Cover
Start now for free MNN_Grammar notes.docx
Summary
# Introduction to Japanese sentence structure and basic particles
This section introduces the foundational elements of Japanese sentence structure, focusing on the roles of key particles and basic sentence patterns for assertion, negation, and inquiry.
## 1. Introduction to Japanese sentence structure and basic particles
### 1.1 Basic sentence pattern: Topic-Comment
#### 1.1.1 The topic particle は (wa)
The particle は (wa) marks the **topic** of a sentence. It is placed after the noun that the speaker wishes to talk about, signaling that a statement or comment will follow about that noun.
* **Reading:** Although written with the hiragana は, this particle is read as "wa" when functioning as a topic marker.
#### 1.1.2 The predicate particle です (desu)
The particle です (desu) functions as a predicate, indicating a judgment or assertion. It also serves to convey politeness to the listener.
* **Structure:** The basic sentence structure is `[Topic] は [Predicate] です`.
> **Example:** わたしは マイク・ミラーです。 (Watashi wa Maiku Miraa desu.) - I am Mike Miller.
> **Example:** わたしは エンジニアです。 (Watashi wa enjinia desu.) - I am an engineer.
### 1.2 Negation
#### 1.2.1 Negating です (desu) with じゃありません (ja arimasen)
The negative form of です (desu) used in daily conversation is じゃありません (ja arimasen).
* **Formal negation:** In formal speech or writing, では ありません (de wa arimasen) is used instead.
> **Example:** サントスさんは 学生じゃありません。 (Santos-san wa gakusei ja arimasen.) - Mr. Santos is not a student.
> **Example:** （では）サントスさんは 学生ではありません。 (Santos-san wa gakusei de wa arimasen.)
### 1.3 Question formation
#### 1.3.1 Forming questions with the particle か (ka)
The particle か (ka) is appended to the end of a sentence to form a question. This indicates doubt, uncertainty, or a request for information. The sentence ends with a rising intonation.
* **Structure:** `[Statement] か？`
#### 1.3.2 Questions about correctness
When か (ka) is added to a declarative sentence, it turns it into a question asking whether the statement is correct or not. The word order remains the same.
* **Answering questions:** Answers typically begin with はい (hai - yes) or いいえ (iie - no).
> **Example:** ミラーさんは アメリカ人ですか。 (Miraa-san wa Amerikajin desu ka?) - Is Mr. Miller an American?
> …はい、アメリカ人です。 (...Hai, Amerikajin desu.) - Yes, he is.
> **Example:** ミラーさんは 先生ですか。 (Miraa-san wa sensei desu ka?) - Is Mr. Miller a teacher?
> …いいえ、先生じゃありません。 (...Iie, sensei ja arimasen.) - No, he is not.
#### 1.3.3 Questions with interrogatives
Interrogative words (e.g., who, what, where) replace the part of the sentence that asks for information. The word order does not change, and か (ka) is still added at the end.
> **Example:** あの 方は どなたですか。 (Ano kata wa donata desu ka?) - Who is that person?
> …（あの 方は）ミラーさんです。 (...(Ano kata wa) Miraa-san desu.) - That is Mr. Miller.
### 1.4 The particle も (mo)
The particle も (mo) is used instead of は (wa) when the statement about a new topic is the same as a previous statement. It signifies "also" or "too."
> **Example:** ミラーさんは 会社員です。 (Miraa-san wa kaishain desu.) - Mr. Miller is a company employee.
> **Example:** グプタさんも 会社員です。 (Guputa-san mo kaishain desu.) - Mr. Gupta is also a company employee.
### 1.5 The particle の (no)
The particle の (no) connects two nouns, where the first noun (N1) modifies the second noun (N2).
* **Possession/Modification:** N1 can indicate origin, belonging, or describe what N2 is about.
> **Example:** ミラーさんは IMC の 社員です。 (Miraa-san wa IMC no shain desu.) - Mr. Miller is an IMC employee.
> **Example:** これはコンピューターの本です。 (Kore wa konpyuutaa no hon desu.) - This is a book on computers.
> **Example:** これは私の本です。 (Kore wa watashi no hon desu.) - This is my book.
### 1.6 The honorific suffix さん (san)
The suffix さん (san) is added to the name of a listener or a third person to show respect. It should **never** be used with one's own name.
* **Addressing the listener:** When directly addressing the listener, using their family name followed by さん is common and polite, rather than directly using あなた (anata - you) if their name is known.
> **Example:** あの 方は ミラーさんです。 (Ano kata wa Miraa-san desu.) - That is Mr. Miller.
### 1.7 Demonstratives: これ (kore), それ (sore), あれ (are)
These demonstratives function as nouns and refer to things:
* **これ (kore):** A thing near the speaker.
* **それ (sore):** A thing near the listener.
* **あれ (are):** A thing far from both the speaker and the listener.
### 1.8 Demonstratives: この (kono), その (sono), あの (ano)
These demonstratives modify nouns:
* **この (kono):** Refers to a thing or person near the speaker.
* **その (sono):** Refers to a thing or person near the listener.
* **あの (ano):** Refers to a thing or person far from both the speaker and the listener.
