, particularly concerning marriage, respectability, and wealth. Her obsession with social class and status is evident in her inquiries and judgments [74](#page=74) [75](#page=75) [76](#page=76). * **Marriage:** For Lady Bracknell, marriage is a matter of convenience and financial security, not love. She prioritizes the family name and background of a suitor to ensure her daughter is well-provided for [76](#page=76). * **Respectability:** Maintaining social standing and adhering to strict societal norms is paramount [76](#page=76). * **Wealth:** She actively seeks a husband for her daughter who can provide financial security and maintain their social status [76](#page=76). While Gwendolen and Cecily express a desire for marriage, their attraction to the name "Ernest" rather than the person aligns with Lady Bracknell's emphasis on superficial qualities and social standing, albeit in a slightly different manifestation [77](#page=77). #### 2.2.12 The Comedy of Manners "The Importance of Being Earnest" is a prime example of a comedy of manners, characterized by specific elements [79](#page=79) [80](#page=80): * **Focus on etiquette and conventions of the upper class:** The play emphasizes aspects like reputation, manners, and social status, highlighting their superficiality [80](#page=80). * **Clever and witty dialogues and wordplay:** Wilde's signature wit and linguistic dexterity are central to the play's comedic effect [80](#page=80). * **Criticism of social norms:** The play satirizes the rigid and often hypocritical social conventions of Victorian society [79](#page=79) [80](#page=80). * **Themes of love and marriage:** These are explored, often through romantic entanglements and the complexities of courtship [80](#page=80). * **Irony:** Used to highlight the pretense of appearance and the gap between outward show and inner reality [79](#page=79) [80](#page=80). --- # Narrative texts and literary analysis techniques This section explores the narrative structure and literary techniques employed in Jane Austen's "Northanger Abbey," focusing on narrative communication models, narrator types, focalisation, and parody within the context of Gothic fiction [81](#page=81). ### 3.1 Characteristic elements of narrative texts Narrative texts are characterized by their prose form, developed characters, the presence of a narrator, subplots, shifts in scenes and places, and flashbacks. They are typically subdivided into chapters and encompass various text types such as novels and fairytales, gaining popularity in the 19th century for their portrayal of everyday life [52](#page=52) [82](#page=82). #### 3.1.1 The communication model of narrative texts The communication within narrative texts operates on three distinct levels: * **Extratextual level of communication:** This involves the communication between the real author and the real reader through the narrative text itself [83](#page=83) [84](#page=84). * **Intratextual level of communication (I):** This is the level of narrative transmission, where a fictive narrator communicates a message to a fictive narratee [83](#page=83) [85](#page=85). * **Intratextual level of communication (II):** This level concerns the communication within the story itself, where one character acts as a sender and another as a recipient [83](#page=83) [86](#page=86). These three levels can be visualized in a model showing the real author communicating with the real reader, the fictive narrator with the fictive narratee, and characters as senders and recipients [87](#page=87). ### 3.2 Narrative situation and narrator types The narrative situation, as theorized by Franz Stanzel and Gerard Genette, describes how a story is told. #### 3.2.1 Stanzel's narrative situations Stanzel identifies three main narrative situations: 1. **First-person narrative situation:** The narrator is involved in the story and narrates events using a "narrating I." [89](#page=89). 2. **Authorial narrative situation:** The narrator is situated outside the world of the characters and is omniscient [89](#page=89). 3. **Figural narrative situation:** The narrated world is presented from the perspective of a character involved in the action, typically using third-person narration [89](#page=89). #### 3.2.2 Genette's narrative situation framework Gerard Genette distinguishes between who speaks (narration) and who sees (focalisation) [90](#page=90). **Narration Types (According to Genette):** * **Intradiegetic narrator:** A narrator who is part of the narrated world and operates on the story level [92](#page=92). * **Homodiegetic narrator:** A character within the story but not the protagonist. This roughly corresponds to Stanzel's first-person narrative situation [93](#page=93). * **Autodiegetic narrator:** A homodiegetic narrator who is also the protagonist [93](#page=93). * **Extradiegetic narrator:** A narrator situated outside the story itself, on the level of narrative transmission. This roughly corresponds to Stanzel's authorial narrative situation [92](#page=92) [93](#page=93). **Overt vs. Covert Narrator:** * **Overt narrator:** A narrator who is an individualized speaker on the narrative transmission level [94](#page=94). * **Covert narrator:** Anonymous voices about