> **Example:** この本は私のです。 (Kono hon wa watashi no desu.) - This book is mine.
> **Example:** あの方はだれですか。 (Ano kata wa dare desu ka?) - Who is that [person]?
### 1.9 Affirmation and negation: そうです (sou desu) / そうじゃありません (sou ja arimasen)
In noun sentences, そう (sou) is often used to answer affirmative or negative questions.
* **Affirmative answer:** はい、そうです (Hai, sou desu) - Yes, it is (so).
* **Negative answer:** いいえ、そうじゃありません (Iie, sou ja arimasen) - No, it is not (so).
> **Example:** それは電話カードですか。 (Sore wa denwa kaado desu ka?) - Is that a telephone card?
> はい、そうです。 - Yes, it is.
> いいえ、そうじゃありません。 - No, it’s not so.
> いいえ、電話カードじゃありません。 - No, it isn’t.
### 1.10 Alternative questions: S か, S か
This structure presents two alternatives for the listener to choose from. The answer is typically the chosen sentence, without using はい (hai) or いいえ (iie).
> **Example:** これは「９」ですか、「７」ですか。 (Kore wa "kyuu" desu ka, "shichi" desu ka?) - Is this a "9" or a "7"?
> これは「９」です。 (Kore wa "kyuu" desu.) - It's a "9".
### 1.11 Acknowledgment: そうですか (sou desu ka)
This expression is used when the speaker receives new information and indicates understanding.
> **Example:** それは傘ですか。 (Sore wa kasa desu ka?) - Is this an umbrella?
> はい、シュミットさんのです。 (Hai, Shumitto-san no desu.) - Yes, it's Mr. Schmidt's.
> わかりました。 (Wakarimashita.) - I see.
---
# Demonstratives and noun modification
This section delves into demonstrative words used to indicate objects, people, and places, and how they function in modifying nouns within sentences.
### 2.1 Demonstratives for things
Demonstrative words used for things function as nouns themselves, referring to objects based on their proximity to the speaker and listener.
* **これ (kore):** Refers to something near the speaker.
* **それ (sore):** Refers to something near the listener.
* **あれ (are):** Refers to something far from both the speaker and the listener.
> **Tip:** These demonstratives can be used as standalone nouns. For example, *kore o kudasai* (I'll take this).
### 2.2 Demonstratives modifying nouns
When demonstratives are placed before a noun, they specify that noun.
* **この (kono) + N:** Refers to a thing or person near the speaker.
* *Example:* **この**本は私のです (This book is mine).
* **その (sono) + N:** Refers to a thing or person near the listener.
* *Example:* **その**本は私のです (That book is yours).
* **あの (ano) + N:** Refers to a thing or person far from both the speaker and the listener.
* *Example:* **あの**方は誰ですか (Who is that person?).
> **Example:** Comparing demonstratives for things and those modifying nouns:
> * *Sore wa jisho desu ka?* (Is that a dictionary?) - *Sore* acts as a noun.
> * *Sono hon wa watashi no desu.* (This book is mine.) - *Sono* modifies the noun *hon* (book).
### 2.3 Demonstratives for places
Demonstrative words are also used to indicate locations.
* **ここ (koko):** Refers to a place where the speaker is.
* **そこ (soko):** Refers to a place where the listener is.
* **あそこ (asoko):** Refers to a place far from both the speaker and the listener.
> **Note:** When the speaker perceives the listener as sharing their space, *koko* refers to that shared area. *Soko* then indicates a place slightly further away, and *asoko* an even more distant location.
### 2.4 Demonstratives for direction and polite location
These demonstratives indicate direction and can also be used to refer to a location in a more polite manner than the basic place demonstratives.
* **こちら (kochira):** Direction or location, polite.
* **そちら (sochira):** Direction or location, polite.
* **あちら (achira):** Direction or location, polite.
### 2.5 The こ / そ / あ / ど system of demonstrative words
This system categorizes demonstrative words based on proximity and type:
| Category | Thing (Noun) | Thing (Modifying Noun) | Place | Direction/Location (Polite) | Interrogative |
| :------- | :----------- | :--------------------- | :---- | :-------------------------- | :------------ |
| Near Speaker | これ (kore) | この (kono) + N | ここ (koko) | こちら (kochira) | どこ (doko) |
| Near Listener | それ (sore) | その (sono) + N | そこ (soko) | そちら (sochira) | どちら (dochira) |
| Far from Both | あれ (are) | あの (ano) + N | あそこ (asoko) | あちら (achira) | |
| Interrogative | どれ (dore) | どの (dono) + N | | | |
### 2.6 Interrogatives for location and direction
* **どこ (doko):** Means "where."
* **どちら (dochira):** Can mean "which direction" or "where." It is considered more polite than *doko* when asking for a location.
* *Example:* お手洗いはどこですか (Where is the restroom?).
* *Example:* エレベーターはどちらですか (Where is the elevator?).
> **Tip:** *Doko* or *dochira* is used to inquire about the name of a country, company, school, or any place or organization a person belongs to. The interrogative *nan* (what) cannot be used for this purpose. *Dochira* is preferred for politeness.