whom no information is provided [94](#page=94). In "Northanger Abbey," the narrator is described as an **overt heterodiegetic narrator** [52](#page=52) [95](#page=95). #### 3.2.3 Focalisation (According to Genette) Focalisation refers to the perspective through which the story is told. Genette identifies several types: * **External focalisation:** Restricted to externally visible phenomena, with no access to characters' minds [97](#page=97). * **Internal focalisation:** Located on the same level as the characters, allowing access to their minds. This is often referred to as "character-focalizers." [97](#page=97). * **Internal fixed:** Consistently from one character's perspective [97](#page=97). * **Internal variable:** Multiple characters serve as reflectors in succession [97](#page=97). * **Internal multiple:** A single event is narrated from the viewpoints of different characters [97](#page=97). * **Zero focalisation:** The narrator is omniscient [97](#page=97). "Northanger Abbey" predominantly features a **fixed internal focalisation on Catherine Morland** [52](#page=52) [98](#page=98) [99](#page=99). ### 3.3 Jane Austen and "Northanger Abbey" Jane Austen was born in 1775 and died in 1817. She published her works anonymously and did not achieve significant fame during her lifetime. Her published novels include "Sense and Sensibility" "Pride and Prejudice" "Mansfield Park" "Emma" "Northanger Abbey" (posthumously published 1818), and "Persuasion" (posthumously published 1818) [100](#page=100) . "Northanger Abbey," published posthumously in 1818, was completed around 1803-1804 and is considered one of Austen's earlier works. It functions as a coming-of-age story and a parody of Gothic fiction, playing a foundational role in the development of the novel genre . #### 3.3.1 The Regency period and its literature The Regency period spans from 1811 to 1820. It was a time of social unrest and is often considered to have begun around 1790 and ended around 1830 in literary terms. The Prince Regent, an important patron of the arts, was associated with elegance, fashion, style, and an extravagant upper-class society marked by marriage scandals . Regency literature often grappled with whether novels could be classified as literature, with themes focusing on romance, social class, courtship, fashion, manners, and social behavior. A common characteristic is a happy ending, typically involving a love match. The heroines were often spirited young women desiring to marry for love and defy societal expectations . #### 3.3.2 Catherine Morland At the beginning of the novel, Catherine Morland is characterized as a tomboyish character, "almost pretty," lacking artistic or typically feminine attributes and not playing with dolls. This tomboyish nature makes her more interesting to the reader, establishes a contrast with other female characters, and highlights her personal and moral development . Catherine is referred to as the "heroine" because she overcomes her struggles, is identified as the protagonist, and her characterization serves as a criticism of typical Gothic/Romantic heroines. The novel is a coming-of-age story focusing on her personal and moral development, setting expectations for a journey of growth rather than heroic deeds . #### 3.3.3 Gothic fiction and its elements Gothic fiction, originating from Horace Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto" is derived from the Gothic architecture of the Middle Ages. It critiques the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason by strongly focusing on emotion. Popular authors include Horace Walpole, Ann Radcliffe, and Matthew Lewis . Characteristic elements of Gothic fiction include: * **Character constellation:** A damsel in distress (beautiful and innocent), a villain (aristocrat), and a hero (young and innocent) . * **Settings:** Castles, mansions, monasteries, often in remote, desolate, and decaying states, with subterranean passages. Abbeys are frequently favored for their architectural features and historical associations with scholars, science, and religious authorities . * **Temporal setting:** Typically set in the Middle Ages . * **Supernatural elements:** Ghosts, monsters (e.g., vampires, werewolves) . * **Emotional focus:** Intense emotions like terror, despair, and obsession . * **Narrator:** Often unreliable . * **Themes:** Death, mortality, haunting, family curses, madness, decay, love, and romance . * **Atmosphere:** Mystery and suspense . Gothic literature is divided into "literature of terror," where supernatural elements are rationally explained, and "literature of horror," which includes "real" supernatural elements . Catherine is susceptible to Gothic elements because she is highly imaginative, enjoys castles and abbeys, and favors Gothic tales like Ann Radcliffe's "The Mysteries of Udolpho." . #### 3.3.4 Bath as a setting Bath serves as a prominent setting for a significant portion of the novel. Jane Austen's personal familiarity with Bath contributes to its depiction. During the Regency era, Bath was a fashionable and lively social center, a popular resort for wealthy individuals, and a place for young women to find wealthy husbands. The discovery and renovation of Roman baths