### 2.7 Noun modification with の (no)
The particle *no* is crucial for noun modification, connecting two nouns where the first modifies the second.
* **N1 の N2:** N1 explains what N2 is about or who owns N2.
* *Example:* これはコンピューターの本です (This is a book on computers).
* *Example:* これは私の本です (This is my book).
* *Example:* ミラーさんは IMC の社員です (Mr. Miller is an employee of IMC).
> **Note:** When N1 refers to a person, it cannot be omitted. However, if the context is clear, N1 can sometimes be omitted if it refers to an object.
### 2.8 Noun modification with position nouns
Specific nouns indicating position can modify other nouns when preceded by the possessive particle *no*. These position nouns are also place nouns and can be followed by particles like *ni* or *de*.
* **Position Nouns:** うえ (ue - above/on), した (shita - below/under), まえ (mae - front), うしろ (ushiro - back), みぎ (migi - right), ひだり (hidari - left), なか (naka - inside), そと (soto - outside), となり (tonari - next to), ちかく (chikaku - near), あいだ (aida - between).
* *Example:* 机の 上に 写真があります (There is a picture on the desk).
* *Example:* 郵便局は銀行の 隣に あります (The post office is next to the bank).
* *Example:* 駅の 近くで 友達に 会いました (I met a friend near the station).
---
# Verbs, verb conjugations, and temporal expressions
This section details the fundamental structure and conjugation of Japanese verbs, focusing on the polite ます form, its negation and past tense variations, and introduces essential temporal expressions for indicating time and duration.
### 3.1 Verb conjugation: The ます (masu) form
Japanese verbs, when used as predicates, often take the polite ます (masu) form. This form indicates politeness towards the listener and is used for habitual actions, general truths, and future events.
#### 3.1.1 Negation and past tense of ます (masu)
The ます (masu) form can be conjugated to express negation and past tense.
* **Non-past (present/future) affirmative:** `(verb stem)ます`
* Example: `(おき)ます` (okimasu) - will wake up / wakes up
* **Non-past negative:** `(verb stem)ません`
* Example: `(おき)ません` (okimasen) - will not wake up / does not wake up
* **Past affirmative:** `(verb stem)ました`
* Example: `(おき)ました` (okimashita) - woke up
* **Past negative:** `(verb stem)ませんでした`
* Example: `(おき)ませんでした` (okimasen deshita) - did not wake up
**Tip:** The past negative form `ませんでした` is used to indicate that an action has not yet been completed, rather than simply that it was not performed. For instance, if asked "Have you sent the parcel yet?" (`もう荷物を送りましたか？`), a response of `いいえ、まだです` (No, not yet) is more appropriate than `いいえ、送りませんでした` (No, I didn't send it).
#### 3.1.2 Forming questions with verbs
Questions are formed by adding the particle `か` (ka) to the end of a verb sentence, maintaining the original word order.
* Example: `昨日勉強しましたか。` (Kinō benkyō shimashita ka.) - Did you study yesterday?
* Answer: `はい、勉強しました。` (Hai, benkyō shimashita.) - Yes, I did.
* Answer: `いいえ、勉強しませんでした。` (Iie, benkyō shimasen deshita.) - No, I didn't.
When asking about the time of habitual actions, the interrogative `何時` (nanji) is used with the counter suffix `時` (ji).
* Example: `毎朝何時に起きますか。` (Maiasa nanji ni okimasu ka.) - What time do you get up every morning?
* Answer: `６時に起きます。` (Rokuji ni okimasu.) - I get up at six.
#### 3.1.3 The particle に (ni) with verbs
The particle `に` (ni) marks the specific time when a momentary action or movement occurs. It is added to nouns (especially those using numerals) that indicate time.
* Example: `６時に起きます。` (Rokuji ni okimasu.) - I get up at six.
* Example: `７月２日に日本へ来ました。` (Shichigatsu futuka ni Nihon e kimashita.) - I came to Japan on July 2nd.
`に` can also be used with days of the week, though it is not essential. It is generally not used when the noun does not involve a numeral.
### 3.2 Temporal expressions
Temporal expressions are crucial for specifying when actions occur, their duration, and frequency.
#### 3.2.1 Indicating time: 時 (ji) and 分 (fun/pun)
Time in Japanese is expressed using the counter suffix `時` (ji) for hours and `分` (fun/pun) for minutes. Numbers precede these counters.
* `時` (ji) means "o'clock."
* `分` (fun/pun) means "minutes." The pronunciation of `分` varies:
* `ふん` (fun) is used after `2, 5, 7, 9`.
* `ぷん` (pun) is used after `1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10`.
**Pronunciation examples:**
* 1 minute: `いっぷん` (ippun)
* 3 minutes: `さんぷん` (sanpun)
* 10 minutes: `じゅっぷん` (juppun)
To ask for the current time, `今何時ですか` (Ima nanji desu ka?) is used.
* Example: `７時１０分です。` (Shichi-ji juppun desu.) - It is seven ten.
#### 3.2.2 Indicating duration: から (kara) and まで (made)
The particles `から` (kara) and `まで` (made) are used to indicate the starting and finishing points of a time period or location, respectively.
* `から` (kara): from (starting point)
* `まで` (made): until, to (finishing point)
These particles can be used independently or together.