also added to its appeal as a tourist destination. Bath provides a stark contrast to the rural settings found elsewhere in the novel . #### 3.3.5 The social world in Austen's novels Austen's world is characterized by a fairly closed, structured, and hierarchical society where social standing is paramount. Emphasis is placed on reputation, etiquette, and manners. Marriage is often viewed as an economic necessity, and extending social bonds is highly important. This social environment can also be perceived as lonely and boring, with a constant comparison of social events and fashion . #### 3.3.6 Key characters * **Isabella Thorpe:** Functions to enable Catherine's growth. She is characterized as untrustworthy, focused on social status, selfish, manipulative, insincere, and unreliable . * **John Thorpe:** Portrayed as performative, arrogant, believing he knows best, and obsessed with appearance and material worth. He is also in love with Catherine . #### 3.3.7 Love and marriage Love and marriage in "Northanger Abbey" are presented with a significant consideration for money and social status. Marrying within one's social status is important, though ultimately, love matches can transcend these boundaries. True love, as seen between Catherine and Henry, is based on compatibility and shared interests. In contrast, Isabella's focus on wealth and status leads to the cancellation of her engagement and prevents her from achieving her desires . ### 3.4 Literary techniques: Parody Parody is defined as a mocking imitation of the style of a literary work or author, ridiculing stylistic habits through exaggerated mimicry . #### 3.4.1 Gothic elements as parody in "Northanger Abbey" Jane Austen employs parody in "Northanger Abbey" by mocking and exaggerating elements from Gothic stories . * **The Abbey:** Henry initially primes Catherine to expect the abbey to align with the Gothic novels she reads, using elements of Gothic fiction to build her expectations. However, upon arrival, the abbey is depicted with modern furniture, a marble fireplace, and bright, clean rooms, devoid of dirt or cobwebs, disappointing Catherine's Gothic expectations . * **The chest:** The old, locked chest serves as an early instance of parody. Catherine imbues it with significance beyond its ordinary nature, driven by her anticipation based on Henry's descriptions and her reading . * **The locked cabinet:** Similar to the chest, the locked cabinet, described during a stormy night, builds suspense. However, upon opening it, only bedsheets are found, and in a small door, there is a roll of paper, deflating the expected mystery . * **The General's wife:** The explanation for the General's wife's death is mundane (a sudden illness), not a murder or a sinister event as might be expected in Gothic fiction, further parodying the genre . Austen also exaggerates Catherine's naïveté and her tendency to interpret everyday events through a Gothic lens, contributing to the overall parodic effect . --- # Victorian society and its literary representations This section examines the late Victorian period, its societal norms, the concept of the dandy, and how these elements are reflected and critiqued in literary works like "The Importance of Being Earnest." ### 4.1 The late Victorian period The late Victorian period, spanning from the 1870s to 1901, was characterized by a highly class-conscious society, significant technological advancements, and burgeoning social reform movements addressing issues like child labour, working conditions, and women's suffrage. This era also witnessed the imperial expansion of the British Empire and rapid urbanization. The period is known for its rigid norms and values, which began to face increasing criticism towards the end of the century, a phenomenon often referred to as *fin de siècle*. This *fin de siècle* represented a transition marked by decadence—a preoccupation with moral, aesthetic, and social decline, often exploring themes of excess, moral or physical decline, and sensual pleasures. This cultural milieu fostered a sense of insecurity and pessimism due to the rapid societal changes [38](#page=38) [39](#page=39). ### 4.2 Literary representations: "The Importance of Being Earnest" Oscar Wilde's "The Importance of Being Earnest," written between 1894 and 1895, premiered in London in February 1895 and was an immediate success. This play is a comedy of manners, renowned for its witty dialogues and serves as a sharp satire of Victorian society. It remains one of Wilde's most enduringly popular works [36](#page=36). #### 4.2.1 Character introductions in Act I In Act I, both Jack and Algernon are introduced as bachelors who aspire to marry. Each employs a second identity to evade societal commitments and lead more independent lives. Jack, unaware of his own family background, was discovered and raised by the late Mr. Thomas Cardew. Algernon, on the other hand, is a self-proclaimed "Bunburyist," a term he invented, and is related to Lady Bracknell and her niece, Gwendolen [41](#page=41) [63](#page=63) [64](#page=64). #### 4.2.2 Bunburying as a critique of Victorian society Bunburying, a fictional and humorous term coined by Wilde, refers to Algernon's invented invalid friend, Bunbury. This