* Example: `９時から５時まで働きます。` (Ku-ji kara go-ji made hatarakimasu.) - I work from nine to five.
* Example: `９時から働きます。` (Ku-ji kara hatarakimasu.) - I work from nine.
* Example: `銀行は９時から３時までです。` (Ginkō wa ku-ji kara san-ji made desu.) - The bank is open from nine to three.
#### 3.2.3 Expressing frequency: 〜回 (kai), 〜日 (nichi), etc.
Frequency of actions can be expressed using quantifiers combined with the particle `に` (ni) and a verb.
* `Quantifier + に + Verb`
**Common quantifiers for frequency:**
* `回` (kai): times
* `日` (nichi): days (though specific readings like `futsuka` for the 2nd day, `tōka` for the 10th day exist for dates)
* `時間` (jikan): hours
* `月` (kagetsu): months
* `年` (nen): years
* Example: `１か月に２回映画を見ます。` (Ikkagetsu ni nikai eiga o mimasu.) - I watch a movie twice a month.
**Tip:** The interrogative `いつ` (itsu) is used to ask "when" something happens or happened, and it does not take a particle like `に`.
---
# Expressing location, direction, and origin
This section covers grammatical structures used to indicate location, direction, and origin, focusing on particles and interrogatives that convey spatial and directional information.
### 4.1 Locational particles
Japanese grammar utilizes specific particles to denote the location of existence or action.
#### 4.1.1 The particle に (ni) for location of existence
The particle に marks the location where something or someone exists.
* **Structure:** `N (place) に N2 が あります / います`
* `あります` is used for inanimate objects, plants, and places.
* `います` is used for animate beings (people and animals).
> **Example:**
> * `わたしの 部屋に 机があります。` (There is a desk in my room.)
> * `事務所に ミラーさんが います。` (Mr. Miller is in the office.)
* **Asking about location:** When asking what or who is present in a location, use `なに` for things and `だれ` for people.
> **Example:**
> * `地下に 何がありますか。` (What is there in the basement?)
> * `受付に だれが いますか。` (Who is at the reception desk?)
* **Topic-comment structure for location:** When the topic (N1) is already known, its location (N2) can be explained.
* **Structure:** `N1 は N2 (place) に あります / います`
> **Example:**
> * `東京ディズニーランドは 千葉県に あります。` (Tokyo Disneyland is in Chiba Prefecture.)
> * `ミラーさんは 事務所に います。` (Mr. Miller is in the office.)
* **Asking the location of a known topic:**
> **Example:**
> * `東京ディズニーランドは どこに ありますか。` (Where is Tokyo Disneyland?)
> * `ミラーさんは どこに いますか。` (Where is Mr. Miller?)
**Tip:** The sentence pattern `N1 は N2 (place) です` (Lesson 3) can sometimes replace `N1 は N2 (place) に あります / います` when the existence is obvious.
#### 4.1.2 Position nouns and particles
Nouns denoting position are used with `の` to specify a location relative to another noun. These location nouns can be followed by `に` to indicate existence or `で` to indicate the place of an action.
* **Common position nouns:** `うえ` (top), `した` (bottom), `まえ` (front), `うしろ` (back), `みぎ` (right), `ひだり` (left), `なか` (inside), `そと` (outside), `となり` (next to), `ちかく` (near), `あいだ` (between).
> **Example:**
> * `机の 上に 写真があります。` (There is a picture on the desk.)
> * `郵便局は 銀行の 隣に あります。` (The post office is next to the bank.)
> * `駅の 近くで 友達に 会いました。` (I met a friend near the station.)
#### 4.1.3 The particle で (de) for place of action
The particle `で` indicates the place where an action occurs.
* **Structure:** `N (place) で V`
> **Example:**
> * `駅で 新聞を買います。` (I buy the newspaper at the station.)
### 4.2 Directional particle
The particle `へ` (read `え`) is used to indicate the direction of movement.
* **Structure:** `N (place) へ V` (where V indicates movement like `行きます` - to go, `来ます` - to come, `帰ります` - to return home)
> **Example:**
> * `京都へ 行きます。` (I will go to Kyoto.)
> * `日本へ 来ました。` (I came to Japan.)
> * `うちへ 帰ります。` (I will go home.)
**Tip:** While `へ` specifically denotes direction, the particle `に` can also be used with verbs of movement (e.g., `行きます`, `来ます`, `帰ります`) to indicate the destination. This is often seen in expressions related to purpose, like `N に Vます-form` (to do V for the purpose of N).
### 4.3 Interrogatives for location and direction
Japanese uses specific interrogative words to ask about location and direction.
#### 4.3.1 Asking "where"
* **どこ (doko):** The general interrogative for "where."
> **Example:**
> * `お手洗いはどこですか。` (Where's the rest room?)
* **どちら (dochira):** A more polite form of "where," also meaning "which direction." It can be used for both location and direction.
> **Example:**
> * `エレベーターはどちらですか。` (Where's the elevator? / Which way is the elevator?)
**Tip:** When asking about the name of a country, company, school, or any place or organization a person belongs to, `どちら` is politer than `どこ`. `なん` (what) cannot be used in these cases.
#### 4.3.2 Demonstrative words for location
Similar to interrogatives, demonstrative words indicate relative locations.
* **Demonstrative pronouns for place:**
* `ここ (koko)`: Place where the speaker is.
* `そこ (soko)`: Place where the listener is.
* `あそこ (asoko)`: Place far from both speaker and listener.
* **Demonstrative adverbs for direction/place (politer forms):**
* `こちら (kochira)`: This way/direction, this place (politer than `ここ`).
* `そちら (sochira)`: That way/direction, that place (politer than `そこ`).
* `あちら (achira)`: That way/direction, that place (politer than `あそこ`).
> **Tip:** When the speaker considers the listener to be in their territory, `ここ` can refer to the shared space. In this context, `そこ` is slightly distant, and `あそこ` is even more distant.
### 4.4 Expressing origin and manufacturing country
The `N1 の N2` construction is used to indicate origin or the country of manufacture.
* **Structure:** `N1 の N2`
* If `N1` is the name of a country and `N2` is a product, it means "N2 is made in N1."
* If `N1` is the name of a company and `N2` is a product, it means "N2 is made by N1."
> **Example:**
> * `日本のコンピューターです。` (It's a computer made in Japan.)
> * `IMC のコンピューターです。` (It's a computer made by IMC.)
This structure can be used in questions to inquire about the origin.
> **Example:**
> * `これはどこで作られたコンピューターですか。` (Where is this computer made?)
### 4.5 Place of action vs. location of existence
It is crucial to distinguish between `で` and `に` when indicating locations.
* `で`: Denotes the place where an action takes place.
* `に`: Denotes the location where something or someone exists.
> **Example:**
> * `図書館で 本を 読みます。` (I read books *at* the library. - `で` for action)
> * `図書館に 本が あります。` (Books exist *in* the library. - `に` for existence)
### 4.6 Means of transportation
The particle `で` is also used to indicate the means of transportation.
* **Structure:** `N (vehicle) で V`
> **Example:**
> * `電車で 行きます。` (I'll go by train.)
> * `タクシーで 来ました。` (I came by taxi.)
**Note:** When walking, the expression `歩いて` (aruite) is used, and `で` is not typically used. `駅から 歩いて 帰りました。` (I walked home from the station.)
---
# Adjectives, comparisons, and expressions of desire
This section details Japanese adjectives, their grammatical functions, and how they are modified to express comparisons and desires.
## 5. Adjectives, comparisons, and expressions of desire
### 5.1 Japanese adjectives
Japanese adjectives are divided into two main types based on their inflection: い-adjectives (i-adjectives) and な-adjectives (na-adjectives). Both can function as predicates (ending a sentence) or as noun modifiers.
#### 5.1.1 Types of adjectives and their predicates
* **い-adjectives:** These adjectives end in い when used as predicates.
* Example: 富士山は 高い です。(Mt. Fuji is high.)
* **な-adjectives:** These adjectives are followed by な when used as noun modifiers, but when used as predicates, they are followed directly by です.
* Example: ワット先生は 親切 です。(Mr. Watt is kind.)
#### 5.1.2 Negating adjectives
* **な-adjectives:** To negate a な-adjective used as a predicate, replace です with じゃありません (or the more formal では ありません).
* Example: あそこは 静か じゃ ありません。(It’s not quiet there.)
* **い-adjectives:** To negate an い-adjective, change the final い to く and add ないです.
* Example: この 本は おもしろく ない です。(This book is not interesting.)
* The negative form of いいです (good) is よく ないです.
> **Tip:** When answering questions about adjectives, repeat the adjective itself, rather than using そうです or そうじゃありません.
#### 5.1.3 Adjectives as noun modifiers
* **な-adjectives:** When modifying a noun, a な-adjective must be followed by な.
* Example: ワット先生は 親切な 先生 です。(Mr. Watt is a kind teacher.)
* **い-adjectives:** An い-adjective directly precedes the noun it modifies.
* Example: 富士山は 高い 山 です。(Mt. Fuji is a high mountain.)
#### 5.1.4 Adverbs of degree
* **とても (totemo):** Means "very" and is used in affirmative sentences.
* Example: ペキンは とても 寒い です。(Beijing is very cold.)
* Example: これは とても 有名な 映画 です。(This is a very famous movie.)
* **あまり (amari):** Means "not very" and is used in negative sentences. It must be followed by a negative verb or adjective form.
* Example: シャンハイは あまり 寒く ない です。(Shanghai is not very cold.)
* Example: さくら大学は あまり 有名な 大学じゃ ありません。(Sakura University is not a very famous university.)
#### 5.1.5 Asking for opinions or descriptions
* **N は どうですか (N wa dou desu ka):** This question asks for an impression or opinion about something the listener has experienced.
* Example: 日本の 生活は どうですか。(How is life in Japan?) ... 楽しい です。(It's enjoyable.)
* **N1 は どんな N2 ですか (N1 wa donna N2 desu ka):** This question asks for a description or explanation of N1 within the category of N2. どんな is always followed by a noun.
* Example: 奈良は どんな 町 ですか。(What kind of town is Nara?) ... 古い 町 です。(It's an old town.)