practice serves as a means to escape tedious social events and engagements by fabricating a persona and deception solely to retain personal freedom and engage in desired activities. Wilde uses Bunburying to critique Victorian society's obsession with appearance and reputation, highlighting its strict and rigid rules concerning social propriety. Furthermore, the practice critiques the societal pressure to repress personal desires, exposing how individuals often lied and pretended to conceal their true feelings. The pitfalls of these double identities are evident in the play, as Cecily falls in love with the fictitious "Earnest," demonstrating the impact of adhering to a fabricated role. These double identities, often based on superficial qualities like names or titles, drive the comedic effect of Wilde's play by creating humorous situations stemming from the characters' struggles with identity and their deception of loved ones [50](#page=50) [63](#page=63) [64](#page=64) [66](#page=66). > **Example:** The "tea scene" with Cecily and Gwendolen exemplifies how double identities create humour. Both women believe they are in love with the same man, "Earnest," leading to exaggerated reactions and a stark contrast in their awareness. Their interaction highlights discrepant awareness, moving from mutual disdain (when speaking by surname) to apparent friendship (when speaking by first name) [50](#page=50). #### 4.2.3 The Victorian gentleman and the dandy The concept of the Victorian gentleman is central to understanding the societal norms of the era. A prominent figure, especially in late Victorian and *fin de siècle* culture, is the dandy. Oscar Wilde is strongly associated with this persona [44](#page=44) [45](#page=45) [46](#page=46) [47](#page=47). ##### 4.2.3.1 Characteristics of the dandy A dandy is a male character who places immense importance on his appearance, style, and manners, with clothing being a particularly significant element. This figure celebrates aestheticism, predominantly through fashion. Often an upper-class gentleman, the dandy challenges traditional notions of masculinity through a somewhat effeminate appearance. The dandy embodies indolence and idleness [47](#page=47) [48](#page=48). > **Tip:** Consider how Algernon and Jack's behaviours and self-presentations align with the characteristics of a dandy, looking for specific textual evidence to support your claims [49](#page=49). #### 4.2.4 The role of women and marriage Lady Bracknell, a key character, embodies and exaggerates the values of Victorian society, particularly concerning marriage, respectability, and wealth. She prioritizes knowing the family name and background, advocating for marriage as a matter of convenience rather than love, ensuring her daughter is well-provided for and maintaining social status. Both Cecily and Gwendolen, to some extent, share these views, not out of love for the individual but for the name "Earnest". Wealth is also a significant consideration, with a specific type of husband sought for financial security and the preservation of social status [51](#page=51) [75](#page=75) [76](#page=76) [77](#page=77) [78](#page=78). #### 4.2.5 The comedy of manners "The Importance of Being Earnest" is a prime example of a comedy of manners, characterized by several key elements. These include a focus on the etiquette and conventions of the upper class, such as reputation, manners, and social status, which serve to emphasize superficiality. The play features clever and witty dialogues and wordplay, alongside a critique of social norms. Common themes explored are love and marriage, including romantic entanglements. Irony is a significant tool used to highlight the pretense of appearance [36](#page=36) [79](#page=79) [80](#page=80). > **Tip:** When analyzing "The Importance of Being Earnest," pay close attention to the use of language, social customs, and the characters' motivations to understand how Wilde satirizes Victorian values. --- ## Common mistakes to avoid - Review all topics thoroughly before exams - Pay attention to formulas and key definitions - Practice with examples provided in each section - Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts

| Term | Definition | |------|------------| | Poetic Text | A literary work written in verse, characterized by its use of rhythm, meter, rhyme, and figurative language to convey emotions, ideas, or stories. | | Dramatic Monologue | A poem in which a single speaker, who is not the poet, addresses an audience (who may or may not be a character in the poem) to reveal aspects of their character and a specific situation. | | Iambic Pentameter | A line of verse consisting of five metrical feet, each consisting of one short (or unstressed) syllable followed by one long (or stressed) syllable. | | Enjambment | The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line, couplet, or stanza. | | Rhyming Couplet | Two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme and have the same meter. | | Caesura | A pause, especially a natural pause, in speaking or in the metrical structure of a line of verse. | | Dramatic Text | A literary work written for performance on a stage, typically consisting of dialogue and stage