#### 5.1.6 Conjunctions and interrogatives
* **が (ga):** Used as a conjunctive particle to mean "but," linking two clauses.
* Example: 日本の 食べ物は おいしいですが、高いです。(Japanese food is good, but expensive.)
* **どれ (dore):** An interrogative used to choose one item from a group of three or more.
* Example: ミラーさんの 傘は どれ ですか。(Which is Mr. Miller’s umbrella?) ... あの 青い 傘 です。(That blue one is.)
### 5.2 Comparisons
Japanese allows for comparisons between two or more entities.
#### 5.2.1 Comparing two items
* **N1 は N2 より adjective です (N1 wa N2 yori adjective desu):** This structure compares N1 to N2, stating that N1 possesses the quality of the adjective to a greater degree than N2.
* Example: この 車は あの 車より 大きいです。(This car is bigger than that car.)
* **N1 と N2 と どちらが adjective ですか (N1 to N2 to dochira ga adjective desu ka):** This is a question asking to choose which of two items (N1 or N2) is more adjective. どちら is used specifically for comparisons between two options.
* Example: サッカーと 野球と どちらが 面白い ですか。(Which is more interesting, baseball or football?)
* Example: ミラーさんと サントスさんと どちらが テニスが 上手 ですか。(Who is a better tennis player, Mr. Miller or Mr. Santos?)
* Example: 北海道と 大阪と どちらが 涼しい ですか。(Which is cooler, Hokkaido or Osaka?)
* Example: 春と 秋と どちらが 好き ですか。(Which do you like better, spring or autumn?)
#### 5.2.2 Identifying the most adjective
* **N1[の] ほうが adjective です (N1 [no] hou ga adjective desu):** This pattern is used to identify the item that is *most* adjective from a given group. The interrogative used depends on the category being questioned.
* Example: 日本料理[の中で] 何が いちばん おいしい ですか。(Among Japanese dishes, what is the most delicious?)
* Example: ヨーロッパで どこが いちばん よかった ですか。(In Europe, where did you like best?)
* Example: 家族で だれが いちばん 高い ですか。(Who is the tallest of your family?)
* Example: １年で いつが いちばん 寒い ですか。(When is the coldest time of a year?)
> **Tip:** When the subject of an adjective sentence is an interrogative (like 何, どこ, だれ), the particle が is used.
### 5.3 Expressions of desire
Japanese provides specific grammatical structures to express what one wants to possess or do.
#### 5.3.1 Wanting an object
* **N が 欲しいです (N ga hoshii desu):** This pattern expresses the speaker's desire to possess or have a particular object (N). The object is marked with the particle が, and ほしい is an い-adjective. This can also be used to ask what the listener wants.
* Example: わたしは 友達が 欲しい です。(I want a friend.)
* Example: 今何が いちばん 欲しい ですか。(What do you want most now?) ... 車が 欲しい です。(I want a car most.)
* Example: 子どもも 欲しい ですか。(Do you want a child?) ... いいえ、欲しくない です。(No, I don't.)
#### 5.3.2 Wanting to do an action
* **Vます-form たいです (Vmasu-form tai desu):** This structure expresses the speaker's desire to perform an action. The verb's ます-form stem is used, followed by たいです. This can also be used to ask what the listener wants to do. The particle が can replace を when used with this form, but other particles cannot be replaced.
* Example: わたしは 沖縄へ 行きたい です。(I want to go to Okinawa.)
* Example: わたしは てんぷらを 食べたい です。(I want to eat tempura.)
* Example: 神戸で 何を 買いたい ですか。(What do you want to buy in Kobe?) ... 靴を 買いたいです。(I want to buy a pair of shoes.)
* Example: おなかが 痛いですから、何も 食べたくない です。(Because I have a stomachache, I don’t want to eat anything.)
> **Important Note:** The forms 欲しいです and Vます-form たいです are generally used for the speaker's or listener's desires, not for describing a third person's desires. When offering something or inviting someone, use expressions like ～はいかがですか or ～ませんか instead of these desire forms.
#### 5.3.3 Expressing the purpose of movement
* **N(place) へ Vます-form / N に 行きます / 来ます / 帰ります (N(place) e Vmasu-form / N ni ikimasu / kimasu / kaerimasu):** This pattern indicates the purpose of going, coming, or returning. The purpose is expressed by a noun denoting an action, followed by the particle に.
* Example: 神戸へ インディアン料理を 食べに 行きます。(I’m going to Kobe to eat Indian food.)
* Example: 神戸へ 買い物に 行きます。(I’m going to Kobe for shopping.)
* Example: 日本へ 美術の 勉強に 来ました。(I came to Japan in order to study art.)
* Example: あした 京都の お祭りに 行きます。(I’ll go to the festival in Kyoto tomorrow.)
#### 5.3.4 Indefinite pronouns for desire
* **どこか (dokoka):** Means "anywhere" or "somewhere."
* **何か (nanika):** Means "anything" or "something."
* These can be used in sentences expressing desire. The particles へ and を can be omitted.
* Example: のどが かわきましたから、何か[を] 飲みたい です。(I’m thirsty. I want to drink something.)
---
## Common mistakes to avoid
- Review all topics thoroughly before exams
- Pay attention to formulas and key definitions
- Practice with examples provided in each section
- Don't memorize without understanding the underlying concepts
Glossary
| Term | Definition |
|------|------------|
| Particle は (wa) | Indicates that the word before it is the topic of the sentence. It signifies what the speaker intends to talk about. |
| です (desu) | A polite copula used at the end of a sentence, indicating judgment or assertion. It makes the sentence polite towards the listener. |
| じゃありません (ja arimasen) | The negative form of です (desu), used in daily conversation for negation. For formal speech or writing, では ありません (dewa arimasen) is used. |
| か (ka) | A particle used to form questions by being added to the end of a sentence, indicating doubt, question, or uncertainty. It also signifies a rising intonation at the end of a question. |
| も (mo) | A particle added after a topic instead of は (wa) when the statement about the topic is the same as a previous topic, indicating "also" or "too". |
| の (no) | A particle used to connect two nouns, where the first noun modifies or describes the second noun. It can indicate belonging, modification, or the origin of something. |
| これ (kore) | A demonstrative pronoun meaning "this thing," referring to an object near the speaker. It functions as a noun. |
| それ (sore) | A demonstrative pronoun meaning "that thing," referring to an object near the listener. It functions as a noun. |
| あれ (are) | A demonstrative pronoun meaning "that thing over there," referring to an object far from both the speaker and the listener. It functions as a noun. |
| この N (kono N) | A demonstrative phrase meaning "this N," where この modifies a following noun (N) and refers to something or someone near the speaker. |
| その N (sono N) | A demonstrative phrase meaning "that N," where その modifies a following noun (N) and refers to something or someone near the listener. |
| あの N (ano N) | A demonstrative phrase meaning "that N over there," where あの modifies a following noun (N) and refers to something or someone far from both the speaker and the listener. |
| そうです (sou desu) | An affirmative response meaning "It is so" or "That's right," often used to answer a question requiring an affirmative or negative reply. |
| そうじゃありません (sou ja arimasen) | A negative response meaning "It is not so" or "That's not right," used as a negative answer. |
| ～時 (ji) / ～時 (toki) | A counter suffix for hours, used with numbers to indicate a specific time of day (e.g., 7時 - seven o'clock). |
| ～分 (fun/pun) | A counter suffix for minutes, used with numbers to indicate a specific number of minutes (e.g., 10分 - ten minutes). |
| ます (masu) | A polite verb ending that makes a sentence polite. It is used for habitual actions, truths, and future events. |
| ません (masen) | The negative form of ます (masu), indicating that an action does not occur or will not occur. |
| ました (mashita) | The past affirmative form of ます (masu), indicating that an action occurred in the past. |
| ませんでした (masen deshita) | The past negative form of ます (masu), indicating that an action did not occur in the past. |
| ～に (ni) | A particle that can mark the time when a momentary action or movement occurs, or the goal of a movement. |
| ～から (kara) | A particle indicating the starting point of time or place. It can also be used to express reason when connecting sentences. |
| ～まで (made) | A particle indicating the finishing point of time or place. |
| ～と (to) | A particle connecting two nouns in a coordinate relation, enumerating items. |
| ～ね (ne) | A sentence-ending particle used to add feeling, show sympathy, or seek agreement from the listener. |
| ～へ (e) | A particle indicating the direction of movement towards a certain place. It is read as 'e'. |
| ～で (de) | A particle indicating the place where an action occurs, or the means or method used for an action. |
| ～と (to) | Used with verbs of movement to indicate the person or animal with whom an action is performed. |
| いつ (itsu) | An interrogative word meaning "when," used to ask about the time of an event. It does not take the particle に. |
| ～よ (yo) | A sentence-ending particle used to emphasize information that the listener might not know or to assertively state one's judgment or view. |
| ～を (o) | A particle used to indicate the direct object of a transitive verb. It is pronounced the same as お (o) but written differently. |
| ～ます (masu) | A polite verb ending that can be used with certain nouns to indicate the performance of an action (e.g., サッカーをします - play football). |
| なん (nan) / なに (nani) | Interrogative words meaning "what." なん is used before certain sounds or counter suffixes, while なに is used in other cases. |
| ～ませんか (masen ka) | An expression used to invite someone to do something, showing consideration for the listener's will. |
| ～ましょう (mashou) | An expression used for a positive invitation, where the speaker suggests doing something together. It is also used to respond positively to an invitation. |
| ～語 (go) | Suffix meaning "language" (e.g., 日本語 - Japanese language, 英語 - English language). |
| ～に (ni) | Used with verbs like あげます (agemasu - to give), かします (kashimasu - to lend), and おしえます (oshiemasu - to teach) to mark the recipient of the action. |