directions. | | External Communication | In a dramatic context, the communication that occurs between the author, the dramatic text itself, and the reader or audience. | | Internal Communication | In a dramatic context, the communication that occurs between characters within the play. | | Page vs. Stage | Refers to the distinction between a text as read on the page by an individual reader versus its performance and reception by an audience in a theatre. | | Discrepant Awareness | A literary concept where the audience or reader possesses more information or a different understanding of a situation than the characters within the narrative. | | Closed Form of Drama | A dramatic structure characterized by a clear beginning, middle, and end, often adhering to classical unities and featuring a resolution, typically structured in five acts. | | Three Unities | A set of classical dramatic rules requiring a play to focus on a single action (unity of action), occur within a single day (unity of time), and take place in a single location (unity of place). | | Exposition | The initial part of a dramatic work, where background information, characters, and setting are introduced to the audience. | | Climax | The point of highest tension or the turning point in a dramatic work, after which the plot begins to resolve. | | Dénouement | The final part of a play or story, in which the plot is resolved and loose ends are tied up. | | Open Form of Drama | A dramatic structure that deviates from the classical unities, often featuring episodic scenes, a lack of clear resolution, and a less rigid plot structure, characteristic of modern drama. | | Comedy of Manners | A dramatic genre that satirizes the manners, attitudes, and customs of a particular social class, typically the upper class, characterized by witty dialogue and social critique. | | Dandy | A man who places particular importance upon physical appearance, refined language, and indolent disposition, often seen as challenging conventional masculinity. | | Bunburying | A fictional term coined by Oscar Wilde, referring to the act of creating a fictional persona or excuse to evade social obligations or tedious engagements. | | Double Identity | The use of two or more distinct personas or alter egos by an individual, often for purposes of deception or to navigate different social contexts. | | Narrative Text | A literary work that tells a story, featuring characters, plot, setting, and a narrator. | | Communication Model of Narrative Texts | A framework that describes the different levels of communication involved in a narrative, including the author-reader relationship, the narrator-narratee relationship, and character-to-character communication. | | Extratextual Level of Communication | The communication between the real author and the real reader of a text. | | Intratextual Level of Communication (I) | The communication between a fictive narrator and a fictive narratee within the narrative. | | Intratextual Level of Communication (II) | The communication between characters within the story world. | | Narrator | The voice or persona through whom a story is told. | | Authorial Narrative Situation | A narrative mode where the narrator is omniscient and stands outside the story world, commenting on characters and events. | | Figural Narrative Situation | A narrative mode where the story is told from the perspective of a character within the story, using third-person narration. | | Focalisation | A narrative technique that determines the perspective from which the story is told, indicating who sees and who speaks within the narrative. | | Heterodiegetic Narrator | A narrator who is not a character in the story they are telling. | | Overt Narrator | A narrator who makes their presence known within the narrative, often commenting directly on the story or characters. | | Covert Narrator | A narrator whose presence is not explicitly revealed or individualized within the narrative, functioning as an anonymous voice. | | Fixed Focalisation | A narrative technique where the story is consistently narrated from the perspective of a single character. | | Gothic Fiction | A literary genre characterized by elements of horror, mystery, and romance, often set in old castles or abbeys, featuring supernatural events, intense emotions, and suspense. | | Parody | A literary work that imitates the style of a particular writer, artist, or genre with deliberate exaggeration for comic effect or ridicule. | | Comedy of Manners | A genre that satirizes the behavior, customs, and values of a specific social class, typically the upper class, with witty dialogue and social critique. | | Regency Period | An era in British history from approximately 1811 to 1820, characterized by elegance, fashion, and a flourishing upper-class society, often associated with extravagance. | | Gothic Elements | Literary devices and themes characteristic of Gothic fiction, such as ancient settings, supernatural phenomena, intense emotions, mystery, and suspense. | | Terrory vs. Horror Literature | A distinction in Gothic fiction: 'literature of terror' explains seemingly supernatural events rationally, while 'literature of horror' includes genuine supernatural elements. |