| ～にもらいます (ni moraimasu) / ～から (kara) | Particles used with verbs like もらいます (moraimasu - to receive), かります (karimasu - to borrow), and ならいます (naraimasu - to learn) to indicate the person from whom the action is received. から can also be used, especially with organizations. |
| もう Vました (mou Vmashita) | An expression indicating that an action has already been completed. |
| まだです (mada desu) | Used in response to もう Vましたか (mou Vmashita ka), meaning "not yet." |
| い-adjective | A type of adjective in Japanese that ends with い (i) and inflects for tense and negation. |
| な-adjective | A type of adjective in Japanese that requires な (na) before a noun and inflects for negation and past tense. |
| ～く ないです (~ku nai desu) | The negative form of い-adjectives, where the final い (i) is changed to く (ku) followed by ないです (nai desu). |
| とても (totemo) | An adverb meaning "very," used in affirmative sentences to intensify adjectives or adverbs. |
| あまり (amari) | An adverb used in negative sentences, meaning "not very," to modify adjectives or adverbs. |
| ～はどうですか (~wa dou desu ka) | A question used to ask for an impression or opinion about a thing, place, or person. |
| N1 は どんな N2 ですか (N1 wa donna N2 desu ka) | A question pattern used to ask for a description or explanation of N1, where N2 is the category N1 belongs to. |
| ～が、 (ga,) | A conjunctive particle meaning "but," used to link two sentences with a contrast. |
| どれ (dore) | An interrogative pronoun used to ask the listener to choose or designate one from more than two things. |
| ～があります (~ga arimasu) / ～がいます (~ga imasu) | Sentence patterns used to indicate the existence or presence of inanimate objects (あります) or animate beings (います). The subject is marked with が (ga). |
| ～に あります / います (~ni arimasu / imasu) | Indicates the place where something or someone exists, with the place noun marked by に (ni). |
| N1 は N2 に あります / います (N1 wa N2 ni arimasu / imasu) | A sentence pattern where N1 is the topic, and its location N2 is explained. |
| ～うえ (~ue), ～した (~shita), ～まえ (~mae), ～うしろ (~ushiro), ～みぎ (~migi), ～ひだり (~hidari), ～なか (~naka), ～そと (~soto), ～となり (~tonari), ～ちかく (~chikaku), ～あいだ (~aida) | Nouns denoting position, used with particle に or で to indicate location relative to another noun (N1 の N2 position). |
| ～や (~ya) | A particle used to connect nouns in a coordinate relation, showing a few representative items rather than enumerating all of them. |
| ～など (~nado) | Used after a list connected by や (ya) to indicate "and so on" or "etcetera." |
| ～ませんか (~masen ka) | A polite and indirect way to ask for something, by using the negative form of あります (arimasu). |
| ～ひとり (~hitori), ～ふたり (~futari) | Special counters for one and two people. |
| ～台 (~dai) | Counter suffix for machines or vehicles. |
| ～枚 (~mai) | Counter suffix for thin or flat objects. |
| ～回 (~kai) | Counter suffix for the number of times an action occurs. |
| ～時間 (~jikan) | Counter suffix for hours. |
| ～日 (~nichi/birelated) | Counter suffix for days. |
| ～週間 (~shūkan) | Counter suffix for weeks. |
| ～か月 (~kagetsu) | Counter suffix for months. |
| ～年 (~nen) | Counter suffix for years. |
| いくつ (ikutsu) | An interrogative used to ask "how many" for things counted with small number counters. |
| ～ぐらい (~gurai) | A particle added after quantifiers to mean "about" or "approximately." |
| ～に 一回 (~ni ikkai) | An expression indicating frequency, meaning "once per [quantifier]" (e.g., １か月に ２回 - twice a month). |
| ～だけ (~dake) | A particle meaning "only," added after quantifiers or nouns to express limitation. |
| ～でした (~deshita) | The past tense of です (desu), used for noun sentences and な-adjectives. |
| ～かったです (~katta desu) | The past tense of い-adjectives, where the final い (i) is changed to かった (katta). |
| ～じゃありませんでした (~ja arimasen deshita) | The past negative form for noun sentences and な-adjectives. |
| ～くなかったです (~ku nakatta desu) | The past negative form for い-adjectives. |
| ～より (~yori) | A particle used in comparative sentences, meaning "than," to compare N1 and N2. |
| どちら (~dochira) | An interrogative used when comparing two items, meaning "which one." |
| ～の ほうが (~no hou ga) | Used in comparative sentences to indicate that N1 is more [adjective] than N2, or to express preference. |
| いちばん (~ichiban) | Superlative suffix meaning "most" or "the best." |
| ～が 欲しいです (~ga hoshii desu) | Expresses the desire to possess or have an object, where the object is marked with が (ga). |
| Vます-form たいです (V-masu form tai desu) | Expresses the desire to do something, formed by taking the ます-stem of a verb and adding たいです (tai desu). |
| ～に (ni) | Used with verbs of movement (いきます, きます, かえります) to express the purpose of the movement, where the noun before に denotes an action. |
| ～はいる (~hairu), ～のります (~norimasu), ～できます (~dekimasu), ～ます (~masu - get off) | Verbs related to entering, boarding, getting on, and getting off, which can be marked by particles like に and を. |
| どこか (~dokoka) | An indefinite pronoun meaning "anywhere" or "somewhere." |
| なにか (~nanika) | An indefinite pronoun meaning "anything" or "something." |
| ご〜 (go~) | A prefix added to some words to express respect, often used in polite language or in customer service. |